Introduction:

Comparing the mass of the electron with the mass of ionized

hydrogen atom (proton) we see that it is lighter by a factor of
1836. This indicates that electrons are easier to accelerate
than ions.

Availability of loosely bound electrons (are actually unbound)

in atoms of metals are responsible for their high electrical
conductivity. Within a solid piece of substance like lithium,
atoms are closely packed and, therefore, the loosely bound
electrons of each atom are easily moved from the influence
of their nucleus to that of their neighbor. Such loosely bound
electrons are called free electrons. Free electrons are held
inside the metals by attractive forces at their surface and
require a minimum amount of energy, called the work
function of the metal, for their escape. This minimum energy
can be supplied to the free electrons in the metal for their
release from the metal surface by anyone of the following
physical processes:
(a) Thermo ionic emission: by heating the metal sufficient
thermal energy can be given to free electrons to overcome
the attractive pull of the metal surface.
(b) Field emission: electrons can be extracted from metals
by applying an electric field.
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(c) Photoelectric emission: by shining light of high

frequency (ultraviolet) on clean metal surfaces electrons from
inside the metal can be released.
We shall next study the photoelectric effect. Einstein
explained it on the basis of Max Plancks Quantum idea. This
laid the foundation of the Quantum theory. Therefore, the
photoelectric effect is of special interest.

Photoelectric Effect

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Hallwach discovered that an insulated zinc plate connected to

a gold leaf electroscope and charged negatively loses its
charge, when a beam of ultraviolet light was directed on the
plate. Hallwach suggested that the metal surface loses
negative charge due to ejection of electrons from its surface
by the ultraviolet light. The effect was termed as
Photoelectric effect. The electrons so emitted were called
Photoelectrons. J.J.Thomson showed that the Photoelectrons
were not different from the ordinary electrons.
Thus, the phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal
surface, when light of sufficiently high frequency falls upon it
is known as the photoelectric effect.

Experimental Study
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect is studied by using
an experimental arrangement shown in figure 1.
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Monochromatic light of known frequency is focused on the

anode of an evacuated quartz tube. The anode is made out of
the metal whose behavior under exposure to light is being
investigated. Flow of current in the external circuit indicates
the flow of electrons emitted from the anode surface inside
the tube. This is possible if the electrons are emitted with
energy large enough to overcome the retarding potential
between the anode and the cathode.
Explanation 1: Free electrons in the metallic anode can
absorb energy from the electromagnetic waves impinging on
them. After sufficient energy has been absorbed free
electrons inside the metal should be able to overcome the
combined potential barrier offered by the metal surface and
the retarding potential across the phototube.
Now, when the photocurrent is measured by varying (a) the
intensity of light, (b) its frequency and (c) the retarding
potential between the anode and the cathode, effects are
observed which cannot be reconciled with the classical wave
properties of light and its absorption by electrons.
Hence explanation 1 is not accepted.
The maximum kinetic energy with which the electrons leave
the anode can be measured by adjusting the retarding
potential till the photocurrent in the external circuit is
reduced to zero. Then electrons are not able to reach the
anode. If V is the cut-off voltage, the maximum kinetic energy
of electrons in the phototube is electron volt.
When a careful study is made of photoemission by varying
the above mentioned parameters in the experiment, the
following important conclusions are reached:
(i) The energy distribution of the emitted electrons is
independent of the intensity of the light. That is, more
photoelectrons are emitted if the intensity of the light is
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increased but the maximum kinetic energy with which the

electrons leave the metal remains unchanged. In fact, even
with light of very low intensity some electrons with the same
kinetic energy are emitted.
(ii) Within the limit of experimental accuracy it is observed
that there is no time lag between the arrival of light at the
metal and the emission of photoelectrons. The delay has
been experimentally measured. The delay time has been
found less than 10-9s.
(iii) For a given metal, photoelectrons are not emitted if the
incident light is of frequency less than a critical value, called
the threshold frequency, no matter how high its intensity.
(iv)The maximum kinetic energy with which photoelectrons
are emitted from a particular metal and the frequency of the
incident light are related linearly. The relation can be
expressed as:
KEmax = h (-o) ---------- (1)
As the kinetic energy of electrons cannot be negative,
photoemission does not take place when the frequency of the
incident light is less than o. Although the threshold
frequency ochanges from metal to metal, the slope of the
straight line.
eV = h (-o), ------------ (2)
Where is the magnitude of the cut-off voltage, is the same.
Millikan also has the credit of making the first accurate
measurement of cut-off voltages for sodium metal by using
monochromatic light of known frequencies. He published the
graph of photocurrent versus voltage and the graph of cut-off

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voltage versus frequency of light. We can estimate the slope

of the straight line. It is
By multiplying it with the charge of an electron, which is the
fundamental charge (of an electron), e=1.602 x 10 -19 C;
We get,
h = 4.124 x 1.602 x 10-15 x 10-19
= 6.6 x 10-34 Js.

