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1

CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE 10INTRODUCTION31 METHODS OF PIERCING1.0 Introduction1.1 Open
System1.2 Closed System1.3 Choice of Method5568102 DEVELOPMENT2.1 Existing
Lake Taps2.2 Outlook1111123 SITE INVESTIGATIONS3.0 Introduction3.1
Investigations Methods3.2 Exploratory Drilling3.3 Visual Inspection3.4 Choice of
Piercing Site1313141617184 TUNNELLING TOWARDS THE PLUG4.0
Introduction4.1 Probe Drilling4.2 Georadar4.3 Grouting4.4 Smooth Blasting4.5 Water
Leakages4.6 The Piercing Area4.7 The Plug1919202326293132355 THE
BREAKTHROUGH ROUND5.0 Introduction5.1 Drilling5.2 Charging5.3 Coupling5.4
Blasting383842434647
Continues next page

6 HYDRODYNAMICS6.0 Introduction6.1 Open System6.2 Closed System6.3

Explosives Gas Pressure6.4 Retardation Pressure6.5 Upsurge in the Gate6.6
Transport of Mass6.7 Model Testing484849505154565758REFERENCES
59APPENDIXA Previous Editions of the ReportB Research PartnersC Definitions and
ParametersD Basis of the ReportE Some Recent, Large UnderwaterPiercing in
NorwayF1 Seismic MethodsF2 Consumption of Grouting Media inSystematically
Fractured Rock MassF3 Blasting with Short RoundsF4 Example of Application for
ChargingPlanF5 Example of Application for Upsurge inthe Gate ShaftF6 Example of
application for ExplosivesGas PressureG1 Example: Underwater Tunnel Piercingat
Lake Fossevatn, Kobbelv HydroPower PlantG2 The Troll Field Shore
Approach6465666768697680879598101111

PREFACE
1

UNDERWATER TUNNEL PIERCINGProject Report 19-99

The Project Report Series from the Department of Building and ConstructionEngineering at the
Norwegian University of Science and Technology contains severalreports about rock
blasting, tunnelling and related subjects.The reports in the Project Report Series
present updated and systematised knowledgeon rock excavation and tunnelling to be
used for:

=
Economic dimensioning

=
Choice of alternative

=
Time planning

=
Cost estimates, tender, budgeting and cost control

=
Choice of excavation method and equipment.A list of available Project Reports may be requested
from the Department of Buildingand Construction Engineering at NTNU
The report is prepared by Amund Bruland, Gry Helle Nakstad, Steinar Roaldand
Professor Odd Johannessen.
The project has been granted financial support by our external research partners,
seelist in Appendix B.

PREFACE
2It is recommended that the references to this book should be made in the followingway:NTNUAnleggsdrift (1999): Project Report 19-99 UNDERWATER TUNNELPIERCING.When copying
from the report, the source should be stated.Trondheim, April 2000Odd Johannessen,
Professor
Contact address: Amund BrulandDepartment of Building and Construction
Engineering, NTNUN-7491 TrondheimNORWAYTelephone: (+47) 73 59 46 40Fax:
(+47) 73 59 70 21E-mail: amund.bruland@bygg.ntnu.noInternet:
http://www.bygg.ntnu.no/batek

0. INTRODUCTION
Background and Objectives
3
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES
A total of approximately 600 underwater piercings have been carried out in Norwayduring the
last hundred years. In most cases these have been part of hydroelectricprojects. The
lake tap enlarges the water reservoir by establishing an intake levelbelow the natural
water level of the lake. Such reservoirs are lowered in the winterand refilled during the
summer months.
Figure 0.1
Typical design of a Norwegian hydropower plant.
Underwater tunnel piercing is also used in other areas such as preventing
flooding,shore approaches for oil and gas pipelines from the North Sea, and may in the futurebe
used for fjord or strait crossings by underwater tube bridges.The report gives a general introduction
to the subject of submerged tunnel piercing.However, each break-through is unique and
competent personnel with the necessaryknowledge and experience in geology, blasting
technique and hydraulics must beinvolved when planning and execute an underwater
tunnel piercing.

