Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells:

Similarities and Differences

In this lesson, we discuss the similarities and differences between the eukaryotic cells of your
body and prokaryotic cells such as bacteria. Eukaryotes organize different functions within
specialized membrane-bound compartments called organelles. These structures do not exist in
prokaryotes.

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Your body's composed of trillions of cells - lots of different types of cells that make up different
organs and other parts of your body. Your body is also where 10 times that number of bacteria
call 'home sweet home.' But, don't be afraid - these bacteria do more good than harm to you. And
besides, just in case you wanted to strike up a conversation with your tenants, you and your
bacteria do have a few things in common.
All cells share some common characteristics that make them living things. All organisms are
composed of cells, the basic fundamental unit of life. They contain DNA as a heritable genetic
material, and they can reproduce. They transcribe DNA into RNA and translate RNA into
proteins on ribosomes. They can also regulate transport across a cell membrane and require
chemical energy for some cellular processes.

Organelles are the biggest difference between bacteria and cells that make up the human body.
The number one biggest difference between the bacteria in your body and the cells making up
your body are these tiny cellular components called organelles. You've actually learned a lot
about organelles in other lessons without knowing it. Organelles are simply membrane-bound
compartments within a cell, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi, and
endoplasmic reticulum.
You are a eukaryote. Your cells are eukaryotic. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound
organelles, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multi-celled, such as you, me,
plants, fungi, and insects.

Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other
membrane-bound organelle. Prokaryotes include two groups: bacteria and another group called
archaea.
Having organelles is a big deal for a cell. A bacteria cell gets along just fine without organelles,
but bacteria are tiny. That's why we're able to have so many of them in our body without really
noticing them. Our cells, though - they're still small to the naked eye, but they're huge in
comparison to bacteria. Our eukaryotic cells are bigger in size, with much more DNA. More
DNA means more transcription, and more transcription means more translation, and more
translation means more proteins. Bigger cells create the need for organelles.
You can think of it this way. If you only had two pairs of shoes and a few simple outfits, you
could just hang up your outfits and put your shoes on the floor inside a small closet. Simple.
However, let's say you have a shopping addiction, and you have seven different pairs of black
pants, ten pairs of shoes in completely different shades of brown (and other colors, of course),
and you hardly ever wear the same hat twice. You can imagine that you would need a walk-in
closet, complete with shelving systems to organize everything, right?
Well, organelles are an efficient way to organize everything that's going on in the cell - to
compartmentalize cellular functions. That's exactly what a eukaryotic cell is doing - separating
cellular processes and organizing its space. But, don't be fooled by the 'simplicity' of prokaryotes.
Their smaller size and simplicity is an advantage to their lifestyle.

Different Features of Prokaryotes

Since prokaryotes do not have nuclei, their DNA is housed in a nucleoid.

If you have a lot of shoes and a walk-in closet, the nucleus would obviously be the shoe rack - a
structure to hold and organize all this important material. Having a nucleus or not is the biggest
difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Remember that your eukaryotic cells have linear
DNA. Prokaryotic cells have a smaller, circular DNA genome. With a smaller size and a smaller
genome, prokaryotes don't really need a nucleus. Their DNA is housed in a nucleoid, which isn't
really a structure at all. There are no membranes around it, so it's not a separated compartment.
The nucleoid is simply the area where DNA exists. This is the defining difference between
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Again, don't be fooled by the lack of compartmentalization. Prokaryotic cells are less complex,
but they can still perform the same processes similar to eukaryotic functions - they just do it
differently. For example, DNA replication and transcription take place in this nucleoid area of the
cytoplasm. While translation is still carried out on ribosomes, these are not membrane-bound
organelles, and all ribosomes in a bacterium float free in the cytoplasm. There is no endoplasmic
reticulum.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes are both made of rRNA and proteins, but the subunits are
going to be different sizes. In addition, a group of bacteria can perform photosynthesis like
plants. Without a chloroplast organelle, a bacterium can perform photosynthesis in the folds of its
cell membrane. These cells may have been the first early organisms to ever perform
photosynthesis!

Diagram of a prokaryote

Cell Membrane: Functions, Role & Structure

The Cell Membrane is a Fluid Mosaic
A cell is the basic unit of life, and all organisms are made up of one or many cells. One of the
things that all cells have in common is a cell membrane. It is a barrier that separates a cell from
its surrounding environment. This outer boundary of the cell is also called the plasma membrane.
It is composed of four different types of molecules:
1. Phospholipids
2. Cholesterol
3. Proteins
4. Carbohydrates
The fluid mosaic model describes the structure of a cell membrane. It indicates that the cell
membrane is not solid. It is flexible and has a similar consistency to vegetable oil, so all the

individual molecules are just floating in a fluid medium, and they are all capable of moving
sideways within the cell membrane. Mosaic refers to something that contains many different
parts. The plasma membrane is a mosaic of phospholipids, cholesterol molecules, proteins and
carbohydrates.

Phospholipids
Phospholipids make up the basic structure of a cell membrane. A single phospholipid molecule
has two different ends: a head and a tail. The head end contains a phosphate group and is
hydrophilic. This means that it likes or is attracted to water molecules.
The tail end is made up of two strings of hydrogen and carbon atoms called fatty acid chains.
These chains are hydrophobic, or do not like to mingle with water molecules. This is just like
what happens when you pour vegetable oil in water. The vegetable oil will not mix with the
water.
The phospholipids of a cell membrane are arranged in a double layer called the lipid bilayer.
The hydrophilic phosphate heads are always arranged so that they are near water. Watery fluids
are found both inside a cell (intracellular fluid) and outside a cell (extracellular fluid). The
hydrophobic tails of membrane phospholipids are organized in a manner that keeps them away
from water.

