Tae HUMAN OSTEOLOGY ‘A Laboratory and Field Manual THIRD EDITION By WILLIAM M. BASS 1987 Volume Eaitor Michael K. Trimble"ptosis Aachaecogial Society, In, 1987 Library of Congres Cataloging Bags, Willams M1538 luman oseoio [Rigauurt Archeological Socal, Spec Publiaton, issworseser no. isogaph p 310 Insts nde TMtuman skeleton {Tite exons ve LTT wun ISBN @-viBHLH18-7 (opel tg) ISBN O36? 5 (PEK) Frnt Baio, Fest Printing 1971 Second iting 1973 Tord Pang 1974 Fourth Ping 197% Bath Poning 1977 Sah Pring 15 Second Editon, Fist Printing 1978 a Second Pnnting 98) Third Paneing 1954 Fouts Printing 1596 “hind Edition, Fest Prnuing 1987 Second Prting 1989 Funan Oey tortor al Fd Mom orginally was posed in el under tie Human Ostealogy: A laboratory and Field Manel eee raae Stet a5 Atosurt Arun Sats. Spt Pareaton ane por rane tothe 1971 publication wis a 1962 mimeowaph release Nided Bela Hanaook of the Homan Skletn, by Rober FG. Spier, Fe eS atosowns and Wim ML Bass, then ofthe University of QOBSe Bal Rehoming ected the handOcok, Bass contusion wae 2 TONS gated "The exevation of hrtan skeletal remains,” end Shee seehsied eevee vecsons of fo sevalzed antl that had appesed Sarco Archana vty NE "Know Our Bones ie tteen Desmber ID and May 1953 [Newsletter nos 44, 57.6 and een -Dvtcrmunation of age and se of shelatl rermains”(uowecn RERUN see ana May 956 {Nesener nos 106113, 217,118, 120 sei) In appreciation to my Doctoral Commer From the Unversity of Pewstoani: Canton 5. Coon Loren Bisse Wilton Sf Krognan (sian From the Snithsonion Institation Frank 1 Roberts T Dae Stasrt Wilde WedelCrowding of Teeth a | Nariatone in Tooth Slorpaiog aa | “olor Cuvp Pattern Ey Esta Cusp 2s i Shovelshaped Teeth oe i eg shaped Teth aa t Taurodantem ss Enamel Extension and Pears 25, Extra or Niseng Roots 286 Geeiusat Wear ee eels 287 ‘tcl Delormotion 28 1! Dental Development = APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY AND MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION , | . FoR ne osieoLocy siubent = t ‘Classica of Bones Aecording to ape = Parse Bones x Fi Definons of Ostesogical Terms a ATL erm inicting the Side and Dircton ofthe Pas of the Bocy Bones and Their Pras ‘Nord nals for Sten in Science B Roots ama APPENDIX 2; EXCAVATION AND TREATMENT OF SKELETAL REMAINS Excavation Transportation f. Geaning 2) Restoration Handing UL nerenences creo wo i u Ixpes a £Figure 1 Figure? Figures Figures Figure 5 igure Fico Figure gure 10. Figure 2. Fgune gure ager 1 igre 8 gure 17 Figure 18 igre 1. Figure 20. Figae 2 Frguce Rute 2 pure 24 Figure Figure 2s Figure 27 gure 25 gure 20 gure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 3 Figure 3 . Figures Standac anatomical onetaton of the body General elements the una sean saponin mening Sees Grama ste “wo anthropometnc measuring sie, Comparison of an alt emue wih that ofa Srncton centers ina sai emer Disruton ot stores of exeophv toss in 506 lumbar pines of whe Amencan mais. Databonan bts atepors of ecophoein 506 horace spines of whe Amenan males Datbeon of aegis of entropion in 25 ceva pines ol whe Amen les. ‘Cranial eternts an feattes ntl {anteon view {Gin ements ad features, ters view {Goal elements and feature, base sw {Charmer fares he fetal bone Graces featares ofthe psa Beveed edge ofthe nero sums suture othe pa Character fetes he Sep Gcipial at bith Charani fests the esp ‘Gharceratis features ofthe sphenon {Gracenate featres ofthe mila ‘Genoa age indication hosed an the mire Characters of he naa ane Characters fentares ofthe evgmati na, shee) bone arate sores the mandible Character fetus an ee mon the etme Chater eae oe cin Characters estes the pt nes Character fears of the vomer ‘Character featres ofthe infra sonehs. ‘he auditor ose. Caractere fetus ft hd ery ‘CONTENTS: Figures Titles 2s wwrronucrios Why Stud Bones! asc Terms and Onentaton ofthe Bod ‘Which Bone Is IP Steps to Follow in Ldeniving Bones Cre and Tresiment of Bones and Osteometae quinine Measurement othe Bones ‘Age Estimation Sex Esimation Slate Fosration Premmaies Sleture Meaburenenis 2 THE SKULL OR CRANIEM ‘Bones of the Cramal Vale rons! Bone Panetal Bone (Geis Bone “Temporal Bone - Sphenoxd Bone Bonet ofthe Face. ‘Masa (Upper le) Nasal Bone Zygomatic Sala, ov Cheek) Bone Mandiste Bones of the Eve ett, Pai, and Nowe Ethmoid one Licrmal Bone Palate Sone Inferno: Neal Concha Bones ofthe Es . “Audion Macelancous void Bone Measurement ofthe Sail Landman ofthe Skull Used for Taking Measuremeats and Calelating Indices Sex Benena Race Estimation ‘Morphlogial and Anatomia Varabons Caucasoid Negro! . Stongold (incling American ladon) UNathropoinete Meaturements 3 POSTCRANIAL SKELETON 4 HUMAN DENTITION Bones ofthe Vertebral Column ‘Gener! dentition snd Development Cervial Verteae nnn ni ‘horace Veretnae Lumbar Vertebrse Sserum and Coccyx Stern : Seapula aa Giaiele Ribs Radius : Una Carpal Bones. Netosrpal Bones Palanges (Fingers). 2 ip Bone (nna). Femar atl Knaecap) ‘iba : Fula Tara Bones Nittarea Bones Phatanges Tom) : ‘Anatomical Terms foe Teeth {Which Toth Tet Steps Follow ia Menisng Tet Stops 15 i. Replacing Teath nthe Dental Arch nese. Canines Premolar. Mola oo essurements ofthe Teeth Ventions in oath Nomber and Fost Supemmerars Teeth Congenital Absence af Tet Rohn of Teeth 8 a a = & a iat ry 1 10 13 1 uy ita m 1% 81 2b 30 285 SSPRISSREE Figure 3. Figure 36 Figure 37. Figure 38. Figure 39 Figures. Figure at Figure a2 Figure 8. Figures igre gues Figure 7 Figures. Figure 9. Figure 30. Figure 3, Figure 32, Figure 33. Figure 5 Fgure 35 Figure 56. Figure 57 Figure 58 Figure 20. Figure. Figure 6 Select antvopometnc landmarks ofthe skal {frontal ew) Selected anthropometric andiaeks ofthe skal {tea ve Select anthroporetnc landmatie ofthe sh (tase vies) Craiomene pois tral ie). (Cranmer points ont vies). Fouton of the coordinate caliper fo take ‘basioneprion height [dma for messuring sal ght and breast macs for measuring ott height ond ‘ress [nears or meusuring palate length and ‘ead Landman or messing the mance DDutingushing characteris of he rans tued te deterine sen ‘Smale etares ofthe cranium wsefl for saluting roca ongin. Gis and Ege (1952) worksheet force ‘lentieaion hom cranial measurements, tndices for Indian-white aca Siteretinson ‘Candia fo facial measurements uted in Fada diferentiaton {itera and frontal views ofthe versal ‘olan Pama fasion center of the vertebrae (Guacton ofthe verebae {Character estores ofan adult vertebra {Characteristic features of the cers veneers ‘Characters leuivies ote haves vertebrae ‘Characters dierences between lumbar and [Character fstres of the lamba ‘Characteristic features ofthe scrum and ‘Ossteation center ofthe Secu anc The scrum 9s 96 %Figure 33. gure st Figure 65 gore 6 Figure 6 Fare 58 gure, Figure 70. Figure 7 Figure 72 gare 73 gure 74 Be 73 gure 26 Figure 77 gure 5 Figure 7, Figure 20 ewe 81 Figure © Pure 8. gure 88 Fra 8 pore ure § Figue as pure 8, gure 9. gure 9 Figure 92 gure 93 Serta famen Anouthne ofthe sternum indicating tressrements taken to ete see Charsctesti face ofthe sap Osstaton centers of the cape Landmark for seapula measurement. \anton in sapulr vertebral borders, Vanatonsin the sap of Homo spins nd mow other marina anations nthe morphagy of alos noche pooner Uandmarks fr measuring sapleoienod cau ng os eration Cheaters hates ofthe ave Developmen sages othe Sve birth, dod at 51, and 1S yen. Ossian centers of the dice The ince, Characters ates oft ‘stication o's ypc ib. Mol standards of poses 0 of sternaend tssieaion of he fu non white mals Model tends of pases 3 o stenand ‘silcation ofthe fut ns white ales ove strdar of phases fb stern {siteatin of he fourth i white mals Model standing of pstes 02 o stead sssiaton