0. INTRODUCTION
Background and Objectives
4
NWL
Figure 0.2
Underwater tunnel piercing - general layout.
Variable factors may be:

=
Water depth to the plug and the gate

=
Tunnel cross section area

=
Cross section area and volume of the plug

=
Amount of explosives

=
Distance between the plug and the gate

=
Amount of sediments above and around the plug.

1. METHODS OF PIERCING
1.0 Introduction
5
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Underwater tunnel piercings can be divided in two main categories:

=
Closed system

=
Open system.Open system piercing means that there is direct communication between the
tunnelface, where the tunnel plug is, and the gate shaft.Closed system piercing means
that the gate is located on the upstream side of the gateshaft. Hence, there is no communication
between the plug and the gate shaft.This report deals mainly with the open type of piercing.

1. METHODS OF PIERCING
1.1 Open System
6
1.1 OPEN SYSTEM
The principle of the open system piercing is shown in Figure 1.1. There is directcommunication
between the face of the tunnel, at the tunnel plug, and the atmosphericpressure in the shaft. The
gate or the concrete plug is placed on the downstream sideof the gate shaft. The tunnel between
the rock plug and the gate is filled with water toavoid transportation of sediments towards the
gate.When filling the tunnel system with water, the air cushion between the plug face andthe tunnel
will be compressed. To prevent air evacuation through the plug, the airpressure must be less than
the hydrostatic pressure against the tunnel plug, seeFigure 1.1.
H
1
= water depth at the tunnel plug
H
2
= air pressure at the plug, i.e. difference in level between the water in thegate shaft
and at the plug.If the water level of the reservoir is higher than the water level in the
gate shaft, therewill be a surge of the water in the gate shaft above the water level in
the reservoir.This surge can be estimated. Normally, the water will rise 70 - 90 % of
H
3
above thelevel of the reservoir, see Figure 1.1. To avoid damage to the gatehouse, the
followingmust be true:
H
3
= difference in level between the water in the reservoir and in the gateshaft
H
4
= difference in level between the gate house and the water in the reservoir
c=
constant (0.7 0.9).Criteria 1:
12
H H
<
(m) [1.1]Criteria 2:
34
HcH
>
(m) [1.2]

1. METHODS OF PIERCING
1.1 Open System
7
HWLWL (at plug blasting time)LWL
Figure 1.1
Open system piercing.
Criteria 1: H
2
>H
1
to prevent the air being evacuated through the plug.Criteria 2: H
4
>c

H
3
to prevent surge of water into the gatehouse.

1. METHODS OF PIERCING
1.2 Closed System
8
1.2 CLOSED SYSTEM
The closed type of piercing can be divided into two categories, depending on thewater level in
the tunnel system. Figures 1.2 and 1.3 show the principles of piercingwith a dry tunnel
and with a partly waterfilled tunnel. The revision gate is closed forboth alternatives.If no
precautions are taken, the high velocity water inflow can transport the rock debris from the plug far
into the tunnel when the plug is blasted.When piercing from a partly waterfilled tunnel, the water
inflow velocity and thetransport of rock debris along the tunnel will be reduced. On the other hand,
themaximum pressure in front of the gate will be increased. Providing a long tunnelbetween the
plug and the gate can reduce the pressure.
WL (at plug blasting time)
Figure 1.2
Closed system piercing - dry tunnel.

1. METHODS OF PIERCING
1.2 Closed System
9
WL (at plug blasting time)
Figure 1.3
Closed system piercing - partly waterfilled tunnel.

1. METHODS OF PIERCING
1.3 Choice of Method
10
1.3 CHOICE OF METHOD
Open system piercing gives low velocity water inflow and makes the trapping of theblasted rock
possible. The estimation models for the highest surge of water in the gateshaft and the maximum
hydraulic pressure against the gate during the plug blastingare satisfactory.On the other hand,
the method is complicated regarding the filling of water and airinto the tunnel. Thus, it may take long
time from the coupling of the round until theblasting of the plug.The closed system is in
most cases less complicated and less expensive to perform,especially with a dry
tunnel.There is some uncertainty concerning the transportation of rock debris from the plug,which is
the main disadvantage of the method. However, the rock debris is normallyfine grained due to the
overcharging of the final round, and the problems areestimated to be small.A closed system
piercing is normally not suited for very short tunnels.
OPEN SYSTEM CLOSED SYSTEM
Advantages

=
Simple hydrodynamic conditions.