Cholesterol, Proteins and Carbohydrates

When you hear the word cholesterol, the first thing you probably think of is that it is bad.
However, cholesterol is actually a very important component of cell membranes. Cholesterol
molecules are made up of four rings of hydrogen and carbon atoms. They are hydrophobic and
are found among the hydrophobic tails in the lipid bilayer.
Cholesterol molecules are important for maintaining the consistency of the cell membrane. They
strengthen the membrane by preventing some small molecules from crossing it. Cholesterol
molecules also keep the phospholipid tails from coming into contact and solidifying. This
ensures that the cell membrane stays fluid and flexible.
Some plasma membrane proteins are located in the lipid bilayer and are called integral proteins.
Other proteins, called peripheral proteins, are outside of the lipid bilayer. Peripheral proteins
can be found on either side of the lipid bilayer: inside the cell or outside the cell. Membrane
proteins can function as enzymes to speed up chemical reactions, act as receptors for specific
molecules, or transport materials across the cell membrane.
Carbohydrates, or sugars, are sometimes found attached to proteins or lipids on the outside of a
cell membrane. That is, they are only found on the extracellular side of a cell membrane.
Together, these carbohydrates form the glycocalyx.

The glycocalyx of a cell has many functions. It provides cushioning and protection for the
plasma membrane, and it is also important in cell recognition. Based on the structure and types
of carbohydrates in the glycocalyx, your body can recognize cells and determine if they should
be there or not. The glycocalyx can also act as a glue to attach cells together.

Cell Membrane Functions

The plasma membrane of a cell has two main roles:
1. It is a physical barrier.
2. It regulates exchange of materials with its surroundings.
The cell membrane is important because it separates and protects a cell from its surroundings.
This allows the intracellular conditions of a cell to be very different from the extracellular
conditions. For example, nerve cells in your body will maintain a high concentration of
potassium inside. Outside, in the extracellular fluid, there is very little potassium and lots of
sodium. These concentration differences are absolutely necessary for the function of nerve cells,
which is to send signals or nerve impulses.

Active and Passive Transport

Active and passive transport are biological processes that move oxygen, water and nutrients
into cells and remove waste products. Active transport requires chemical energy because it is the
movement of biochemicals from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration.
On the other hand, passive trasport moves biochemicals from areas of high concentration to areas
of low concentration; so it does not require energy.

Comparison chart

Definition

Types of
Transport
Functions

Active Transport versus Passive Transport comparison chart

Active Transport
Passive Transport
Active Transport uses ATP to pump
Movement of molecules DOWN the
molecules AGAINST/UP the
concentration gradient. It goes from
concentration gradient. Transport occurs
high to low concentration, in order to
from a low concentration of solute to
maintain equilibrium in the cells. Does
high concentration of solute. Requires
not require cellular energy.
cellular energy.
Endocytosis, cell membrane/sodiumDiffusion, facilitated diffusion, and
potassium pump & exocytosis
osmosis.
Transports molecules through the cell
Maintains dynamic equilibrium of
membrane against the concentration
water, gases, nutrients, wastes, etc.

Active Transport versus Passive Transport comparison chart

Active Transport
Passive Transport
gradient so more of the substance is
between cells and extracellular fluid;
inside the cell (i.e. a nutrient) or outside
allows for small nutrients and gases to
the cell (i.e. a waste) than normal.
enter/exit. No NET diffusion/osmosis
Disrupts equilibrium established by
after equilibrium is established.
diffusion.
Anything soluble (meaning able to
Types of
proteins, ions, large cells, complex
dissolve) in lipids, small
Particles
sugars.
monosaccharides, water, oxygen,
Transported
carbon dioxide, sex hormones, etc.
phagocytosis, pinocytosis,
sodium/potassium pump, secretion of a
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
Examples substance into the bloodstream (process
diffusion.
is opposite of phagocytosis &
pinocytosis)
In eukaryotic cells, amino acids, sugars It maintains equilibrium in the cell.
and lipids need to enter the cell by
Wastes (carbon dioxide, water, etc.)
Importance protein pumps, which require active
diffuse out and are excreted; nutrients
transport.These items either cannot
and oxygen diffuse in to be used by
diffuse or diffuse too slowly for survival. the cell.

Process
There are two types of active transport: primary and secondary. In primary active transport,
specialized trans-membrane proteins recognize the presence of a substance that needs to be
transported and serve as pumps, powered by the chemical energy ATP, to carry the desired
biochemicals across. In secondary active transport, pore-forming proteins form channels in the
cell membrane and force the biochemicals across using an electromagnetic gradient. Often, this
energy is gained by simultaneously moving another substance down the concentration gradient.

Example of primary active transport, where energy from hydrolysis of ATP is directly coupled
to the movement of a specific substance across a membrane independent of any other species.
There are four main types of passive transport: osmosis, diffusion, facilitated diffusion and
filtration. Diffusion is the simple movement of particles through a permeable membrane down a
concentration gradient (from a more concentrated solution to a less concentrated solution) until
the two solutions are of equal concentration. Facilitated diffusion uses special transport proteins
to achieve the same effect. Filtration is the movement of water and solute molecules down the
concentration gradient, e.g. in the kidneys, and osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules
across a selectively permeable membrane. None of these processes require energy.

Three different mechanisms for passive transport in bilayer membranes. Left: ion channel
(through a defined trajectory); center: ionophore/carrier (the transporter physical diffuses through
with the ion); right: detergent (non-specific membrane disruption).

Examples
Examples of active transport include a sodium pump, glucose selection in the intestines, and the
uptake of mineral ions by plant roots.
Passive transport occurs in the kidneys and the liver, and in the alveoli of the lungs when they
exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Cell Communication

Why and how do cells communicate?

Cell communication is the process by which a cell detects and responds to signals in its
environment.
o Most single-celled organisms can perceive changes in nutrient availability and
adapt their metabolism as needed.
o Some single-celled organisms may utilize environmental signals to locate a
suitable mate; some send signals to make their numbers known to other members
of their species.

The cells of multi-celled organisms must communicate with one another to coordinate the
activities of the organism as a whole.
o Most multi-celled organisms can utilize junctions between cells for direct
intercellular signaling.
o But many forms of communication entail binding of a signal molecule to the
receptors of target cells.
o Receptor-mediated signalling can be short-range (affecting only nearby cells) or
long-range (affecting cells throughout the organism).