of he fun we femal vel tarde ot phases 3 ters end essifcation of he Furth in wht emus Neus standanis of pases fof stermend {seston ofthe fumh i whe emacs TWpcal mae paters of oscaton, “ypc ete pte ssa Grace fst ofthe humers Developmental sages ofthe humerus a i and at 50. and 1S yeos. Osstcaton cenies ofthe hues, ‘Sie identification o the humeres Landmarks for meaning te heres Types of septal apertures ofthe humors. Medial eptondse showing lost of son Measuring bupondyar width and aur ‘ih onthe Rumer no nz ny 13 uw ne reo wo 3 15 te rg 1 ee Fegue Figue $5 gure 96 gue 7 gure 58. Fre pore 100, Figure 101 Figure 102 Fagen 15 gure (0 Fore 18, Figure 06 gure 107 igure 108, gute 1, gore 110 Figure 112 Figure 12 Figure 105 Figure 18 igue 18 Fgore 138 Figure 107 Figure 18 Fagre 18, Figute 120, Figure 121 Measuring transverse diameter and vet Smeter the head of the bumerss {Ghuracenste features ofthe rans Developmental stages ofthe asi tbh land TD and 13 vets, Frinary osscaton cone of the ras. Tonks fr mensring the dios Characters features ofthe uns Seclopmentalstges uf hel eb and BI We and 13 yea Pray evsieaion center ofthe ua Sie Wetiestion othe une Tadimarks for messing the ln Elements oft honed an wis: Developmcnay stages uf the hard and srt AS and 0 years Developmental stages of tne hard ond west hb yee and adulthood Gaaratenene festures of the navieuor used tori te elemert CGoracerc fates of the nate wed © Side the een. Etiacenste atures ofthe igual wed fo aide he element Charette festres of he piston used tovide the element. CGhnacestic features ofthe peaer Shulangusr used to sie the element haraceritie estres of the lesser holtengula used 1 she the element ‘Chaat festres ofthe copie teed to se she element Characters fstares ofthe Ramat tived to side the element ‘Chnroterincfstres and ews ofthe retacaral. ‘Sie determination ofthe metacarpls erphologis ferences Between metas diets bones, Fatanges of he tid dig ofthe Bard ‘Morphologi dlerences Peween phalanges ‘fie band fingers) a oot oes ‘Characensti features ofthe pels a ‘Strain Gentes ofthe innominate 156 19 ro ws 180 1" 18 185 186Figure 122, gure 23. gure 24. Figure 3. Figure 26. gute 127 Figure 28. Figure 13, Figure 130. gre 231 Figure 12 gure 38 Fore 1. Fao gure 0. gure 7 gure 38. gute 1 Figure 4. Figae 1 gure 12 Ere 1 gure 1 gure 15, gure He, Figure H7, Developmental stages of the innominate at ‘prthand a 3,10, and 15 wear 185 Characters features ofthe innominate {itera iow) 19 {Characteristic features ofthe innominate {medal view) 9 {ander for measuring the innominate i Landmarks foe sexing the innominate be [ol standards of Tod's 10 ypc phases of sage inte pubic symphysis be Nil surtace f the symphstia pub in females 186 Nest suriace of the spmphsis pubis of females ww Suchey-Brooks Male Pubs Spmphyseal Phases (VD ws Sexi the pelvis sing thee general ules. 21 Female pele. 23 Male pews Es Distinetive eters unl or aging an sexing the pein 20 ‘Addtiona characteris Uselul or sxing the pes 2s Morphological dierences fete the male snd Feral pees, = CCharnterst features of the femae 26 Typieal osieation ofthe fem ao Developmental stages ofthe femur a bir and at, 10 ad 1S yeas, 20 ‘Methods used to distinguish ight fom lett femur au Morphological difeences betwoen the fpronmal ends ofthe femur and Humerus. 2m {Cindmarks for measuring the fem Fe Sntution of manimum ded femur lenge in 6 fetal skeletons, plied againterowterump length as obtained in he same specinens before CCeneralzed postnatal gout core ol the fem based om a series of Eskimo examples, the ages of ‘ehlch were estate from the teeth and sccopaying (generalized curve for whites, ns Pearson's fomuraeeaurement system ns Two femore ath very ieee uous of tosion viewed fam 2 ean poston shen the conde Sad itertochantone ndges av im agent Bs Characters fetes ofthe pate as Figure 68 pure We Faure 50 Pur Figure 182, ure 153, Figure 54 gure 85 ore 135 pure 197 gure 158 Figure 158 gure 160 gure 161 gore 12 Figure 163, Figure 164 gure, 168, gure 166 Figure 167 Figure 168 Figure te gure 20 Figore 171 igre 173, Figure 174 pure 175 Fapute 176 pute 177 gure 178 Figure 179 pure 180, “ypc osscaton othe pt. Tienes ed fo disinguh he ig rm thei put Chances lease the Devon sages ofthe Sh Sond 13 yee Supe enltcin othe ti Nebo aed ating ei and ig Linda fr escremeis onthe la ta ta haces ears othe fii Staten centers ofthe fla Developmental sige the da bath nda and 1 yew Sethe vcd dings de ofthe ital Elements ae tad ae ‘Charset atures of he as) hacer fares othe lanes Character festares othe ead ae features frie detrmiation ‘eter surfaces thea uncon and features er se determination. ‘Rrucu surfaces of te second conelorm an ‘Stes forse determination, ‘etclr sve ote third cone and ters for se determination ntl sce fe av an etree SSrade determina. Metra flee fot Sie dnticaton the eins She palanger td digit) of he oo Han deton “oath suri Theta. Mosphologs! ssn of indo rons Sector ees wew) Sir oeneaton nsx The canines. Sie entation fans. the premolar Deteminaton of potion and side Senaeaton of he premolars. ‘he mown, Side ensicticn of molars ‘inn and a a Es 20 2 m 20 an an 247 Pa Fa 261 2s 6 Fa nm m oa easFigure 18 pure 12, pure 183, pure let gute 185, rut 186 gure 17 Figure 18 pus 1 igre 190 ie Tie? woes Table Thole 5 Table? Tales table 0, Thole It teste 12 Tole 13, table 1. ees oad nat malin il rar Nasir motreep pena" emis neeto patems fxr cups —— Peso sin igh td wl Taloduntsn el tension and pe Eirentn af age deh wh lt eatin fromedion ba sas Erno mail ant naar et vation natal trae inprsinal pooven he quer maton and upton of ‘eee simong Aman nae ‘TaBLes ones ofthe Adult Skeleton ‘The Age Dastttion or Stages of Union forthe Langone Epsphvas of Group I Fpipiss on te lc Crest Age Distnbuton of Stages of Union Expected Maumum Statute fom Long Bone Lert for American White Mates Expected Minimum Stature fom Longlone Lengths for American White Females Expected Maximum Stature rom Long Sone Lengths for American Negro Males Expected Maximum Stature trom Long Sone Lengths for Amencan Negra Femles Expacied Maximus Satur oon Maxim Raias Length for American Negra Femaies Calcul of Stature fn em) om Lone Bone ‘t Mesoamerican Bones ofthe Skul UUnpaied Craniometne Points onthe Misa Pane Paired Craniomete Points Late Mage lone Desenbed Castel Measurements and Page Numbers for Dacustion Deserted «= tal Indices and Page Numbers for Daca othe me ms 2 2 25 2 ea ss Eo ee ee et abe 13, Table Ie ‘be 18 ‘ae 18 Tbe 20 tae ‘bie 2 be abe, Tibi Tabi 26 bie sabi 28 tabi abe 3 Table 3 be x. bie Table 3 abe 3 Table 36, Table, Table 36 ae ®, Table. Tie 8 Bune ofthe Tetra Shltn Leng ofthe Serum al Maes Spe Aragoed by Various Athos for cna Epsphese Some of pur Dinan ines ‘Aranged by Sepals Iden ‘ciple Dimerslons a indices: Ranges of Vato Lng of Gioaid Cav of Sapa dpe Daun othe Sage of Union or i fphyes ote eal Clem Nate ftge Dts of the Sages of Union or fpiyas cf the Medal Covi nFemses ‘Covel Rules fr Sela Age Eston {ing Eppes Union othe Mel Cvce Sev Eston fam Clie Leng ‘ge Fatima from the Heras Se Estimation Using the Hares of Aimrican Negees Setng by Tiere Damtr of he ead ote Huta in Prensrc Sop rom Coal Csitrna 6 = 258). Ferme for Snare Estimation ‘gettin om the Ras Age Estimation fn the Una lreal Rleor ect)Age Extension Sing Epphysel Union af the Antone hae Ce ‘Abe Dbatone the Stags of Union i paes ofthe Ant fie Creat mes ‘ge Datouton a the Sage f Uren for Ffipyacs ofthe Antrrfac Cesta Fees ‘ge Estimation rom Femur iiSghs of the femur le Chien) including pipes om Onhoroetgenogap hi Stouts Lite the Femur Female Che) ining Epiphvscs fom Ordoroenigenopaphc Slessueent ules for Seng the Femur Tear Leng sna Heas Damster ‘connie