=
Controllable trapping of the blastedrock.

=
Maximum pressure against the gatemay be estimated with lowuncertainty.
Advantages

=
Easy to perform.

=
Short time from coupling of the roundto blasting of the plug.
Disadvantages

=
Complicated to perform.

=
Long time from coupling of the roundto blasting of the plug.

=
Comparatively high costs.
Disadvantages

=
Complicated hydrodynamic conditions.

=
The rock debris may damage the gate.


=
Requires a long tunnel between theplug and the gate.
Table 1.1
Comparison between open and closed system, summarised fromexperience.

2. DEVELOPMENT
2.1 Existing Lake Taps
11
2.1 EXISTING LAKE TAPS
There are a large number of lakes in the mountain regions of Norway. Hundreds of these are
utilised as reservoirs for hydroelectric power plants, by tapping the waterbelow the
normal water level, see Figure 0.1.The first Norwegian lake tap we know of, was done in
1893-94. Around the turn of the century, lake taps were performed to provide reservoirs
for hydroelectric powerplants. The exact number of lake taps in Norway is not known. Most
probably 600lake taps have been performed.The variation in water depth is from a few metres to
more than one hundred metres.The thickness of sediments above the plug has been between 0 m
and 6 m and theplug length has varied between 1 m and 10 m. The cross section of the plug has
variedfrom 1 m
2
to 95 m
2
and the tunnel length beneath the lake bottom varies from a fewmetres to
approximately 1000 m. The water leakage through the plug has been fromless than 1
l/s to several hundred litres per second.Some examples of deep lake taps are given
below:

=
105 m Lake Juklavatn, the Folgefonn Hydropower Project, 1974.

=
109 m The Blsj Reservoir, the Ulla-Frre Hydropower Project, 1986.

=
120 m Lake Fossvatn, the Kobbelv Hydropower Project, 1987.

=
170 m Troll Shore Approach, where gas pipelines from the North Sea waspulled in through the
piercing, 1994.Experience from the early period of lake taps together with measurements and
theanalysis of later lake taps have provided the basis for the know-how of Norwegianconsultants
and contractors in this field.

2. DEVELOPMENT
2.2 Outlook
12
2.2 OUTLOOK
Most lake taps are made to increase the reservoirs for hydroelectric power
plants.Today, underwater tunnel piercing is also a possible solution for the shore approachesof oil
or gas pipelines, power transmission cables and also for strait crossings byunderwater tube
bridges.
Figure 2.1
Tunnel piercing to connect rock tunnel and a submerged tube bridge.

3. SITE INVESTIGATIONS
3.0 Introduction
13
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Underwater investigations are generally very expensive. Due to this, it is
reasonableto divide the investigation program into steps to limit the total costs of
theinvestigations.Unfavourable piercing sites may then be rejected at an early stage of the
planning,without using resources in further investigations.SedimentsDepositions of sediments at
the lake bottom cause problems for the piercing. Thenature and thickness of the sediments must
be investigated.Where there is minimum risk of landslides, a thin sediment cover may
beadvantageous. If the rock in the piercing plug area is fractured, the sediments willhelp filling the
open joints and reduce the leakage of water into the tunnel.It may be very difficult to handle
scree material containing large blocks or compactedsediments.Geological MappingThe
planning of underwater piercings requires precise investigations in several phasesto
collect relevant topographic and geological information such as the
distributionbetween rock and sediments and a general view of the joint systems and
fracturedzones in the area.