What is the mechanism of cell signaling?

In all cell signaling systems, the signaling molecule must bind to a specific receptor; this
activates a
signal transduction pathway which produces the cellular response.

In the majority of signaling systems, the receptor is located within the plasma membrane.
o Enzyme-linked receptors are very common and occur to some extent in all known
species.
o G-protein coupled receptors are common in eukaryotic cells.
o The ligand-gated channels that are used in membrane transport may also serve as
receptors.

Transduction pathways vary in length and are designed to refine and/or amplify the
signal.
o In bacterial cells, two-component regulatory systems are a common form of
transduction pathway.

o In eukaryotic cells, the transduction pathways are usually longer and may include
second messengers; two common second messengers are cAMP and calcium ions.
o Signal transduction pathways allow cells to respond differently to the same
signaling molecule.

In another type of signaling system, the receptors are located within the cytosol or
nucleus of the cell; this results in the transcription of a gene.

How do animals use hormones for communication?

Long-range communication through use of hormones is one of the two major methods of
cell communication in animals; this is the function of the endocrine system.
o There are three classes of hormones which differ in their chemical structure and
water solubility.
o These hormones also differ in their mechanism of action: protein/peptide
hormones and most amines act by binding to the plasma membrane, whereas
steroid hormones and thyroxine act within the nucleus.

Some hormones have important metabolic functions and are linked to physiological
disorders.
o Thyroid hormones control metabolic rate; their levels are regulated by feedback
loops.
o Insulin and glucagon control blood glucose levels; a malfunctioning pancreas can
cause diabetes, and obesity often leads to another form of this disease.

Forms of energy
Type of energy
Kinetic
Potential
Mechanical
Mechanical
wave
Chemical
Electric

Forms of energy
Description
(0), that of the motion of a body
A category comprising many forms in this list
The sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential energies
(0), a form of mechanical energy propagated by a material's oscillations
that contained in molecules
that from electric fields

Magnetic
Radiant
Nuclear
Ionization
Elastic
Gravitational
Rest
Thermal
Heat
Mechanical
work

that from magnetic fields

(0), that of electromagnetic radiation including light
that of binding nucleons to form the atomic nucleus
that of binding an electron to its atom or molecule
that of deformation of a material (or its container) exhibiting a restorative force
that from gravitational fields
(0) that equivalent to an object's rest mass
A microscopic, disordered equivalent of mechanical energy
an amount of thermal energy being transferred (in a given process) in the
direction of decreasing temperature
an amount of energy being transferred in a given process due to displacement in
the direction of an applied force

Some entries in the above list constitute or comprise others in the list. The list is not necessarily
complete. Whenever physical scientists discover that a certain phenomenon appears to violate the
law of energy conservation, new forms are typically added that account for the discrepancy.
Heat and work are special cases in that they are not properties of systems, but are instead
properties of processes that transfer energy. In general we cannot measure how much heat or
work are present in an object, but rather only how much energy is transferred among objects in
certain ways during the occurrence of a given process. Heat and work are measured as positive
or negative depending on which side of the transfer we view them from.
Classical mechanics distinguishes between kinetic energy, which is determined by an object's
movement through space, and potential energy, which is a function of the position of an object
within a field, which may itself be related to the arrangement of other objects or particles. These
include gravitational energy (which is stored in the way masses are arranged in a gravitational
field), several types of nuclear energy (which utilize potentials from the nuclear force and the
weak force), electric energy (from the electric field), and magnetic energy (from the magnetic
field).
Other familiar types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An
example is mechanical energy which is the sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential
energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy
(among atoms and molecules), as is chemical energy, which is stored and released from a
reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that
attract them.[need quotation to verify].
Potential energies are often measured as positive or negative depending on whether they are
greater or less than the energy of a specified base state or configuration such as two interacting
bodies being infinitely far apart.
Wave energies (such as light or sound energy), kinetic energy, and rest energy are each greater
than or equal to zero because they are measured in comparison to a base state of zero energy: "no
wave", "no motion", and "no inertia", respectively.

It has been attempted to categorize all forms of energy as either kinetic or potential, but as
Richard Feynman points out:
These notions of potential and kinetic energy depend on a notion of length scale. For example,
one can speak of macroscopic potential and kinetic energy, which do not include thermal
potential and kinetic energy. Also what is called chemical potential energy is a macroscopic
notion, and closer examination shows that it is really the sum of the potential and kinetic energy
on the atomic and subatomic scale. Similar remarks apply to nuclear "potential" energy and most
other forms of energy. This dependence on length scale is non-problematic if the various length
scales are decoupled, as is often the case ... but confusion can arise when different length scales
are coupled, for instance when friction converts macroscopic work into microscopic thermal
energy.
Also, at relativistic speeds, defining kinetic energy is problematic because the energy due to the
body's motion does not simply contribute additively to the total energy as it does at classical
speeds.
Energy may be transformed between different forms at various efficiencies. Items that transform
between these forms are called transducers.

Mechanical energy
Examples of the
interconversion of
energy
Mechanical energy is
converted
into

by

Mechanical
Lever
energy
Thermal
energy

Brakes

Electric
energy

Dynamo

Electromag
Synchrot
netic
ron
radiation

Chemical
energy

Matches

Nuclear
energy

Particle
accelerat
or

Main article: Mechanical energy

General non-relativistic mechanics
Mechanical energy (symbols EM or E) manifest in many forms, but can be broadly classified into
potential energy (Ep, V, U or ) and kinetic energy (Ek or T). The term potential energy is a very
general term, because it exists in all force fields, such as gravitation, electrostatic and magnetic
fields. Potential energy refers to the energy any object gain due to its position in a force field.
The relation between mechanical energy with kinetic and potential energy is simply
.
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics
In more advanced topics, kinetic plus potential energy is physically the total energy of the
system, but also known as the Hamiltonian of the system:
used in Hamilton's equations of motion, to obtain equations describing a classical system in
terms of energy rather than forces. The Hamiltonian is just a mathematical expression, rather
than a form of energy.
Another analogous quantity of diverse applicability and efficiency is the Lagrangian of the
system:
,
used in Lagrange's equations of motion, which serve the same purpose as Hamilton's equations.