Fancon Seng by Femur nd Tumerus Using Petar Samples fn Catal Ciifrna OS = 25) {stmaten 4 Satere fom Long Bones ue estimation Ung the Femora mation f age Using Length the Tbe 1 ne 156 robles, ‘bless Tables Tbe Tie a, Table 4 ‘ble ‘able 9 Table 51 abe 32 ‘Taste 5, Tale st, Lengths ofthe Long Bones including Eppes for Sint Seven Nae Chien frm Onboroengenopraphic Meinoremente Be Lengths ofthe Long Bones Including Epipheses for ‘Sty Seven Female Chien from Otherentgenographic esnurements wr UnesrateDsecrminan’ Function Sextoning Points for Whites, Blick, and Asks indian The 2 Estimation of Saar fom Lang Bones Fs Estimation of Age Using Leng of ia Mi Percentage Datnbuton of Meng Th Moles fing ee Poputoons a Fretiage Proton et Cusp Eten ot Lower Fes ols 20 fercentge Ostnbuion of Cusp Pars of Lower So Mrs 2 Percentage Dvtbuton of Cp Pats User 1 centage Druin of Cabs Cay = Percentage Frequency of shotelShaped Mesa = tncsors a ec Fee’ of Shovel ape ae PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION } Hegerathoarattes actenn re Gis Retiree et nieeitodieata oan nectar eet ‘sex, and measurements. This makes the manual easier to use “ ‘hy enturagement anc help over the ears Ne Dat Kinkade, (am omePREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION =~ ov egy apron thee aleagus ind dents who ‘awe made suggestions tompaove the quay of ths bask, Attempts have teen mace tocome the ets and Ya make abdion nthe nal chapter Sis lag anes ober an ofS oan Anrete lachiouine, departmental secretary, Anthropology Departnent {Eniverty or Tennesse, Knowle, fo he ain th eveion PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION There has been stemendons growth nthe fd of skeletal bilogy siti tet was tnt publahat in ILI the second ean ‘tmmanee tevin in abepasscchuper In the tied aon we hae Incoeporat "the information in that chapter within the tex at the {pptsit lane an ave aed eensive new mot shui ‘isos that the basi anony ofthe Cones sna general antuopumetne Icsurements have nol changed: but the amount O skeet cea ‘cps discriminant anctonaalyses, os tcrensed dramatiay 1 hehe en ve Th ston cons he at sha vey Seon sd have Been careful to pont out the erence popuabons ht ere Sti To develop the sare dsciminant formule Witla M4. Base be EDITOR'S NOTE Fis 1 would Ike to express my grade to Wis M, Bass and Schaaf O'ien for afiordag me the opportunity tsar pete ee sam in the prpasion of hen eae: Nemgrour sine ee seule reuatn he mani sd (ery apc ‘Rois enh of they Gepey Low lc ie icorabng aee shes ond Tham Ft det igre 8 00 bebe ere Bh SSP ol’ S21, 1 i, ean Is degree now te, ‘poe te mann fo tec ete este eee Stern production and together ith OF Boen poled eed coped hs mart ik an ring me Ch alin ipa proul she manusenpt and prepare the fetrenes Bane ah ante ih the veterenses anal ped portions ofthe ase iter’ Wat oversaecorposion fie nal oda Michel K. Table , Universi of Msoun, ‘Columba. Nl, 5 Bar 3 a 1 1 1 INTRODUCTION wy STUDY BONES? ‘often the question is asked “Why study bones?” A fe ofthe more Thee constitute the evidence forte study of fos ma, 2 They ae the basso ail clsaicatin in prehistors 3. They are the means of Blogicl comparison of eestor peoples ith the present bane descendants 4. Thee bear witness fo burl patterns and thus give evidence forthe caltore and work! view of the people stad 5 They form the major source of oration on ancent diseases and ten give cies tothe causes of deat {6 Their Mdentficaton oll helps salve forensic cases bones at the amevrork othe vrata Body ped thus contin rch iniormation about rans adaptive mechanisms 10 hs ensvonment. The "od of evolton exeentlly would be impossible bones were eimins fdas source of data n summary the anne hal bones een survive the proces of devay and provde the main eeience for he human for site death, Skeletal erdence also has the potential to provide infosmation fon preston eastoms and diseases, BASIC TERMS AND ORIENTATION OF THE BODY ‘he exact meaning of etn fundamental terms used in anatomy’ must be understod an kept mind (ee Figure I). Note that the ers can {ppl fo both two legged and four legged animals. The most basic tears re bsted telows amore comprchenie st gen a Append 4 Anatomia Poston or Standard Eret Poston: standing wth the feet fornard adhe hands at the ses wh the palms forward In ths positon no lang bones ate crossed. When the hac of the hand's Fevned fomand the radios andthe vlna inthe lower or ace crossed twth the sadus bong the ouside (tera) Bone 2 the chow Insite ted bone at the wit Akos orien the oe you ae sud a posta your Pa ‘when you are determining the side fom which a bore came, the hone vars be from the sme seas Risin your body With they sethe Standard rect Position there ae thee fundamental planes of sevons ee Figure) Spt enhagtl-eut which ites boty toga ee ee ieihates det asharp renin sn Fret onal which dies he ayn ont an sender tess of ‘i Fame roc talenerpojctng, —verkbva spinous process 9. Favre or hvzontalany pao a igh anglsta Land. Pe see poig . 8 Prncigldstions or pats he Tubercle Small beroty sku enteral acpi Pode Probert Fort sentl oc aor {Gre0ve a shall tinea tnnominte Sturstegrove st—dooal or postenor eee Upper er super * Lnwer—snuda or ifenor SMedst—owacd the maine ante titers stny fom the mang Sones the Ads Shelton 2 Limbs eonimal—that portion or ead nearest the rank ot head ——T — - Distal get or en aes fom the Wank head = \ Shelton the std arcwor of the boy compesed 5 ee 1 Bon: Lanes unite the bones te fing We Bones come FS Mom : tog the are af ate : Sip : 2, Cotas covering the surfaces where bones arcuate, fe Spt : > hae 3 — : 2 "Long bones~main components of nbs npr sstain weigh, ard | a : gure tint he tm am ie mae bo ' 2, Short bones—metcarpalsaf hands, metatarsal of fet, and phan ser hans an Fut fund whew composes lsc sed 2 Hint monn ay reed } 3 3 at ones ones nominates, an scapula er pote 2 tonal povile wide ass fr mune attachment, 3 4. TeepulrLones sen pl fash oon Hoo ones ant me : Ima ofthe cranial bones ten very complet and wy pecs asin a farms fr the tanctons they pron ' sal contra H nsdn ft Son way sto tern i (Figure 2 however varations my occur as noted i Tie} ire 3 “ere sully are 80 enters of onion inthe Bowing sheen Suse) 2 be by maturity hese centers have united to form the 206 bones of the 1 Ta aul The surface ctor of bone presents iegulaies i he shape of Poe Sminenes an pesos such as } Cre ane Name. Description Bone Anatomical area Tet oes Goat!" asi esptaly one innominate atest on Srmouningatincor adn ntwncous crest exon sre Snae we extent Feuse WHICH BONE 1s 17? ‘STEPS TO FOLLOW IN IDENTIFYING BONES. The student's fist encounter withthe 206 tone of he human shen is lten a belting experience Wha bone? Hove dost et shoul ook for? These ae some ofthe questions asked by the unaired fatserser Tae Best proceuie fo low 3 lopea process simiation The floning steps a suggested for Henticaton of bones fom the human stleton Fora ken how to deny Bones for mamas Sleleton ee Comma 1956) ‘When faced with he task of determing which nes you ac kin for test dade Whether the Bones fom #subadlt oe atl nda tv hen proceed ith the fllosing steps (For farther information ‘Dba ge esbmation see pages 1-13) step "Ricans cr poste fe, bones behind the saline quacnape a positon? rmbt, a vga stay, ones om ‘lt nave seated ges (etues)may contin snes (mass ecu rivera mula; eygema ane epenost and rth bes ‘hc teeth oy tooth scekete ocr sts mcromia ome the inert Fe ‘Chapee? wil sd determination ofthe exact tone Stop 2 Tei is poscania sone ofthe flowing? a Long bore “Spe rbelar bones, 3 cach Hin "fem-chumerss aus and une [Along bee as tubult shat onan atl atet cack cr one onesie lige compared with ther Bones