The Photon:
Einstein took Plancks idea of the quantum of energy
seriously and proposed that a monochromatic
electromagnetic wave of frequency consists of discrete
quanta each having energy
E = h ---- (3)
Where h is the Planck constant. The quanta of light were
appropriately called photons. Each photon travels with the
velocity of light. According to Einsteins special theory of
relativity energy, E and momentum, p of particles moving
with the speed of light are related
E = pc ---- (4).
Where c is the speed of light.
Comparing equation (3) and (4), the momentum of the
photon is seen to be related to the wavelength of light as
----- (5)
Where is the wavelength of the light.
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Quantum Interpretation:
Explanation 2: Einstein suggested that absorption of energy
from a photon by a free electron inside the metal is a single
event and involves transfer of energy in one lump instead of
continuous absorption of energy as in the wave model of
light. Energy is conserved in the process. It can be expressed
by the relation.
Energy of the incident photon = maximum.
Kinetic energy of the electron + work
Function of the metal. ------ (6).
The kinetic energy of the emitted electron will be maximum if
the free electron, which is released from the atom, belongs to
the group which has the maximum energy inside the metal.
By using the Einstein relation for the energy of photons of
frequency , we can write the photoelectric emission
equation, equation (6) as
-------- (7)
Let the work function be expressed in units of frequency such
that
Work function = o -------- (8)
Then the Einstein photoelectric equation, equation (7), can be
re-expressed as
KEmax = h (-o) -------- (9)
This equation is identical to the experimentally observed
relationship given by eq. (1).
Hence, explanation 2 is accepted and Einstein received the
Nobel Prize in physics in the year 1921 for the quantum
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theory of the photoelectric effect. This lead to the particle

behavior of light.

Particle Nature of Light:

Arthur Holly Compton investigated the scattering of
monochromatic X-rays from electrons. He observed that the
scattered X-rays had longer wavelength. The change in
wavelength was found to be independent of the matter used
for scattering but varies with the angle between the incident
and the scattered rays. Compton could explain the effect
observed by him by assigning momentum of magnitude h /c
to photons of energy h. The elastic scattering of a photon
from an electron at rest can be worked out by involving the
principles of conservation of energy and conservation of
momentum. The formula giving the change of wavelength of
the X-ray photon is

Where is the angle of scattering of the X-rays photon and

m is the mass of electron.
The elastic process is shown diagrammatically. The recoil
electrons were observed in Wilsons cloud chamber. Wilson
shared the 1927 Nobel Prize in physics with Compton.

Photocell - A Technological Application:

The design of a photocell makes use of photo-emission from a
metal surface for measuring the intensity of light. The
photoelectrons emitted from the cathode of the photocell are
drawn to the collector by an electric field. The resultant
electric current is measured by a sensitive meter in the
external circuit. The current obtainable from a typical
photocell is of the order of a microampere.

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The fundamental use of a photocell is to convert a change in

the intensity of illumination into a change in electric current.
This change in electric current may be used to operate
controls and in light measuring devices. For example, a
person approaching a door way may interrupt a light beam
which is incident upon a photo cell. The abrupt change in
photocurrent may be used to start a motor which opens the
door or rings an alarm. Light meters in cameras work on this
principle.

Conclusion
As we appreciated the simplicity and elegance of Einsteins
explanation of photoelectric effect we came to know about
the particle behavior of light. He introduced revolutionary
ideas which were contrary to the scientific opinion of the
time. The photon hypothesis disturbed the scientific
community much more than the seventeenth century Newton
- Huygens heated debate on the corpuscular and the wave
nature of light. But the new theory gave a better description
of the physical nature than the comfortable old classical
ideas.
Hence, the world came to know about the dual nature of
light. That is, a monochromatic beam of light of frequency,
hence possessing wave attributes, manifests in some
experiments as though it is a stream of quanta called photons

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