Kinetic energy
Main article: Kinetic energy
General scope
Kinetic energy is the work required to accelerate an object to a given speed. In general:
Classical mechanics

In classical mechanics, for a particle of constant mass m, in which case the force acting on it is F
= ma where a is the particle's acceleration vector, the integral is:
Special relativistic mechanics
At speeds approaching the speed of light c, this work must be calculated using Lorentz
transformations, and applying mass and energy conservation, which results in
where
is the lorentz factor.
Here the two terms on the right hand side are identified with the total energy and the rest energy
of the object, respectively. This equation reduces to the one above it, at small (compared to c)
speed. The kinetic energy is zero at v=0 (when = 1), so that at rest, the total energy is the rest
energy. So a mass at rest in some inertial reference frame has a corresponding amount of rest
energy equal to:
All masses at rest have a tremendous amount of energy, due to the proportionality factor of c2.

Potential energy
Main article: Potential energy
Potential energy is defined as the work done against a given force in changing the position of an
object with respect to a reference position, often taken to be infinite separation. In other words, it
is the work done on the object to give it that much energy. Changes in work and potential energy
are related simply,
.
The name "potential" energy originally signified the idea that the energy could readily be
transferred as work at least in an idealized system (reversible process, see below). This is not
completely true for any real system, but is often a reasonable first approximation in classical
mechanics.

Mechanical work
Main article: Work (physics)
Translational motion
If F is the force and r is the displacement, then the change in mechanical work done along the
path between positions r1 and r2 due to the force is, in integral form:

,
(the dot represents the scalar product of the two vectors). The general equation above can be
simplified in a number of common cases, notably when dealing with gravity or with elastic
forces. If the force is conservative the equation can be written in differential form as
.
Rotational motion
The rotational analogue is the work done by a torque , between the angles 1 and 2,
.

Elastic potential energy

As a ball falls freely under the influence of gravity, it accelerates downward, its initial potential
energy converting into kinetic energy. On impact with a hard surface the ball deforms,
converting the kinetic energy into elastic potential energy. As the ball springs back, the energy
converts back firstly to kinetic energy and then as the ball re-gains height into potential energy.
Energy conversion to heat due to inelastic deformation and air resistance cause each successive
bounce to be lower than the last.
Main article: Elastic potential energy
Elastic potential energy is defined as a work needed to compress or extend a spring. The
tension/compression force F in a spring or any other system which obeys Hooke's law is
proportional to the extension/compression x,
,
where k is the force constant of the particular spring or system. In this case the force is
conservative, the calculated work becomes
.
If k is not constant the above equation will fail. Hooke's law is a good approximation for
behaviour of chemical bonds under stable conditions, i.e. when they are not being broken or
formed.

Surface energy
If there is any kind of tension in a surface, such as a stretched sheet of rubber or material
interfaces, it is possible to define surface energy.
If is the surface tension, and S = surface area, then the work done W to increase the area by a
unit area is the surface energy:
In particular, any meeting of dissimilar materials that do not mix will result in some kind of
surface tension, if there is freedom for the surfaces to move then, as seen in capillary surfaces for
example, the minimum energy will as usual be sought.
A minimal surface, for example, represents the smallest possible energy that a surface can have if
its energy is proportional to the area of the surface. For this reason, (open) soap films of small
size are minimal surfaces (small size reduces gravity effects, and openness prevents pressure
from building up. Note that a bubble is a minimum energy surface but not a minimal surface by
definition).

Sound energy
Main article: Sound energy
Sound is a form of mechanical vibration which propagates through any mechanical medium. It is
closely related to the ability of the human ear to perceive sound. The wide outer area of the ear is
maximized to collect sound vibrations. It is amplified and passed through the outer ear, striking
the eardrum, which transmits sounds into the inner ear. Auditory nerves fire according to the
particular vibrations of the sound waves in the inner ear, which designate such things as the pitch
and volume of the sound. The ear is set up in an optimal way to interpret sound energy in the
form of vibrations.

Gravitational potential energy

Main article: Gravitational potential energy
The gravitational force very near the surface of a massive body (e.g. a planet) varies very little
with small changes in height, h, and locally is equal mg where m is mass, and g is the
gravitational acceleration (AKA field strength). At the Earth's surface g = 9.81 m s1. In these
cases, the gravitational potential energy is given by
A more general expression for the potential energy due to Newtonian gravitation between two
bodies of masses m1 and m2, is
,

where r is the separation between the two bodies and G is the gravitational constant, 6.6742(10)
1011 m3 kg1 s2.[1] In this case, the zero potential reference point is the infinite separation of the
two bodies. Care must be taken that these masses are point masses or uniform spherical
solids/shells. It cannot be applied directly to any objects of any shape and any mass.
In terms of the gravitational potential (, U or V), the potential energy is (by definition of
gravitational potential),
.

Thermal energy
Examples of the
interconversion of
energy
Thermal energy is
converted
into

