Magma Formation and Behavior

Introduction: The study of body waves as they pass through Earth's interior provides strong evidence that
the Earth's mantle is composed almost entirely of solid ultramafic rock. Yet, under certain circumstances
that rock undergoes a process of partial melting to produce large quantities of magma. Many of these
magmas are erupted at the surface at volcanoes. Most magmas, however, completely crystallize before
reaching Earth's surface.
An big challenge for geologists is to understand the causes of melting of mantle rock, and how magmas
change as they ascend through the lithosphere. Important questions to be answered are:
What causes mantle rock to undergo the process of partial melting?
Are these processes in any way related to plate tectonic setting?
Why do granitic (felsic) magmas usually crystallize before reaching Earth's surface
Why are basaltic (mafic) magmas usually erupted at volcanoes?
I. Magma Viscosity
Viscosity - measure of resistance to flow. Has important control on the nature of a volcanic eruption. High
viscosity = magma is resistant to flow (flows very slowly). Low viscosity = magma flows freely (flows
very quickly).
Controls on viscosity:
1. Magma Composition - higher SiO2 content = higher viscosity (long Si-O-Si-O-.... chains)
2. Magma Temperature - higher temperature = lower viscosity (high temperatures make formation of long
Si-O chains less likely)
3. Dissolved Gas - higher amount dissolved gas (H2O, CO2, etc.) = lower viscosity (cations such as H +,
C4+ form bonds with O2- making formation of long Si-O chains less likely)
viscosity of a fluid = shear stress/rate of shear strain
A Newtonian fluid deforms as soon as a shear stress is applied to it, and therefore plots as a straight line
through the origin on a graph of shear stress vs. rate of shear strain.
Most magmas behave as Bingham fluids. These materials also plot as a straight line on a graph of shear
stress vs. rate of shear strain, but do not intersect the graph's origin. This is because most magmas contain
solid crystals and gas bubbles in addition to liquid molten rock. The solid crystals and gas bubbles
provide resistance to deformation of the magma as a shear stress is applied. Therefore, a certain shear
stress (the yield stress) must be applied to the magma before it will yield to deformation (begin to flow).
The following graph illustrates the difference between an Newtonian liquid and a Bingham liquid.

Basaltic Lavas (Hawaii) = Low Viscosity = 'Quiet' , non-explosive eruptions

Eruptions of basaltic magmas are generally non-explosive. Low viscosity of mafic magma allows
dissolved gasses to exsolve and escape as the magma ascends to the surface. Thus, there is little increase
in gas pressure within the magma chamber as the magma approaches the surface.
Andesitic/Rhyolitic Lavas (Mt. St. Helens) = High Viscosity = Explosive eruptions
Eruptions of andesitic/rhyolitic magmas are generally explosive. High viscosity of intermediate/felsic
magmas prevents most gasses from exsolving during magma ascent. Most gasses exsolve just as the
magma reaches the Earth's surface, resulting in a large increase in gas pressure within the magma
chamber. When gas pressures exceed the pressure of the overlying rock, a sudden eruption is triggered in
which much of the magma and gas is explosively blown out of the volcano (similar to suddenly releasing
the pressure in a shaken bottle of Coke).
II. Processes that Form Magma by Melting of Mantle Rock
1. Increase in Temperature - The least important cause of magma formation in the mantle! However, at
any given temperature above the 'general ' melting temperature of a rock, not all minerals melt at the same
temperature. Minerals with high Si content (e.g. quartz) melt at lower temperatures than minerals with
low Si content (e.g. olivine). Thus, rocks do not melt at a single temperature, but over a range of
temperatures. If a rock undergoes 'partial melting', the resulting magma will have a higher Si content than
the rock which has undergone the partial melting process. This is because silicate minerals with high Si
contents melt at lower temperatures than silicate minerals with low Si contents (the reverse of Bowen's
reaction series).
2. Decrease in Pressure - Very high pressures in mantle rocks prevent atoms within minerals from
breaking chemical bonds and moving freely from one another to form a magma. Therefore, most rocks
within the mantle do not melt even though their temperature may be greater than that necessary to melt
the same rocks at the lower pressures of the Earth's surface. However, if pressure on mantle rock is
decreased the atoms may move freely from one another, resulting in partial melting of the rock. This
process is called pressure-release melting.