othe human bo ihe fear the nga ae thea the sath) Shot bone " retucarpls an 4 phalanges in ach hand 5 etal a phages in och fot 2 vices Stor bones resemble Jong bos that they have tbl shots ‘aly hve acu rvs att nd (ternal pala, hese ‘leet ave am atc surfoe a he sl en «Faron tay ap to sme canal ones. 2p bones 2 espe ane Fiat bones ave lege surlae arse (er muscle aches} and tual ei, Thes have regulars place aie suave guar tone py some ail bors ‘SBnes the veel clam Searles 2 yvtelae Irgiatenes hve speci shapes othe fonctions the peso st ‘het sua ae tek an shot Teng The pels» Sesame ‘When working wih stot seta enains the various bones cn resemtie any of ihe four Gases above, depending wn the age 6! thekal. For example othe untsned eye the eur of a infant whe ie ata or soo ser may seme a short bore othe Bones al ‘mammal Great care shoul be taken when dealing with sebadult bones (Gonesin whic the epipses hve no ached). adda intraton 's preset on each be sucescing capers ‘CARE AND TREATMENT OF BONES ‘AND OSTEOMETAIC EQUIPNENT aan soll mates used in physical antropology IMbortses fener ae abana tom medal supply hoses, Ghasng oom: ot Stchacolgksl sites" Skeletal resin. pushaced kom mec supply ousesare expensive. ose obtained Im dsecting rooms may inthe ors ht ince ben sectioned athe fom chalga ates may oe Fneompietor pur preserved many cit the material Sol oe est Inthisconnection she woes of). Powl, the founder of he Hate of Amengan Ettogy may Be eee Poi nae con es nage et aed csi ave ice ele taba hee Race ae eae REAR of siagiry and chon ae Aer td tthe tne Thou The wsstery whch trond over the dey whee be aes of Scns gates oer cana nite eben a eat Sonepat oro neta ace een tan srt. The mats that you wily 9 il be handing maybe stud By many people fa gta foie ae mh he bk» thy Benne ‘cntinual development snd relinement ef stenie ehnuges, ae eh Possibly signin infomation cat fe bined rom poctoeehy eg steltal mute. Therefore care always should be eunoned ee anaing a cea msteral to preserve for pane fuse seedy The proyer ay carey of Boul 4 sl wth both hans fe ony renin which gers sal can be ace te aE rope =the lige opening in the lus ofthe shuls Ober openings a eae se vs ae compest of fag Bones that ae destapes ely by itiproper honing he mos onion instruments ued o mestireShletl materi at: so qd ° A The hing capaaed fa cri aia enenet aa ‘rion ort apie gre) then he etree po for trsremen te ate ce lgeber a theconurst he i {Draco hte pees of mean he sing copes fee bt cas tate 1. Herre or spessing ees 0 enable one measure ponte te Lull Mick & soning meatunng dene ant tate gure 39, Figue Antvoprntic mason device 3, sig ep Dingo end © i tee trie not ae nt trunsrng lng bons snd oter ge strani bone ite Thats isrments ave en eee bee fey MSDE ae ith zt precn’ Conan nse should tate the procedure fur handing wR beanbag or dona ing shoul! be wsed 0 suppor sh on 3 Mt savace gure 5. sera og canbe made By sexing ogee 60 Stobinch paces of Ga orb fohing snd aewng one Oooh rp {Pyare 5 Beers comping the sein cup oy beans sould BeMEASUREMENT OF THE BONES. Mans mcasorments canbe taken on the skull arto the long bo, a oallason many ofthe reglarbanes The ength mersueren othe tong tones may be used cele satus, while evan lhe mesure senmay be used 0 tess sec and rice In genera he esse tens aries presente cs manual artoasinon common ased pha anthropologists and for comparative data se avalabe Fling the eswaptons of ah fone is I of tase measurements Age Estimation Ene books have been and coud be wien exchsively on age tina rom the skeen eg Steuart Tate 5 Hs mk the Inter ote exotic, Dut ater Sojunin the student th aes othe fads set determine the age ofa ndvkal at deh at to Present tse releences sere mune deal imation canbe found ‘When we sy "age estimation” we do nt meen ow ke the ff indus hss en dea Stal na imps mes {thea ia nas the sity emi ho es eb he dhe ute me ari |] pede den mono whe ded fm ee ho 5s om scr aan ng ae TRE io comer hr Mowe detente a ana etic tne i Whe ogra hageacer nee feet Se iti a i cy “eines sen con be etn with vasa sistaen dperding he pnt eee ine soge Shes he icihawvrptngenlinqnpiyesuning apeoiencentetagtt a Pes et Sena pean en as pad snare bes 5ty3) encom depends almost entirely on degenerative changes. “ (ne ot the mauris sh fe aware af is Rann sais lhe ou ty oan way ira cto these a tes tine One eh my wok tty rear sath may ot waka 3 Ta ihn oa pepe mar den teste tant Sith ao cui the hn eh anal bones eS ey psd ! toni we nt ele dat on ae ind wt tee | ‘or Da thea Wingtote Co | Scie i hn sng eps sch og] ‘on nde stn amie dnc oom. Tes seen : 4 Me RGeade ates Redciph Kronfeld of the Loyola Universiy Dest obi ae anata memes Subadtt Age Estimation These ae a ber eters that eon be se 1 fou eapicn 2 Epupesea sure 5. Lenn ong bones tout pipes oath enushon~The fllosing ae Wr geo age categories: mone speci information canbe sie ro Figure 7 and ors the slerences Terk eth eapted1 mo fist deciduous teth usally begin topper ower cent secs | 24 mo.—svall al 2 deciduous teeth hove erupted 25 ys —oiation ofthe rool of he eth proceeds the teeth do pot AS the child grows and the mandible and maui get lrg, spaces epi to form betes he dea teeth ‘yes ft permanent eth (Sear mol) appar (8 yre—beglomng of les of decduous fet he cena insors ring Lost est) 12 yra—recnd permanent mola [2-year molars) appear 18 fs —the tied mors (wacom let) possibly appeet. This = sgenecaly unstable toh and may never pest, oF ay Erupt bevond age 18, Lele Som comcton’ sweatin nd ia female to about Sto 5s feet. The fst 16 to 18 yearsare a pened of ‘xieaton It hasbeen estimated tha! about the eleventh prensa week ‘The davicle, first and second metacarpals, and the fist metatarsal 0: Gromth of Long Bones mg nes do sn at th tat thar ag ore Tiling the gests anbuton fo growth im engi Iie howeve the Into ise wile dnphoss Groth stope hen the epipses une tah the daphysi Its het understood Geary why te epaphaes ume When thes do, bat itis volved withthe endocrine ste Absomalies {in nd do ocur Peeoture union ol the espe Ul na nated“ snsomnotocy aD _ trent tat ot soon ght eo Eo pice, Condition known as achondopasia. Fare of union at he prope time ‘esl in gant: howevey, thes seldom seen fodb, sine epiphyseal tion am be simulte by hormone therapy Ossication begins ever feral, anu the elphyss unte ect as wel normaly some toto thre fears sooner This ads to shower evod of growth in eas and secu or hr ale dt ie wen Fompated ith males “pps oss oo a single center, with the artagines pipe ‘isk bring replaced by tone. following complet oxtaton of the ‘artaginourspipseal dak, union tthe epphyss nd the Giphy ss ssmmncens ” Along one shalt are ossied a bith ae many parte ote rest of the shecon” Rrogmam (19821821) snes thet a1 bith. on St “piphvseal centre ae prevent: hes of mers (onal condyle of {eur (Gsah candle of iba (prowl, lus, aeancous and cabot {tna bones nfo The rst ee wal unite wth the rexpato sas the second thee (i tu of al esta bones of he hand ad are Bones ‘ofthe fot wil emain as discrete bones thought ie” "The ear stages of the sesieation af am epspsi ma be ical 10 BeEeege 2S E £3 See eee 2 BR a Rome Sew 8 a = cee es : fs Bags hE & e A Seo eee eee e fe Eee: 3 E pak eR SR I eI e Seo cece! : ie 5 3 BBRER ES & z = : "Be psd oa ace al wad WO Bi hoo sos 2 = a eae ze es) Se eaten eet mtn ae 22 8= how fom S Fee msl i 2 pet i i i Pog eh ‘Various authors have demonstrated that estimation is complicated by 5 2 eee eRe OG sac ae aman poplin saps Te cl ten he 2 S522 82 = 2 Sepia rma oe at oh eu > 2 2 8 # {fe ilowing ecesences are econunended reasing om stfu esmation ” a 4 se “e {Brestnger 1936; Dupertuis and Hadden 1951; Dwight 18942; Genoves BoB & 8 & $ 2 RB: 2 