by

Mechanical Steam
energy
turbine
Thermal
energy

Heat
exchanger

Electric
energy

Thermoco
uple

Electromag
Hot
netic
objects
radiation
Chemical
energy

Blast
furnace

Nuclear
energy

Supernov
a

Main article: Thermal energy

General scope

Thermal energy (of some state of matter - gas, plasma, solid, etc.) is the energy associated with
the microscopical random motion of particles constituting the media. For example, in case of
monatomic gas it is just a kinetic energy of motion of atoms of gas as measured in the reference
frame of the center of mass of gas. In case of molecules in the gas rotational and vibrational
energy is involved. In the case of liquids and solids there is also potential energy (of interaction
of atoms) involved, and so on.
Heat is defined as a transfer (flow) of thermal energy across certain boundary (for example, from
a hot body to cold via the area of their contact). A practical definition for small transfers of heat
is
where Cv is the heat capacity of the system. This definition will fail if the system undergoes a
phase transitione.g. if ice is melting to wateras in these cases the system can absorb heat
without increasing its temperature. In more complex systems, it is preferable to use the concept
of internal energy rather than that of thermal energy (see Chemical energy below).
Despite the theoretical problems, the above definition is useful in the experimental measurement
of energy changes. In a wide variety of situations, it is possible to use the energy released by a
system to raise the temperature of another object, e.g. a bath of water. It is also possible to
measure the amount of electric energy required to raise the temperature of the object by the same
amount. The calorie was originally defined as the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of one gram of water by 1 C (approximately 4.1855 J, although the definition later
changed), and the British thermal unit was defined as the energy required to heat one pound of
water by 1 F (later fixed as 1055.06 J).
Kinetic theory
In kinetic theory which describes the ideal gas, the thermal energy per degree of freedom is given
by:
where df is the number of degrees of freedom and kB is the Boltzmann constant. The total thermal
energies would equal the total internal energy of the gas, since intermolecular potential energy is
neglected in this theory. The term kBT occurs very frequently in statistical thermodynamics.

Chemical energy
Main article: Chemical thermodynamic
Examples of the
interconversion of
energy
Chemical energy is
converted
into

by

Mechanical
Muscle
energy
Thermal
energy

Fire

Electric
energy

Fuel cell

Electromag
Glowwor
netic
ms
radiation
Chemical
energy

Chemica
l reaction

Chemical energy is the energy due to excretion of atoms in molecules and various other kinds of
aggregates of matter. It may be defined as a work done by electric forces during re-arrangement
of mutual positions of electric charges, electrons and protons, in the process of aggregation. So,
basically it is electrostatic potential energy of electric charges. If the chemical energy of a system
decreases during a chemical reaction, the difference is transferred to the surroundings in some
form (often heat or light); on the other hand if the chemical energy of a system increases as a
result of a chemical reaction - the difference then is supplied by the surroundings (usually again
in form of heat or light). For example,
when two hydrogen atoms react to form a dihydrogen molecule, the chemical energy
decreases by 724 zJ (the bond energy of the HH bond);
when the electron is completely removed from a hydrogen atom, forming a hydrogen ion
(in the gas phase), the chemical energy increases by 2.18 aJ (the ionization energy of
hydrogen).
It is common to quote the changes in chemical energy for one mole of the substance in question:
typical values for the change in molar chemical energy during a chemical reaction range from
tens to hundreds of kilojoules per mole.
The chemical energy as defined above is also referred to by chemists as the internal energy, U:
technically, this is measured by keeping the volume of the system constant. Most practical
chemistry is performed at constant pressure and, if the volume changes during the reaction (e.g. a
gas is given off), a correction must be applied to take account of the work done by or on the
atmosphere to obtain the enthalpy, H, this correction is the work done by an expanding gas,
,

so the enthalpy now reads;

.
A second correction, for the change in entropy, S, must also be performed to determine whether a
chemical reaction will take place or not, giving the Gibbs free energy, G. The correction is the
energy required to create order from disorder,[2]
,
so we have;
.
These corrections are sometimes negligible, but often not (especially in reactions involving
gases).
Since the industrial revolution, the burning of coal, oil, natural gas or products derived from
them has been a socially significant transformation of chemical energy into other forms of
energy. the energy "consumption" (one should really speak of "energy transformation") of a
society or country is often quoted in reference to the average energy released by the combustion
of these fossil fuels:
1 tonne of coal equivalent (TCE) = 29.3076 GJ = 8,141 kilowatt hour
1 tonne of oil equivalent (TOE) = 41.868 GJ = 11,630 kilowatt hour
On the same basis, a tank-full of gasoline (45 litres, 12 gallons) is equivalent to about 1.6 GJ of
chemical energy. Another chemically based unit of measurement for energy is the "tonne of
TNT", taken as 4.184 GJ. Hence, burning a tonne of oil releases about ten times as much energy
as the explosion of one tonne of TNT: fortunately, the energy is usually released in a slower,
more controlled manner.
Simple examples of storage of chemical energy are batteries and food. When food is digested
and metabolized (often with oxygen), chemical energy is released, which can in turn be
transformed into heat, or by muscles into kinetic energy.
According to the Bohr theory of the atom, the chemical energy is characterized by the Rydberg
constant.
(see Rydberg constant for the meaning of the symbols).

Electric energy
Main articles: Electromagnetism and Electricity
Examples of the

interconversion of
energy
Electric energy is
converted
into

by

Mechanical Electric
energy
motor
Thermal
energy

Resistor

Electric
energy

Transfor
mer

Electromag Lightnetic
emitting
radiation diode
Chemical
energy

Electroly
sis

Nuclear
energy

Synchrot
ron

Electrostatic energy
General scope
The electric potential energy of given configuration of charges is defined as the work which must
be done against the Coulomb force to rearrange charges from infinite separation to this
configuration (or the work done by the Coulomb force separating the charges from this
configuration to infinity). For two point-like charges Q1 and Q2 at a distance r this work, and
hence electric potential energy is equal to:
where 0 is the electric constant of a vacuum, 107/4c02 or 8.854188 1012 F m1.[1] In terms of
electrostatic potential ( for absolute, V for difference in potential), again by definition,
electrostatic potential energy is given by:
.

If the charge is accumulated in a capacitor (of capacitance C), the reference configuration is
usually selected not to be infinite separation of charges, but vice versa - charges at an extremely
close proximity to each other (so there is zero net charge on each plate of a capacitor). The
justification for this choice is purely practical - it is easier to measure both voltage difference and
magnitude of charges on a capacitor plates not versus infinite separation of charges but rather
versus discharged capacitor where charges return to close proximity to each other (electrons and
ions recombine making the plates neutral). In this case the work and thus the electric potential
energy becomes
,
(different forms obtained using the definition of capacitance).