In the above diagram, an ultramafic mantle rock (marked as X) moves toward the Earth's surface. On the
graph, this is shown by the arrow pointing in a direction of decreasing pressure. Note that the pressure on
the rock decreases with almost no change in temperature. The diagonal line represents the peridotite
melting 'curve'. The melting curve is a phase boundary, separating those regions of the graph over which
peridotite exists as a solid phase from those regions where peridotite exists as a liquid phase (melt). When
the rock crosses the peridotite melting curve, it starts to melt. This type of partial melting (pressurerelease melting) is common along divergent plate margins, and within mantle plumes.
3. Addition of Water - The addition of small amounts water to peridotite will result in a decrease in its
melting temperature. This is largely due to the electrically polarized nature of a water molecule (there is
an unequal distribution of electrons around the water molecule). The electrical polarization causes a
decrease in cation-anion bond strengths within minerals, and so at very high temperatures the bonds may
be broken so that atoms may move freely from one another to form a magma. This process results in
partial melting of the mantle rock.

In the above diagram, the addition of water moves the peridotite melting curve to lower temperatures. The
'dry' peridotite curve is the phase boundary for peridotite in the presence of little or no water. The 'wet'
peridotite curve is the phase boundary for peridotite in the presence of water. Note that 'wet' peridotite
melts at lower temperature than 'dry' peridotite. Thus, it is not necessary to change the temperature or
pressure of a mantle rock (marked as X) in order for it to undergo partial melting. As water is added to
'dry peridotite', the melting curve will shift toward lower temperatures and eventually cross X. At that
point, the rock will begin to melt. This type of melting occurs within subduction zones as water is
'squeezed' from the subducted oceanic lithosphere into the overlying ultramafic mantle wedge.
III. The Effect of Partial Melting on Magma Composition
Rocks such as peridotite contain a mixture of several different minerals, each with its own melting
temperature. Minerals with the lowest melting temperatures generally melt first while minerals with
higher melting temperatures remain solid. This process is called partial melting.
In general, minerals with higher Si contents melt at lower temperatures (the reverse of Bowen's reaction
series). Thus, a magma will generally have a higher Si content that the rock which was melted to produce
it. For example, partial melting of an ultramafic rock such as peridotite will result in formation of a mafic
(basaltic) magma with a higher Si content than the original peridotite. This explains why mafic lavas are
erupted along mid-ocean ridges, even though the underlying mantle rock from which the magmas are
derived by partial melting is ultramafic in composition.
IV. Magma Behavior
Why do felsic (granitic) magmas commonly crystallize beneath the Earth's surface to form intrusive
rocks, while mafic (basaltic) magmas commonly rise to the Earth's surface to erupt at volcanoes?
1. Si content - Felsic magmas contain significantly greater amounts of Si than do mafic magmas,
resulting in higher viscosity (greater resistence to flow). High viscosity felsic magmas require longer
periods of time to ascend toward the Earth's surface, and are therefore more likely to cool and crystallize
as intrusive igneous bodies.
2. H2O content - Felsic magmas contain significantly greater amounts of dissolved H 2O than do mafic
magmas. As felsic magmas ascend to the Earth's surface, pressure on the magma slowly decreases and the
dissolved H2O escapes as steam. The effect of water in a felsic magma is the same as that discussed above
for the effect of water on the melting of peridotite. So, This resulting decrease in dissolved H 2O content
causes an increase in the magma's crystallization temperature (the 'crystallization' curve shifts to higher
temperatures). Therefore, because the magma is very hot and cooling very slowly, it is more likely to
completely solidify as an intrusive igneous body before reaching Earth's surface.
Mafic magmas typically contain much less dissolved H 2O than felsic magmas. Therefore, loss of H2O as a
mafic magma travels through the crust has a relatively small effect on the temperature at which the
magma solidifies. Mafic magmas also flow more readily than felsic magmas, making it easier for them to
'squeeze' their way to the surface along fractures and faults in the Earth's crust. For these reasons, most of
the Earth's volcanic rocks are basalts. In fact, basalt is the most common rock type on the Earth's surface it covers the ocean basin floors.
Summary:

1. To crystallize a magma: a) decrease the temperature, or b) increase the pressure, or c) remove water
2. To melt a rock: a) increase the temperature, or b) decrease the pressure, or c) add water

Magma
"Partial magma" redirects here. For the mathematical term, see Partial groupoid.
"Magmatic" redirects here. For the manufacturer of children's luggage, see Trunki.
For other uses, see Magma (disambiguation).
Further information: Lava
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Lava flow on Hawaii. Lava is the extrusiveequivalent of magma.