Se ove pekups he nest aed ou reaming ~ SB 5 8 @ oR is = living stature from skeletal material is that of Trotter and Gleser (1952). A 2 = Beas So 2 In te aterm her 15 sd eno pub 2 gs 2 fe & we Correo of some of thelr egession formulae fr Negro females (Tter So » Ss woe & ow mo nd Gleser 1997355) (Table 8 They state‘he prines ein aqua with andar err fxm shown AB pag ie reeled an found be Sea (my = 367 Bad + 2039 2 4 Iingandofthecodiver [2 Sem fad sen sabato he corto OSESY AG occ ngen ptt Statue fm) = 367 Rad © 71.79 2 43. ‘nat omc nts af fam which bere ne be 9, os Premortom Stature Measurements “Thevarnton a premortem stature measurements, compared to satrl ‘utes ram shell remains hasbeen dscssed hy Sn ond Wilms {W271} They tnd acepancies vaulting rom st Teast our sures) te [ice may vecrd how tll person says else (2) @ person may be Fenwred with their hoes ot (9) a persons height ma tereae ne 9 {re inches i they sland uly erect and (@) 3 persons satune tay be up "Bene inch shore nthe evening than the morning Himes ea (197) and Musgrave sna Havre (1978) have reported on suture estimations tased on radiographically determined metacarpal Tengihs. oth studies indicate thatthe formulae developed cosypre faoraly nih other statue evimation female ‘method Yor asesing masimum long bone kngth and ling stature rom fagmentry lng be in oven by Stee ana Nekern (949). ate ‘eed the method on several oasions and ind tdi Yo Isat the Pecesary anatomical landmarks on tagmentay bones, Tr landmark study om stature estimation. Gonos (1957) examined the stature of Mesoarenans, His coreted fovmul for saturealeuation islven in Table 9. These formulae produce stature esmats tat are Sevicenily trent trom all other formulae derived by ether t- ‘earhers though the Iter formule produce saiar estimates song Themselves I beleve hss due Yo the lt that Conovés did hs study ont ‘ery shor population Short popetend a hae ferent Bo proportions hd would reqite dierent regression formalaethos expan the Stason ee re ee $b & € & ne te 2m 2 8 F 2 3 ae i a we z= fd =the aparicd manip sr sald Be eed bythe an agin Fine peated mum maar Soa ‘re Tatts cm expected sae eu 03 es “From rater ad ine 7 abe ‘Msn on antes ian of Sate ng Long Bones? Me sone: Sure = 252 Rad + 057 Una + 0 Hum + 298 D048 cate emu Sonne = 209 em + 9722 816 ‘Mingo the vel preinon af he Gans 30 confirmed thal thi ee,2 ‘THE SKULL OR CRANIUM ‘he sll isthe erm ue to denote the bony supporting framework hoc neck presents the est compier Nt ofthe skeleton because I escteneasfcr the ban, one othe ost wal parts ofthe Body as Ee otens of agi, Paring. sel. asain, and este es ina the lace, ade cle the caearium mis he base, Fae bones in the sul gute 15-15) (ounpattedand 8 pase), ur en anes (euch sr ora fll of 28 lable 1). AlhoUgh the Pe Stents groped mith the kal usual mot considered pat of he sal Feet the shal come together or nie slog special sevted and own its Known ae sores The sutures are regula inet gaps oe the ge of 17 bo! fen ante in old ape and eventually become Nested. shouldbe nated nt orieaton fhe stares cur inside Tet cndecraniay? st and proeeds toward the outside (ct seal) Se atuies tke thei names rom the two bones ofthe sh hat ope itis tne ature Hoeven there ae Boe notable exceptions 0 he le Setare name ocaton Coronal ebwuen font and pastas Spal tenoeen the two panels embvoidal between prietas and ocsptal Bastar Perween ocala spheroid ‘one ofthe fs things sade muster how to handle a hl ‘Toten in general he sali seen ae spheroidal in shape witha sath top Tien Rttompresed fom ste to ace, and Roving an uneven tase. TO Sete resembles boing ball an there ia compulsion ro nse ones ire sn eyes skate Th esa doe The Bones of Breall the eye ovo ave paper thn andar roken easly given the sgnew pressure. Sheep im mind se flowing points when working with ask 1 Hold the sll with both hands and mae sure you have am fapen tata bres. fiBONES OF THE CRANIAL VAULT UnpairedLON “von Supraobital Yowder—upper edge ofthe eve orbit olen sed in sex “Temporal hae—edge of tachment ofthe temporal fascia and the ker Cereal ace Frontacrest ceston aver part tocamen eum (sometimes tants a vein fam nasal ev the bone hat teins ia he sta gah of Bones of Simla Shape where Contsion May Arise The ‘following crarial tones are ll Gxt pares, occipital, and temporae In the portcanal Sslefon, the ssp and innominate ase Nive bro, fat Sra. (Only the fons bone forms the upper edge ofthe obits Soth areas fhe frontal sinuses ae fact om the cerebral sure beeen the eis Too ofthe obits has 2 very characteristic reas onereess ¥ ‘Tee temporal hes ae well matied on the eteal srice of the ithe f Iocted on the ante bre othe rant ane Benen the ob "The pustenoy border othe anal bones the eornal stare Parietal Bone: Paced (Figure 17) Forming lye prt ofthe rol and sides the cai, the pari tone rinse Letween the foal and cepa bones. ateults| Stitt the octal antl spenos, temporal and the ther paral Fpue 17. Chasers atts ofthe pant ek: bone Seped Anatomical Characteristics of mpartane in Wdentiestion Spent temporal ne Patt foramen ou tl (antes) bowder—the Border along the coronal autre hat i slighty concave and i ess serated han ether te agital or meds in the posterior onethird near the eg ir but may no be present and ae Seldom.Medial bonder—Ientifet bythe agit utc, which tinore seated han the coronal suture and relasely sagt Porter bordet—the nmol autre convex and deeply sete Infos border or squsmoal border one ofthe fe th a seed ge (igure IB). The Border exhib sees of diferent pttesns sein {eter B concive fo the conven temporal bane: Dison of the ‘Squsmosl torr ac Area Pater: Ariat with Antesor ——thinand beveled spherout Sedat thin and beveled temporal Posterior thickandserted mato! portion of tempor Con Safe Grooves fe he mide meninges! veal vay rn up and bck am thesphencid angle Note that thee hea groove ust poste the ‘ronal onterot boede Te sogital gro or he superior agit) rns long hei of te sagital sure its fo the paccionian bodies sometimes ae seen along the sides of ine saptal groove eapecaly ni anterior oneal ecicnemne » ‘Bones of Similar Shape where Confusion Moy Ase The ollgwing ran bones ce ll font, expt, and temporal In the postal selefon, the sxpua sn inpegunate aso havea Eroad Information of importance in Kenietion ‘imac the edges ofthe bone oe. the edges are serrated it pe pants are shallow, towbhaped Bones with sutures on all four Bors tether te pascal nd open tg ey ron ocr onthe posterior edge ofthe ona ‘Side aenteation Avs ope ay te 88 or oy. ws "pe Concave, beveled suture away is down or aay rom the midline ten te real ona te rset ey ns eur a the PeTye most deeply seated suture the lambndal, which aavs is pesto a "heroes the mie merge ese nan pati ityou st heldng the pant ins poston 9 that ts in cose Faton sp toyour own pare and the gronee forthe me meningeal vessels ae {ur p ad forward, you met change the bone othe apes side of the boly to have tonenied proper Crcpital Bone: Unpalred (Figure 18) aoe contacted by sutures with he two parts (amfdoue suture) two empors clon the mastoid nargn andthe spencer Mian gure Io) hist only bone of te ska that rates it see posteanal skeleton The arelan i through te ocptal conchles ale frstcensel vertebra atin) na ew india the exept na Srcunte wits tne dene the epstropheu ats. Te largest hee of the Sul theformen magnum, trough which the spinal eord errs the Sa Tested onthe tera sure between the Septal ones The accel deep in fur pets (Figure 20). ‘slur ane to foramen mag, articulates 2 the b potre withthe spend ands he sas ofthe fur patsyou havea fat ral bone, lok ira forthe he foramen magna [cule surfaces occur on onl thre eal bones i) oct wth the cept