Electric energy
Main article: Electric energy
Electric circuits
If an electric current passes through a resistor, electric energy is converted to heat; if the current
passes through an electric appliance, some of the electric energy will be converted into other
forms of energy (although some will always be lost as heat). The amount of electric energy due
to an electric current can be expressed in a number of different ways:
where V is the electric potential difference (in volts), Q is the charge (in coulombs), I is the
current (in amperes), t is the time for which the current flows (in seconds), P is the power (in
watts) and R is the electric resistance (in ohms). The last of these expressions is important in the
practical measurement of energy, as potential difference, resistance and time can all be measured
with considerable accuracy.

Magnetic energy
Main article: Magnetic energy
General scope
There is no fundamental difference between magnetic energy and electric energy: the two
phenomena are related by Maxwell's equations. The potential energy of a magnet of magnetic
moment m in a magnetic field B is defined as the work of magnetic force (actually of magnetic
torque) on re-alignment of the vector of the magnetic dipole moment, and is equal to:
.
Electric circuits
The energy stored in an inductor (of inductance L) carrying current I is

.
This second expression forms the basis for superconducting magnetic energy storage.

Electromagnetic energy
Examples of the
interconversion of
energy
Electromagnetic
radiation is
converted
into

by

Mechanica
Solar sail
l energy
Thermal
energy

Solar
collector

Electric
energy

Solar cell

Electroma Nongnetic
linear
radiation optics
Chemical Photosynt
energy
hesis

Nuclear
energy

Mssbaue
r
spectrosco
py

Calculating work needed to create an electric or magnetic field in unit volume (say, in a capacitor
or an inductor) results in the electric and magnetic fields energy densities:
,
in SI units.

Electromagnetic radiation, such as microwaves, visible light or gamma rays, represents a flow of
electromagnetic energy. Applying the above expressions to magnetic and electric components of
electromagnetic field both the volumetric density and the flow of energy in EM field can be
calculated. The resulting Poynting vector, which is expressed as
in SI units, gives the density of the flow of energy and its direction.
The energy of electromagnetic radiation is quantized (has discrete energy levels). The energy of a
photon is:
,
so the spacing between energy levels is:
,
where h is the Planck constant, 6.6260693(11)1034 Js,[1] and is the frequency of the radiation.
This quantity of electromagnetic energy is usually called a photon. The photons which make up
visible light have energies of 270520 yJ, equivalent to 160310 kJ/mol, the strength of weaker
chemical bonds.

Nuclear energy: Nuclear binding energy

Examples of the
interconversion of
energy
Nuclear binding
energy is converted
into

by

Mechanical Alpha
energy
radiation
Thermal
energy

Sun

Electrical
energy

Beta
radiation

Electromag
Gamma
netic
radiation
radiation
Chemical
energy

Radioact
ive
decay

Nuclear
energy

Nuclear
isomeris
m

Nuclear potential energy, along with electric potential energy, provides the energy released
from nuclear fission and nuclear fusion processes. The result of both these processes are nuclei in
which the more-optimal size of the nucleus allows the nuclear force (which is opposed by the
electromagnetic force) to bind nuclear particles more tightly together than before the reaction.
The Weak nuclear force (different from the strong force) provides the potential energy for certain
kinds of radioactive decay, such as beta decay.
The energy released in nuclear processes is so large that the relativistic change in mass (after the
energy has been removed) can be as much as several parts per thousand.
Nuclear particles (nucleons) like protons and neutrons are not destroyed (law of conservation of
baryon number) in fission and fusion processes. A few lighter particles may be created or
destroyed (example: beta minus and beta plus decay, or electron capture decay), but these minor
processes are not important to the immediate energy release in fission and fusion. Rather, fission
and fusion release energy when collections of baryons become more tightly bound, and it is the
energy associated with a fraction of the mass of the nucleons (but not the whole particles) which
appears as the heat and electromagnetic radiation generated by nuclear reactions. This heat and
radiation retains the "missing" mass, but the mass is missing only because it escapes in the form
of heat or light, which retain the mass and conduct it out of the system where it is not measured.
The energy from the Sun, also called solar energy, is an example of this form of energy
conversion. In the Sun, the process of hydrogen fusion converts about 4 million metric tons of
solar "matter" per second into light, which is radiated into space, but during this process,
although protons change into neutrons, the number of total protons-plus-neutrons does not
change. In this system, the radiated light itself (as a system) retains the "missing" mass, which
represents 4 million tons per second of electromagnetic radiation, moving into space. Each of the
helium nuclei which are formed in the process are less massive than the four protons from they
were formed, but (to a good approximation), no particles are destroyed in the process of turning
the Sun's nuclear potential energy into light. Instead, the four nucleons in a helium nucleus in the
Sun have an average mass that is less than the protons which formed them, and this mass
difference (4 million tons/second) is the mass that moves off as sunlight.

Energy

Energetics

Energy
o Units

Fundamental
concepts

Primary
energy

Laws of thermodynamics

Mass

Power

Energy transformation

Chemical energy

Fossil fuel
o Coal
o Petroleum
o Natural gas

Gravitational energy

Kinetic energy

Nuclear fuel
o Natural uranium

Magnetic energy

Radiant energy

Solar

Energy
carriers

Energy
systems

Thermal energy

Wind

Bioenergy

Hydropower

Marine energy

Geothermal

Fuel oil

Enthalpy

Heat

Work

Electricity

Elastic energy

Oil refinery

Fossil-fuel power station

o Cogeneration
o Integrated gasification combined cycle

Nuclear power
o Nuclear power plant
o Radioisotope thermoelectric generator

Solar power

o Photovoltaic system
o Concentrated solar power

Solar thermal energy

o Solar power tower
o Solar furnace

Wind power
o Wind farm
o High-altitude wind power

Hydropower
o Hydroelectricity
o Wave farm
o Tidal power

Biomass

Geothermal power

lycolysis- 10 steps explained steps by steps with

diagram

Glycolysis is the metabolic process that serves as the foundation for both aerobic and anaerobic
cellular respiration. In glycolysis, glucose is converted into pyruvate. Glucose is a sixmemebered ring molecule found in the blood and is usually a result of the breakdown of
carbohydrates into sugars. It enters cells through specific transporter proteins that move it from
outside the cell into the cells cytosol. All of the glycolytic enzymes are found in the cytosol.
The overall reaction of glycolysis which occurs in the cytoplasm is represented simply as:
C6H12O6 + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P > 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O)COOH + 2 ATP + 2
NADH + 2 H+

Step 1: Hexokinase

The first step in glycolysis is the conversion of D-glucose into glucose-6-phosphate.