Magma (from Ancient Greek (mgma) meaning "thick unguent") is a mixture of molten or semimoltenrock, volatiles and solids[1] that is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and is expected to exist
on otherterrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain
suspended crystals, dissolved gas and sometimes gas bubbles. Magma often collects in magma
chambers that may feed avolcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion. Magma is capable of
intruding into adjacent rocks (formingigneous dikes and sills), extrusion onto the surface as lava, and
explosive ejection as tephra to form pyroclastic rock.
Contents
[hide]

1Description

2Sources
o

2.1Partial melting

2.2Geochemical implications of partial melting

2.3Magma usage for energy production

3Evolution of magmas
o

3.1Primary melts

3.2Parental melts

4Migration

5Cooling of magmas
o

5.1Volcanism

6Composition, melt structure and properties

o

6.1Temperature

6.2Pressure

6.3Density

6.4Composition
7References

Description[edit]
Magma is a complex high-temperature fluid substance. Temperatures of most magmas are in the range
700 C to 1300 C (or 1300 F to 2400 F), but very rarecarbonatite magmas may be as cool as 600 C,
and komatiite magmas may have been as hot as 1600 C. Most magmas are silicate mixtures.[2]
Environments of magma formation and compositions are commonly correlated. Environments
include subduction zones, continental rift zones,[3] mid-ocean ridgesand hotspots. Despite being found in
such widespread locales, the bulk of the Earth's crust and mantle is not molten. Except for the liquid outer
core, most of the Earth takes the form of a rheid, a form of solid that can move or deform under pressure.
Magma, as liquid, preferentially forms in high temperature, low pressure environments within several
kilometers of the Earth's surface.
Magma compositions may evolve after formation by fractional crystallization, contamination, and magma
mixing. By definition rock formed of solidified magma is called igneous rock.
While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava outflows,
magma has been encountered in situ three times duringgeothermal drilling projectstwice in Iceland
(see #Magma usage for energy production below), and once in Hawaii.[4][5][6]
Sources[edit]
Partial melting[edit]
Melting of solid rocks to form magma is controlled by three physical parameters: temperature, pressure,
and composition. Mechanisms are discussed in the entry for igneous rock.
When rocks melt they do so incrementally and gradually; most rocks are made of several minerals, all of
which have different melting points, and the physical/chemical relationships controlling melting are
complex. As a rock melts, its volume changes. When enough rock is melted, the small globules of melt
(generally occurring in between mineral grains) link up and soften the rock. Under pressure within the
earth, as little as a fraction of a percent partial melting may be sufficient to cause melt to be squeezed
from its source. Melts can stay in place long enough to melt to 20% or even 35%, but rocks are rarely
melted in excess of 50%, because eventually the melted rock mass becomes a crystal and melt mush that
can then ascend en masse as a diapir, which may then cause further decompression melting.
Geochemical implications of partial melting[edit]
The degree of partial melting is critical for determining what type of magma is produced. The degree of
partial melting required to form a melt can be estimated by considering the relative enrichment of
incompatible elements versus compatible elements. Incompatible elements commonly
include potassium, barium, cesium, and rubidium.
Rock types produced by small degrees of partial melting in the Earth's mantle are typically alkaline
(Ca, Na), potassic (K) and/or peralkaline (high aluminium to silica ratio). Typically, primitive melts of
this composition form lamprophyre, lamproite, kimberlite and sometimes nepheline-bearing mafic rocks
such as alkali basalts andessexite gabbros or even carbonatite.
Pegmatite may be produced by low degrees of partial melting of the crust. Some granite-composition
magmas are eutectic (or cotectic) melts, and they may be produced by low to high degrees of partial
melting of the crust, as well as by fractional crystallization. At high degrees of partial melting of the
crust, granitoids such as tonalite, granodiorite and monzonite can be produced, but other mechanisms are
typically important in producing them.
Magma usage for energy production[edit]