condyles (2 temporal with the emporomandbul en, snd {3} he condyles othe mandi he scat condves ate conve, the temporomandal The lamtadoidl sutures deeply sere ‘The interna configuration sts fo crests that divide the surface int our pats which wa estore dsingushing hom tne fontal bone ‘Temporal Bone: Paired (Figure 21) Located at these andbase of the cant, the temporal bone is blow th pal poste 1 the ape, and steno oe sep. The thisbone, Each one als arcuate wth a aygomate male pechesk bone through the oy gomati ah * ‘Squamous—flat anterior and superior part that articulates with the sphonost and trough e Beveled suture withthe part tones, eludes Mastid™ it atea behind the ear opening (external auditory meats) that i Nc and eon! and projects downward eis fret the tmp et bone deed in Surfer “Zypomaticpaces—thst pet ofthe bone enteing foward and cli wilt te maar bone fo orm he ypomate a ‘andar foes Cemporomanctuta at)—the ails surface fr ondyieaf tre onde. I's immediate annoy to the er hole cna story esis) and st below the postenor end of the Ener udtory meatus—theesr opening, When the boneis in proper loi poston osteo o he sygomae process ET AMO to at proce taped projection pointing downward be tne extemal airy mentor ete bony ute hat canbe eh ‘iyi process—on the bse ofthe hal and milf the mandibular sn eneal auditory meas nd mastnd procss ba Slender roca expec Rose tneved in peech ra Sure etoos portion prj smost a right angle om the squamous nase orton: stusted Yo ihe miele of these parts and rips in he formation ofthe bare o the sl The peross porto isthe aren the seo the sl beeen the ban and teal portions he octl bone and the gee wing ofthe ephenod fe fenebonaly escent pat of the organs ot heaing Greaves for he mile meninges! veseels—olten canbe sen along the leone o Simiar ape where Gontusion May Arise hse a commplcsted be and when rageentary can reser ares fic she pri (Deane of the beveled suture), the ocoptl andthe fomard and the rated process Sownvear. "Tne mandibular oss lays in font ofthe ei opening (externa‘he squam super "ie iyo proves aways pints downward sudtorg mest SSS = rere ese hover is beveled ith a shagp edge and bays is Sphenoid Bone: Unpared (Figure 22) The phen 5.» wey gle Bone that ele fom the Hoe ae sss of the rant van Computed of 2 Da two Pls ot lel ‘See ato er ny an uo pc a et doves he pterygod processes) Bee» Ua So ers tak nt oropt pasta tt cen tor porns poltine,vomer, sya, andsmstinen eth she maie| gor 22, Chaar atures uf the spent Anatomica Charactoistios of Importance in Kdentiletion ser Saree Greater wings—plates of bone that etn! aera rm the Boss and tend superar net thei ip. Te frm the orton of he ha ete ‘he temporal and font ‘rgd prceser--pojest downward rom the junction ofthe bade and greater sigs These ae best seen the stucures 3 the Posten nd Gr ihe woth tow. Each projection const of wo pues he perpen Puts, Tete ones ahead boner an the medial longer ond Farower Tey ante on but everge Bein none ese onceante s ent Sue Teter wings-two thin ranguls plates of bone extending erly and simon hofconaly fate antes psn the bey. Tey ae om the eco wrace mediate antes othe eae ings SSPGISSES depression tn te superior suroce of te body, The ptutay gland showed mts depression poser to he lesser ings ‘Bones of Simla Shape whore Contsion May Arise couse ofits complicated srt, ts poet confuse his bene wsithmot ofthe eal ones, Thove ens! Legueniy confuse ace the Tempore panel cept, spa Wont Infarmaton of impertace in denieation “This bone has # numberof sharp projections. Iehes many foramina Mont ofthe bone Is ape “The boty contains the spend sinus Remember int snuaes ons our the Fron mas sndphenoid ype [BONES OF THE FACE Maxi (Upper Jaw): Paired (Figure 23) ‘One ofthe largest bones of the face, supports the upper teh and pe toform ibe eats the hard plate ad the ral asa Ts cvided IAPS uy and four psoas that ae Ustee below, The two male ‘ett mice olf and ih he front nasal aerimal, ethno ‘latetenes tomer eypomtie, and interior nasal conchae In some oes ‘Remo may rhc wih the sphenod Anatomical Chaactarisis of Importance in Kdentifeation ‘odi—this ithe main portion ofthe bore. Iti hallow becanse ofthe sear snes ‘acer oraznen—focte just el the seroe margin ofthe eye cose Terminal branches othe infactial nerves and ood vessel emerge here Teen pasa spine—ths is sharp anterior projection along the ruding nthe bse he nosead ps fom te aera wal of he nasal fossa tacts with th froma bone and with the nel one forms the aca Zygor Palatine process—forms the rot of the mouth [pr he eve socket i lateral projection rom ‘long diagonal suture wih the ala or rn the body and joins the process rom the opposite ste atthe midline Th protest uth ofthe rd pte nal formed bythe night endlet mane, “Aleta procearthat portion ofthe bone tat extend ine om he body and hos the upper teh. There usual re eight tt srk mneach maulae ranged ins U-shape seh ‘ones of Similar Shape where Contusion May Arse ‘Sige iderttzation {and inthe maul, Or Bones The incisive foramen i slong the mine The sugomatc proves evens sway fom the mine Age Estimation Research by Man (1947) soggess that he fur maellary sutures arc gener oge ineatre inane. interplatine,intermaxr. 8d folsom. At Dit the manila sates ae wo deine wih aps Exstngalong ther margins, The surface of he mauilin young nce SSenntss stuvgh, burspe appesance (igure 28) Inreasing age esuls in promrecsively sanother sorlace asthe bumps ond sutures slow Saappear tripe 206 0). The cures nfmperance esa age are Detach erate gue ‘ Canines and terminates at the posterior portion of the incisive fossa, tnetncally) and progresses toward the incisive fossa (figure 246), The Merpaltne sutre i ioetfied a dhe comtioaton of he ile sian ees fr pecetogs ptr om he hs Ps the ponenor pont of the poser nora spine (rigue 29) Corres ‘ech soon hay permit tbe esimation of age sted on the amount of Inerpslie otra (percentage). By visa determining the amount {fst citerstion of fe tur mosiloy sututes. am appre ge fange may Be calla, Prliminny studs conclude tat he flown [emo age aegis can oe sugpested Dated om the amount of cst ‘SubodultLite (possibly ess than oneal ar 2 obliteration of the ine suture no obliteration af ther miley om of the intepaaine suture andior Surere nes fll cutuessre obliterated the indigo Poms ae er get ote, eno of age and text complete cerabon of EXtn the nterplatine suture Ae may realm 8‘Nasal Bone: Paired (Figure 25)‘ise tertiteation Remember tha there ae thre acl borders ane one nonatclt boner The longest articular border isthe teal edge (somal suture) Wen held in approximate anatomial postion wih the nonorteulae surface down or away fom yu. the nanos Same se the Bones come fam The finely strated arcular border isthe medial bore Zygomatic (Mela, oF Cheek) Bone: Paired (Figure 26) “This bone foms he prominesce of the cheek and can be el under shin ut below an tral to the eye sche (gure 2), scutes we the sygomatc prin ofthe poral bone fon the aya ah lho riculates with the masa, fata and sphenoid The eygomaee tone can be cated by ether of two othe ens maar or cheek Soe bet ie term 2¥gomti should be Iarned, ab tthe mon equenly voce termand wad the student in rememching the eyporat ach Se ‘Anatomical Characteristios of Importance in Identiieation Tnvaortal process—te antenor porno just below the eye socket Frontoephenoid process—the superior proecton of the bone that forms the lateral edie of the eye sachet, Or the srlac of the bone fat telow tis process the 2ygmaticlacal foramen somes found somatic foramen—ine name applied (0 one and sets rere olson ine anterior sac ofthe one, Tey tana the sygomancac nerves and vessel ™ Bl paces ine posterior projection