The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is hexokinase.

Details:
Here, the glucose ring is phosphorylated. Phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate
group to a molecule derived from ATP. As a result, at this point in glycolysis, 1 molecule of ATP
has been consumed.
The reaction occurs with the help of the enzyme hexokinase, an enzyme that catalyzes the
phosphorylation of many six-membered glucose-like ring structures. Atomic magnesium (Mg) is
also involved to help shield the negative charges from the phosphate groups on the ATP
molecule. The result of this phosphorylation is a molecule called glucose-6-phosphate (G6P),
thusly called because the 6 carbon of the glucose acquires the phosphate group.

Step 2: Phosphoglucose Isomerase

The second reaction of glycolysis is the rearrangement of glucose 6-phosphate

(G6P) into fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase
(Phosphoglucose Isomerase).

Details:
The second step of glycolysis involves the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6phosphate (F6P). This reaction occurs with the help of the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase
(PI). As the name of the enzyme suggests, this reaction involves an isomerization reaction.
The reaction involves the rearrangement of the carbon-oxygen bond to transform the sixmembered ring into a five-membered ring. To rearrangement takes place when the six-membered
ring opens and then closes in such a way that the first carbon becomes now external to the ring.

Step 3: Phosphofructokinase

Phosphofructokinase, with magnesium as a cofactor, changes fructose 6-phosphate

into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
Details:
In the third step of glycolysis, fructose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose- 1,6-bisphosphate
(FBP). Similar to the reaction that occurs in step 1 of glycolysis, a second molecule of ATP
provides the phosphate group that is added on to the F6P molecule.
The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is phosphofructokinase (PFK). As in step 1, a magnesium
atom is involved to help shield negative charges.

Step 4: Aldolase

The enzyme Aldolase splits fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate into two sugars that are
isomers of each other. These two sugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP).
Details:
This step utilizes the enzyme aldolase, which catalyzes the cleavage of FBP to yield two 3carbon molecules. One of these molecules is called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GAP) and the
other is called dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP).

Step 5: Triphosphate isomerase

The enzyme triophosphate isomerase rapidly inter- converts the molecules

dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP).
Glyceraldehyde phosphate is removed / used in next step of Glycolysis.
Details:
GAP is the only molecule that continues in the glycolytic pathway. As a result, all of the DHAP
molecules produced are further acted on by the enzyme triphoshpate isomerase (TIM), which
reorganizes the DHAP into GAP so it can continue in glycolysis. At this point in the glycolytic
pathway, we have two 3-carbon molecules, but have not yet fully converted glucose into
pyruvate.

Step 6: Glyceraldehyde-3phosphate Dehydrogenase

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) dehydrogenates and adds an

inorganic phosphate to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, producing 1,3bisphosphoglycerate.
Details:
In this step, two main events take place: 1) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized by the
coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD); 2) the molecule is phosphorylated by the
addition of a free phosphate group. The enzyme that catalyzes this reaction is glyceraldehyde-3phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH).
The enzyme GAPDH contains appropriate structures and holds the molecule in a conformation
such that it allows the NAD molecule to pull a hydrogen off the GAP, converting the NAD to
NADH. The phosphate group then attacks the GAP molecule and releases it from the enzyme to
yield 1,3 bisphoglycerate, NADH, and a hydrogen atom.

Step 7: Phosphoglycerate Kinase

Phosphoglycerate kinase transfers a phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate

to ADP to form ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate.
Details:
In this step, 1,3 bisphoglycerate is converted to 3-phosphoglycerate by the enzyme
phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK). This reaction involves the loss of a phosphate group from the
starting material. The phosphate is transferred to a molecule of ADP that yields our first molecule
of ATP. Since we actually have two molecules of 1,3 bisphoglycerate (because there were two 3carbon products from stage 1 of glycolysis), we actually synthesize two molecules of ATP at this
step. With this synthesis of ATP, we have cancelled the first two molecules of ATP that we used,
leaving us with a net of 0 ATP molecules up to this stage of glycolysis.
Again, we see that an atom of magnesium is involved to shield the negative charges on the
phosphate groups of the ATP molecule.

Step 8: Phosphoglycerate Mutase

The enzyme phosphoglycero mutase relocates the P from 3- phosphoglycerate from

the 3rd carbon to the 2nd carbon to form 2-phosphoglycerate.
Details:
This step involves a simple rearrangement of the position of the phosphate group on the 3
phosphoglycerate molecule, making it 2 phosphoglycerate. The molecule responsible for
catalyzing this reaction is called phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM). A mutase is an enzyme that
catalyzes the transfer of a functional group from one position on a molecule to another.

The reaction mechanism proceeds by first adding an additional phosphate group to the 2 position
of the 3 phosphoglycerate. The enzyme then removes the phosphate from the 3 position leaving
just the 2 phosphate, and thus yielding 2 phsophoglycerate. In this way, the enzyme is also
restored to its original, phosphorylated state.

Step 9: Enolase

The enzyme enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form

phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP).
Details:
This step involves the conversion of 2 phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). The
reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme enolase. Enolase works by removing a water group, or
dehydrating the 2 phosphoglycerate. The specificity of the enzyme pocket allows for the reaction
to occur through a series of steps too complicated to cover here.

Step 10: Pyruvate Kinase

The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a P from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to ADP

to form pyruvic acid and ATP Result in step 10.
Details:
The final step of glycolysis converts phosphoenolpyruvate into pyruvate with the help of the
enzyme pyruvate kinase. As the enzymes name suggests, this reaction involves the transfer of a
phosphate group. The phosphate group attached to the 2 carbon of the PEP is transferred to a

molecule of ADP, yielding ATP. Again, since there are two molecules of PEP, here we actually
generate 2 ATP molecules.