The Iceland Deep Drilling Project, while drilling several 5,000m holes in an attempt to harness the heat in
the volcanic bedrock below the surface of Iceland, struck a pocket of magma at 2,100m in 2009. Being
only the third time in recorded history that magma had been reached, IDDP decided to invest in the hole,
naming it IDDP-1.
A cemented steel case was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the bottom close to the magma.
The high temperatures and pressure of the magma steam were used to generate 36MW of power, making
IDDP-1 the worlds first magma-enhanced geothermal system. [7]
Evolution of magmas[edit]
Primary melts[edit]
When a rock melts, the liquid is a primary melt. Primary melts have not undergone any differentiation and
represent the starting composition of a magma. In nature it is rare to find primary melts. The leucosomes
of migmatites are examples of primary melts. Primary melts derived from the mantle are especially
important, and are known as primitive melts or primitive magmas. By finding the primitive magma
composition of a magma series it is possible to model the composition of the mantle from which a melt
was formed, which is important in understanding evolution of the mantle.
Parental melts[edit]
Where it is impossible to find the primitive or primary magma composition, it is often useful to attempt to
identify a parental melt. A parental melt is a magma composition from which the observed range of
magma chemistries has been derived by the processes of igneous differentiation. It need not be a primitive
melt.
For instance, a series of basalt flows are assumed to be related to one another. A composition from which
they could reasonably be produced by fractional crystallization is termed a parental melt. Fractional
crystallization models would be produced to test the hypothesis that they share a common parental melt.
At high degrees of partial melting of the mantle, komatiite and picrite are produced.
Migration[edit]
Magma develops within the mantle or crust when the temperature-pressure conditions favor the molten
state. Magma rises toward the Earth's surface when it is less dense than the surrounding rock and when a
structural zone allows movement. Magma develops or collects in areas called magma chambers. Magma
can remain in a chamber until it cools and crystallizes forming igneous rock, it erupts as a volcano, or
moves into another magma chamber.
Cooling of magmas[edit]
There are two known processes by which magma ceases to exist: by volcanic eruption, or by
crystallization within the crust or mantle to form a pluton. In both cases the bulk of the magma eventually
cools and forms igneous rocks.
When magma cools it begins to form solid mineral phases. Some of these settle at the bottom of the
magma chamber forming cumulates that might form maficlayered intrusions. Magma that cools slowly
within a magma chamber usually ends up forming bodies of plutonic rocks such
as gabbro, diorite and granite, depending upon the composition of the magma. Alternatively, if the magma
is erupted it forms volcanic rocks such as basalt, andesite and rhyolite (the extrusive equivalents of
gabbro, diorite and granite, respectively).
Volcanism[edit]
Main article: Volcanism
During a volcanic eruption the magma that leaves the underground is called lava. Lava cools and
solidifies relatively quickly compared to underground bodies of magma. This fast cooling does not allow
crystals to grow large, and a part of the melt does not crystallize at all, becoming glass. Rocks largely
composed of volcanic glass include obsidian, scoria and pumice.
Before and during volcanic eruptions, volatiles such as CO2 and H2O partially leave the melt through a
process known as exsolution. Magma with low water content becomes increasingly viscous. If massive
exsolution occurs when magma heads upwards during a volcanic eruption, the resulting eruption is
usually explosive.
Composition, melt structure and properties[edit]