3. SITE INVESTIGATIONS
3.1 Investigation Methods
14
3.1 INVESTIGATION METHODS
SeismicsThere are two main types of seismic investigation methods:

=
Reflection Seismics

=
Refraction Seismics.Seismic investigations must be carried out and interpreted by specialist.For
underwater piercings, the main purpose of the seismic investigations is to find thedepth to solid
rock, i.e. the thickness of sediments at the lake bottom. It is also of interest to obtain
information about the sediment types, e.g. clay, moraine, scree, etc.In some cases it is
also possible to find fracture or fault zones by using seismicmethods. Hence, the piercing may be
located outside such zones.See also Appendix 3.1 Reflection Seismics.GeoradarThe
georadar is an electromagnetic instrument. The instrument is relatively new andhas
so far not been used extensively in Norway. Testing and use in other countrieshave shown
promising results.Georadar may be used in the preliminary investigations for underwater piercings
tofind the depth of water and the thickness and extent of the sediments on the bottom.Georadar
may only be used in freshwater, and it does not penetrate deeper than25 - 35 m below the
water surface.For tunnel excavation towards the plug, it is possible to use Georadar in mapping
andto a certain extent for the description of fractured zones, joints with water, etc.
fromwithin drillholes. The drillhole Georadar system will be discussed in Section 4.2.Using a
Georadar to find the depth to rock is limited by the range of the Georadar(25 - 35 m in freshwater).
The range of the Georadar is determined by theconductivity of each material. Long range is
obtained in insulating materials, e.g.gravel and sand. Good conductors, e.g. clay and
seawater, severely limit the range.

3. SITE INVESTIGATIONS
3.1 Investigation Methods
15
Material Maximum Range (m)Rock 75 - 100Gravel and sand 60Freshwater 20 35Peat 15 - 20Moraine 15Silt 5 - 10Clay 2 - 4
Table 3.1
The range of the Georadar in varying materials
.The georadar cannot be used to find the thickness of sediments at great depths or
inseawater.CostsOne day of measurements with a georadar costs approximately NOK 30 000.

3. SITE INVESTIGATIONS
3.2 Exploratory Drilling
16
3.2 EXPLORATORY DRILLING3.21 Percussive Drilling
Percussive drilling is a method for finding the depth to solid rock and the quality of the rock at the
piercing site. The method is based on registering the drilling rate andthe torque as the
drill bit penetrates sediments and solid rock.The method is mainly used in cases where
refraction seismics do not give a clearinterpretation.In general a probe hole should be
drilled at least 2 m into solid rock to ensurepenetration of large blocks.At normal depths
of water, percussive drilling is carried out from a barge or a raft.CostsAt normal depths, the costs
are approximately NOK 1000 2000 per m of drillhole.
3.22 Core Drilling
The preliminary investigation methods described above only give an indication of thetypes of
material at the site. For refraction seismics, fractured rock gives lowerseismic velocities than
homogenous rock, and for percussive drilling the penetrationrate is higher for fractured than
homogenous rock.When accurate information is required about the rock quality in fractured
zones andweak rock types regarding e.g. leakage, swelling clay and degree of
fracturing, coredrilling is a solution. With core drilling it is possible to drill holes of several
hundredmetres. The core drilling may also be equipped for directional drilling to increase
theaccuracy of long holes. Core drilling is expensive and should only be used when therequired
information cannot be found by other methods.CostsWhen core drilling from an onshore site, the
costs are approximately NOK 1000 perdrilled metre. Directional core drilling has a cost of
approximately NOK 2000 perdrilled meter.

3. SITE INVESTIGATIONS
3.3 Visual Inspection
17
3.3 VISUAL INSPECTION
A diver or a submarine vehicle (ROV) may do a visual inspection. Documentation of the
observations is usually photographs or videotapes. The test sampling of sedimentsis optional.At
water depths down to 50 m, it is normal to use divers. If the conditions arefavourable, diving is an
inexpensive and satisfactory investigation method for thepiercing site. At greater depths, the
efficiency of divers is lowered due to the longtime required for decompression.Investigations
by ROV (Remote Operated Vehicle) give a very good impression of the conditions at the piercing
site. Close-up photographs and videotapes can be verydetailed, even in 3D. However, it may be
difficult to get a general view of theformations.The ROV is also well suited to investigate the breakthrough area and the tunnelsystem after the blasting.

3. SITE INVESTIGATIONS
3.4 Choice of Piercing Site
18
3.4 CHOICE OF PIERCING SITE
The general demands for a suitable piercing site are always the same. The
piercingsite must be located where the rock quality is favourable and the thickness of sediments
is limited.Some sediment cover (0.5 - 1.0 times the diameter of the piercing plug) will
usuallyimprove the grouting conditions.

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