that articles with 2 vert terie~te blur, rounded inferior ange ofthe Bone Bones o Smiar Shape where Conusion hay ar86 The ronal and moxie becauee of the ees ofthe ee rn the ponana ston some sadentecontse the ees the cape WH Re ygomane sige tentieaton “Te infor process ends ina sharp pnt and alway sb the yen and pt oward the nese ; “edt borders dep ete and angles rom te ge of he eye ov (nara prces tery Re bone stn spd fas an snteor and tempor sce Mandible: Unpaied (Figure 27) ‘The mandible oower ja isthe ges andstongest bone ote ace tgtierpent mobi one of he alain though he cords Mik thetepora bane tne tempormansibular ants igure”. Fhe cease be lower tut whch meet the of the mau ttheAnatomia! Characteristics of Importance in ietication ‘kes hovseshow I sometines is lnown asthe Ronontal ramus ‘ucndingrmus-consting of sight and le thee ae the bo, corals tem ent th ene ‘oranosd processes {Condflcsoval ia form ans joing the temporal Bone though the ‘Comnaid procst—he anton superior projection of the ascending, ramus. &fliened and tnanglar porn of thee ies atachments 1 the temporal sid masseter muscles, Ths proton is separated rom the fondvleby the manila noe pronestand ie pasieor cones conse proce ‘Shmphysisn the midneo ihe bods maybe seen 3 nt ine where the ino origal porate halve ofthe bone arated. The two halves sual Sian pir to it ‘Mena ssmen on the external sustace of the body and ast below the premol tet I oleate appronimately midway Beceem he ape Mandibular foramen—vo fange holes on the medial surface and pyro the ofthe sending tn, The muta "fvagyid poner ubhguely downoeard and forward fem he rranculafotmen and holds the hyhyoud nerve and arte Som ‘an Engle~the angle med hy the mecing ot he tk pote order a he honzontt rasa the iene border af he stending fans. usualy terete but can oecuras 2 Sag oF ered ane inferior border of th boy of the manchble. (OF the fos men any Hom ‘Spurs poesuedacin,begining co 35.00040,000 6 th the appene ‘ls procesr—the superior border athe bod ofthe marcibe that is llowed out int socks Tor the teeth. In ol age thee may Be ‘Bones of Similar Shape where Contusion May Arse The mana because of thet. Remember tha ther are nsineses at feu othe manda otha tre rein the mala The tase of he “ ded inthe maxi while 5 narrow, dense bone atvelr porn expand side entation nog ve ean ened on, egpnt stron andthe de ibe ven always are superior nd he ascending rams posit Fee racy nthe oie aac: sd te marble Te side evens downward snd forward fm the sant frame BONES OF THE EYE ORBIT, PALATE, AND NOSE Ethmoid Bone: Unpaired (Figure 2) pone of late teat, the ethmid helps to form the Aor ofthe anti rial fossa apd nies ino Ie formation of te was ofthe Tie bn nal fesse gue 2). is shoped much ble» capital rae Tah an nerd mde potion. aricolaes withthe fon Enchad, hew nau women, to fears ro masiae, WO MH ‘sal conchae an the Se palstine bore, Anatomie! Characterstes of Importance in Wentifieation pn Sone man arama for passage ofthe olactony reves The alerted nthe cee ofthe anion potion feos nae th highe point ivi ont, ad Hs shon anterior border Ns the oma bone fr he freven cecum re ears exending tee eco ga and tight ape so reel Bote eam he opera petro eed he Bones of Similar Shape where Confusion May Arise Intermation of importance in Wentiteation ws rivet tax and crista palll are very diagnostic.eee ft j 19, characte enue thai ie Boe dpc. nomic! Charectevotes of Impartance in dentition vrenat groovin the anterior portion ofthe bone 2 dep de Lact he mana hs fos te aca groove that Os he sone of Simiar Shape where Confusion May Arse sie dentteation Tecmse ofthe exerts decate naar ofthe cima, one rad has cn ade i bone However the acura groove aay the oppor ed mre desl onthe infer than onthe Super Lieto Palate Bone: Palted (Figure 3) The to alt bones form the poster partotihe hard plate and pat Meer ene oa fuse rigor) Tes are delete, Labaped Fn er a eo. rate wih oth aula, the pheno he oe eer nna conchae, he thor ans counterpart the Tpposte de Lacrimal Bone: Paired (Figure 29) ne ri wal ofthe eye voces rental peron of the mail H asaes wih the eto, ma, frontal, Sd infer sal conch mot mak bone stusted i the entero pat ‘anatomical Characters of Importance in Hentietion vrenzontl parton forms the portesor part ofthe bony potion fhe ook eine nok veatesateory wit he pase proces oftheFigure 39, Chars ete fhe pte bones ruil. The geste altne foramen sated ately a junction with " Rrpenscalar potion —thisnes tha the honzonl potion, this por tion obs the poser later walls he nasal “Greater pine foramen—a lage foramen atthe cge of the hard pols and above the second andor thd oles ‘Bones of Sinlar Shape where Confusion May Arise ‘Sie Wontifeaton “The hore portion she least eagle and most easly recogni KRerember tat ine poster border isa norte edge ‘The poser palatine foramen say lateral omer: Unpared (Figure 31) Semeines calle the ploughstare Bone. th tin fat bone that Fes inthe median plane and forms prt of he lower and poset potions of he nas septum (Fre 8-1 eile th he eth [pheno hao plate bones and the two male Anatomical Characteristics of portance in Woentiestion Superior border—the thicker pat ofthe b sphenoi and expanded lateral io two 5 Bones of Similar Shape where Confusion May Arise pal he er an hase wing of ge xy spend. and Information of importance in dentieation ed superior border is characters and flrs he Rest aes Inferior Nasal Concha: Paired (Figute 32) Alsoknovn asthe tubiate bone, theinferor nasal conchae slende ‘erage, scrlite Done tached by ke upper margin a theaters wal {the nal fous Figure 32). The safenar border ree. The superior snd ridale nash conchae are pats of the ehmolg bone. The inenor nasal och atustes wth the wo ml wo lca epAnstomicel Characteristics of Importance in entiation tough the nose ths uneven texte causes turbulence and nds in sl ‘Bones of Similar Shape where Confusion May Arise The cerebral surface ofthe frontal bone above the eye obi has «| svuh texture ant chen fagmentay may cause confusion. BONES OF THE EAR, Auditory Ossicl: Paired (Figure 33) incus, and stapes (gute 33). ru sst extra of the suo oes and ip anached tothe mpanie membrane (Figure 38). ls dubshaped het eu (Ani) Situated benveen the malleus an the stapes pres igure Me) ii the mate ofthe three os Spee (tinap) ‘This the innermost of he ess ofthe ea (igure 3) Sh somewhat like a Sorup, i atcuaes by ts head with the ies, a fe a Q MISCELLANEOUS Hyoié Bone: Unpsired (Figure 34) leith anterior pat ofthe neh the hyoid does rat ata her bone It supports the tongue snd gives tadiment fo ‘ueraus muscles used in speech, toe WN« eseomtovoer Anatomical Characters of importance la tdentication ody—the cent portion ofthe bone that stated horzonaly ‘sss the ine of the nec ist fletior and posterior to the mandible ‘Greater crs —projs upward and backward foe the sides ofthe body seer horney be present (ond in some individuals ate laginousyand te smal coil processes hat proet upward and sbghty ‘Ewadigom the ante sree of the body ‘Bones of Sinlar Shape where Confusion May Arse “The spesuid because of the reste and lesser wings and the 2ygoma- cand temporal beeaue fhe epgorsati arch. hich to sme resemble the preame burns the postr skeleton the sphenoid 1 confused twit the were eth poster and lateral pectons) Information of importance in Woentiestion 'A few minoles studying ths bone should esti afi compre: sive Koved of Both pts of hae are onder a projet Dckward tind pc rom the Boe MEASUREMENTS OF THE SKULL flowing the publication ef Washbuens (951) Tae New Phat ntrpeog horas been a tendency 1 aiacedt te importance of ‘messaremants in. physicl anvopougy I bebeve that thy was not ‘Weshoum nn rather he wat