Silicate melts are composed mainly of silicon, oxygen, aluminium, alkalis

(sodium, potassium, calcium), magnesium and iron. Silicon atoms are in tetrahedral coordination with
oxygen, as in almost all silicate minerals, but in melts atomic order is preserved only over short distances.
The physical behaviours of melts depend upon their atomic structures as well as upon temperature and
pressure and composition.[8]
Viscosity is a key melt property in understanding the behaviour of magmas. More silica-rich melts are
typically more polymerized, with more linkage of silica tetrahedra, and so are more viscous. Dissolution
of water drastically reduces melt viscosity. Higher-temperature melts are less viscous.
Generally speaking, more mafic magmas, such as those that form basalt, are hotter and less viscous than
more silica-rich magmas, such as those that formrhyolite. Low viscosity leads to gentler, less explosive
eruptions.
Main article: Igneous differentiation
Characteristics of several different magma types are as follows:
Ultramafic (picritic)
SiO2 < 45%
FeMg > 8% up to 32%MgO
Temperature: up to 1500C
Viscosity: Very Low
Eruptive behavior: gentle or very explosive (kimberilites)
Distribution: divergent plate boundaries, hot spots, convergent plate boundaries; komatiite and
other ultramafic lavas are mostly Archean and were formed from a higher geothermal
gradient and are unknown in the present
Mafic (basaltic)
SiO2 < 50%
FeO and MgO typically < 10 wt%
Temperature: up to ~1300C
Viscosity: Low
Eruptive behavior: gentle
Distribution: divergent plate boundaries, hot spots, convergent plate boundaries
Intermediate (andesitic)
SiO2 ~ 60%
FeMg: ~ 3%th
Temperature: ~1000C
Viscosity: Intermediate
Eruptive behavior: explosive or effusive
Distribution: convergent plate boundaries, island arcs
Felsic (rhyolitic)
SiO2 > 70%
FeMg: ~ 2%
Temp: < 900C
Viscosity: High
Eruptive behavior: explosive or effusive
Distribution: common in hot spots in continental crust (Yellowstone National Park) and in
continental rifts
Temperature[edit]
At any given pressure and for any given composition of rock, a rise in temperature past
the solidus will cause melting. Within the solid earth, the temperature of a rock is
controlled by the geothermal gradient and the radioactive decay within the rock. The
geothermal gradient averages about 25 C/km with a wide range from a low of 5
10 C/km within oceanic trenches and subduction zones to 3080 C/km under midocean ridges and volcanic arc environments.
Pressure[edit]
As magma buoyantly rises it will cross the solidus-liquidus and its temperature will
reduce by adiabatic cooling. At this point it will liquefy and if erupted onto the surface

will form lava. Melting can also occur due to a reduction in pressure by a process known
as decompression melting.[9]
Density[edit]
Type

Density [kg/m]

Basalt magma

26502800[10]

Andesite magma

24502500[10]

Rhyolite magma

21802250[10]

Composition[edit]
It is usually very difficult to change the bulk composition of a large mass of rock, so
composition is the basic control on whether a rock will melt at any given temperature
and pressure. The composition of a rock may also be considered to
include volatile phases such as water and carbon dioxide.
The presence of volatile phases in a rock under pressure can stabilize a melt fraction.
The presence of even 0.8% water may reduce the temperature of melting by as much as
100 C. Conversely, the loss of water and volatiles from a magma may cause it to
essentially freeze or solidify.
Also a major portion of almost all magma is silica, which is a compound of silicon and
oxygen. Magma also contains gases, which expand as the magma rises. Magma that is
high in silica resists flowing, so expanding gases are trapped in it. Pressure builds up
until the gases blast out in a violent, dangerous explosion. Magma that is relatively poor
in silica flows easily, so gas bubbles move up through it and escape fairly gently.

Two Types of Cells

There is another basic cell structure that is present in many but not all living cells: the nucleus.
The nucleus of a cell is a structure in the cytoplasm that is surrounded by a membrane (the
nuclear membrane) and contains, and protects, most of the cell's DNA. Based on whether they
have a nucleus, there are two basic types of cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. You
can watch animations of both types of cells at the link
below.http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/animation.php?ani=162&cat=biology
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. The DNA in prokaryotic cells is in the cytoplasm
rather than enclosed within a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotic cells are found in single-celled
organisms, such as bacteria, like the one shown in Figure below. Organisms with prokaryotic
cells are called prokaryotes. They were the first type of organisms to evolve and are still the
most common organisms today.
Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus. A typical eukaryotic cell is shown
in Figurebelow. Eukaryotic cells are usually larger than prokaryotic cells, and they are found
mainly in multicellular organisms. Organisms with eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes, and
they range from fungi to people.
Eukaryotic cells also contain other organelles besides the nucleus. An organelle is a structure
within the cytoplasm that performs a specific job in the cell. Organelles called mitochondria, for
example, provide energy to the cell, and organelles called vacuoles store substances in the cell.
Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions than prokaryotic cells can. This
allows eukaryotic cells to have greater cell specificity than prokaryotic cells. Ribosomes, the
organelle where proteins are made, are the only organelles in prokaryotic cells.