Steps 1 and 3 = 2ATP

Steps 7 and 10 = + 4 ATP
Net visible ATP produced = 2.
Immediately upon finishing glycolysis, the cell must continue respiration in either an aerobic
or anaerobic direction; this choice is made based on the circumstances of the particular cell. A
cell that can perform aerobic respiration and which finds itself in the presence of oxygen will
continue on to the aerobic citric acid cycle in the mitochondria. If a cell able to perform
aerobic respiration is in a situation where there is no oxygen (such as muscles under extreme
exertion), it will move into a type of anaerobic respiration called homolactic fermentation.
Some cells such as yeast are unable to carry out aerobic respiration and will automatically
move into a type of anaerobic respiration called alcoholic fermentation.

10 Steps of Glycolysis

Glycolysis

Glycolysis literally means "splitting sugars." In glycolysis, glucose (a six carbon sugar) is split
into two molecules of a three-carbon sugar. Glycolysis yields two molecules of ATP (free energy
containing molecule), two molecules of pyruvic acid and two "high energy" electron carrying
molecules of NADH. Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen. In the presence of oxygen,
glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration. Without oxygen, glycolysis allows cells to
make small amounts of ATP. This process is called fermentation. While glycolysis takes place in
the cytosol of the cell's cytoplasm, the next step of cellular respiration called the citric acid cycle,
occurs in the matrix of cell mitochondria.

10 Steps of Glycolysis
Step 1
The enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates (adds a phosphate group to) glucose in the cell's
cytoplasm. In the process, a phosphate group from ATP is transferred to glucose producing
glucose 6-phosphate.
Glucose (C6H12O6) + hexokinase + ATP ADP + Glucose 6-phosphate (C6H11O6P1)
Step 2
The enzyme phosphoglucoisomerase converts glucose 6-phosphate into its isomer fructose 6phosphate. Isomers have the same molecular formula, but the atoms of each molecule are
arranged differently.
Glucose 6-phosphate (C6H11O6P1) + Phosphoglucoisomerase Fructose 6-phosphate
(C6H11O6P1)
Step 3
The enzyme phosphofructokinase uses another ATP molecule to transfer a phosphate group to
fructose 6-phosphate to form fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate.
Fructose 6-phosphate (C6H11O6P1) + phosphofructokinase + ATP ADP + Fructose 1, 6bisphosphate (C6H10O6P2)
Step 4
The enzyme aldolase splits fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate into two sugars that are isomers of each
other. These two sugars are dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate.
Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate (C6H10O6P2) + aldolase Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
(C3H5O3P1) + Glyceraldehyde phosphate (C3H5O3P1)
Step 5
The enzyme triose phosphate isomerase rapidly inter-converts the molecules dihydroxyacetone
phosphate and glyceraldehyde phosphate. Glyceraldehyde phosphate is removed as soon as it is
formed to be used in the next step of glycolysis.
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (C3H5O3P1) Glyceraldehyde phosphate (C3H5O3P1)
Net result for steps 4 and 5: Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate (C6H10O6P2) 2 molecules of
Glyceraldehyde phosphate (C3H5O3P1)

Step 6
The enzyme triose phosphate dehydrogenase serves two functions in this step. First the enzyme
transfers a hydrogen (H-) from glyceraldehyde phosphate to the oxidizing agent nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to form NADH. Next triose phosphate dehydrogenase adds a
phosphate (P) from the cytosol to the oxidized glyceraldehyde phosphate to form 1, 3bisphosphoglycerate. This occurs for both molecules of glyceraldehyde phosphate produced in
step 5.
A. Triose phosphate dehydrogenase + 2 H- + 2 NAD+ 2 NADH + 2 H+
B. Triose phosphate dehydrogenase + 2 P + 2 glyceraldehyde phosphate (C3H5O3P1) 2
molecules of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (C3H4O4P2)
Step 7
The enzyme phosphoglycerokinase transfers a P from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to a molecule of
ADP to form ATP. This happens for each molecule of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. The process
yields two 3-phosphoglycerate molecules and two ATP molecules.
2 molecules of 1,3-bisphoshoglycerate (C3H4O4P2) + phosphoglycerokinase + 2 ADP 2
molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (C3H5O4P1) + 2 ATP
Step 8
The enzyme phosphoglyceromutase relocates the P from 3-phosphoglycerate from the third
carbon to the second carbon to form 2-phosphoglycerate.
2 molecules of 3-Phosphoglycerate (C3H5O4P1) + phosphoglyceromutase 2 molecules of
2-Phosphoglycerate (C3H5O4P1)
Step 9
The enzyme enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form
phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP). This happens for each molecule of 2-phosphoglycerate.
2 molecules of 2-Phosphoglycerate (C3H5O4P1) + enolase 2 molecules of
phosphoenolpyruvic acid (PEP) (C3H3O3P1)
Step 10
The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a P from PEP to ADP to form pyruvic acid and ATP. This
happens for each molecule of PEP. This reaction yields 2 molecules of pyruvic acid and 2 ATP
molecules.

2 molecules of PEP (C3H3O3P1) + pyruvate kinase + 2 ADP 2 molecules of pyruvic acid

(C3H4O3) + 2 ATP

Summary
In summary, a single glucose molecule in glycolysis produces a total of 2 molecules of pyruvic
acid, 2 molecules of ATP, 2 molecules of NADH and 2 molecules of water.
Although 2 ATP molecules are used in steps 1-3, 2 ATP molecules are generated in step 7 and 2
more in step 10. This gives a total of 4 ATP molecules produced. If you subtract the 2 ATP
molecules used in steps 1-3 from the 4 generated at the end of step 10, you end up with a net
total of 2 ATP molecules produced. For a detailed view of the 10 steps, see: Details of the 10
Steps of Glycolysis.