coutoning agains aking Tong ist of Shihvopometc messurements ust forthe ske of lkingmeasuremens ‘Thesmplemeaturing of every ange protuberance. and bone does nota Ins mogeanaree desepio of shcetn able popaaton. “The researcher mast frst know what typeof information hes seeking Ansheopometey, then, offers only one means fataung the dese dt [Rbwet (9 anal, “Cote for seecton of ojemetse dimension” isreconmended strongly fr anyone planning Wo measure a single Sel ‘bone, orem popltion ‘Anthrgpreine measurements are not outdated but eather ae ech niques lor chaining. prsee dite that then can be evahusted using Urvasate a multeaiate staitalechnigues. These of anthropomee ‘Resaurants in tulvasate analyses cn be ound in Ces (196,170 {Shtby Caer and Ele (192, 1963} and Howols (96% 19896, 1705, 1970. "Ths manual was written for the purpose of taining students and for ss by proteesonal anthopolgits iho need tose the tectigus of tiyadaP seeping to cue dats Yo solve related protien. orm BONG ie elowing ensures provided 10s in tang the SeStUN thee ataments nd chnigers Mesure ken seal or taken fom the wrong anatomic Indus ae 04 Oy {hos bat area wot ue fore reser "Crneagewtes mesruremete se important 9 long as researchers sschtaonpmrsterearpopalos some prof measurement us be 2EL'SKrelege ofthe propeestrrent chases and arto Tlnaks wild ne sescucherebsiing accor rv a or fries vee pe dats may be asd in conjanetan i er techies hs oniroplogy suchss Hod ping demmatopyphic, nd hen EINE mcrosep nays to sd fn or undestanding of man ‘Antvopometry sa echngue for measuring men, bth ving and es ana canbe ied ino Yu EETENES Shmatomety measurement of he body iphatemeryoeasoeren lhe Dead aed fe Ssleamatpesueet of he eeton a is ats lomomety—omenerement of the sul Professions often ave eed ups fo compare not only the bones and ‘rte fests bute tn contours and proportion ot skuls an itigtones Obveratane mist be wasated it bjecvemeswuremens eaPelneoas tenceen mecurements may suggest he period of nes ‘thc the Involve marr ake anthropometric measurements onbunes one mustesn toe proper pstons of he bone and eins or athropanetc ln raves fomtwbich measurements ate made a pane posing though tee ornate eg and et ponon an thee ole The a esa Feet nth plane wher drewings photographs or lusttions are Teitude fs compare or lusatie purposes When the eyes ae fred te sodban esl normaly in ton so hata the pans STedtodtermine tne FH ae nthe horizontal plane Fist proposed at he ‘Eistnense Congress eld tn Murch Germany, in 127 itr 35 SARS he inrastonal Congas of Antropol Farber Germany 86, hence the ram There are no types of onhropomet: pins SS Upaned singe pst ha onthe midsapitlplane on theme ofthe body, Fr etample, theres only one pont at the ap ofthe nse 2, Pavel, To ports tat are equidistant on ether side of the Tsp pane. For emp theresa pont a depot the Tape for there erst be 2 corresponding psn he same avon onthe eet.a euscormazct Measurements ar taken between points enatomil landmarks tu the distance batween avo points canbe given (eg the length of the sll 3 190 min). Indices express the ratio ofthe wih fo the fength ofan bjec-reg the Cea nex expresses heat of he with ofthe sl te ingth ‘Step hundeeds of anthropomerc lnndmarks have been define but it is my intent have to gre only thee mott commonly used [Edndmaris ae ated in many form alphabetl by seton othe body br skull ete, Thave found it very hepa the teen to start the chin nd wotk aound the shall s that he landmarks wl bein sequence ‘The folowing secon on craniomety har been ananged th the probleme ofthe measure in nnd The mesnurments nected Yo caewate Er index are given (numbered) and are lowed immecaey by the index Landmarks ofthe Skull Used for Taking Measurements and Calculating Inaices Figures 35.37 and tales 11 and 12 identity and define standart landmarks on the skull tat ae aed by anthropologist for tong {nthropometne measurement, Most o thee lands vee fo pees points on the surface of the skal shen externl oF item Ineasarements of the skull selected for descpin ia tht amos ae Slandaed messuroments red by anthopoogts and ae hsted tela able 1),Standerd indies Gee om the messurements and deserbed ‘nthe ranulas lated in Table 1 (nthe Cranial Vault gues 2,20) 1. Maxima lng spreading clipes. From lest pisthacanion (Figure 39. Poce ane end’ ofthe spreading capes glass ae Suppor: # with your finger. With the obey end, ove the mest pesterie point othe mine (opthocamion) and rear lengt in fr (Recoed all rani vault mequretnents i ~ 2, Maxum readin (spreading cape) From eyo fo euryon (Figure 58), The maximum with oF Seat fo eteminee instrumentally 2s bot ends ot the spreading caliper ate moved bak and fin on he Sides ofthe skull sbove the supreme seat unt the man ‘din beat. Be cael of uals with warped temporal bones, Sometimes the tempotats have spree Out and with oud 08 taken fom these " 5. Banon- bregma Height (maximum height) (spreading basiono bregma (gute 3), Plce sll on seoatone ve men on on ese mane ‘ivesae G4) (nfadetle superasbeThe upper aver pont the 296 of rs periph dei Fee) NS sth lowe! nh far ar meeurement fos Me ellon (intonation ofthe nasal tte wi the meal le kets }-The mit foward poe nephew ere io do te gh pon Lani (Te inert he spl an amtlnttes i he ls ace ish nS Sun np! he prs ‘option orcne mip poterar marin of he fase or Be he pant ne er srg he een man Enlist fs rhe rarer ee fh ‘asl nd proton dimensions (Notas an gates) Ia apa cto Rete de ph he Supeyaon {s)he porn De mine fhe tack of the tard palate hpi tas) Ure ed ane oe nt oe aes on gh tone pe hee hee aw get wt carve piczo fmThe pant of eect of the ane acinl cst« enecosouncy ABLE 2 Contest Poise Cometic Pits Late 0 he Msg Fane idamclas (nme mow medal pain on he nner sae of Hes tage apo coe mito the sng pp mos foo sed nang he pateease eta ut gan conti of emi gah sponta ang a he mane een Pay ans or kc ees ietsmne noes wih sted ange Orb Ind tngn othe postr tse f te sending frus. Dre ater Soe i ane ogee Ps often tenement medal pnt on hence othe tempor ge "Ta puis on ie Homa Yones fn sone he spomatctorta wt TABLE. ‘osu ail beth © sean ogi age ftcnan Heigh) eor-bes ep vga aE meer eee Ieee Soe voggyzyyuagen, ; & 5S 5 a p 2 5 a F en one ger a é Fas ot he CaaS nde x } Sree inn B t veal ines z ‘end of caliper on bason. Place other end om bregma bregma ‘Sopessed he sutures se much below the exter suace of the SE tke the reading rom the suace ang et in the depression, ‘These three tmeasuremente can be used to calculate five tnd or compansonatstaeand shape ‘Reba Inde (Cl (Ip term Cephae Index refers o messurements So the nvngy 2 sumeneal device for expressing the rao ofthe ‘renath ote sal tte ent in pee). Asal whoveDresth [Sth same asi length would haves Co 100.00 sraniuin rani breath» 100 Cranial Indos » gear cana Feng (Barge, wx 100 _ rN = Ta 7 ie Range: “Beichocrny—X-74 92—narrow of long headed Mesociany75 0-79 99aveage or medi Brachyaany-—80 W649 troa or round hewded perbrachyrany-8300.-very broad hesdedn meusornovoey Range after Martin 198, who gives Broo’ divisions as flo) “apeinerany X91 99 lo sall -Metrorany~52 0037 98—-werage or mem Acrocra 98 0-X- high sh 1, Mean Feight index: Siewart (190) proposed the use of a Mean Height index to replace boi the Lengih-Herg ane Breoith Height ‘al change in the skull Sart included ths measurement in licks © (952) Pate! Ante and suggested the fol nd ange sion-begms height» 100 imeem cana lengih + bre (Bamba 35 « 100 _ 13.0000 vw ~ 7 Mean Height index so Range ater Haditha is 1952 dsions Toueka a etiam 2 $0-9.49 Figh=#9 50 x. Mean Basin: Height Index this is equivalent tothe Mean Height Tres bt hasbeen vena pew name and new Cavett) ase have been sagged talon begat 100 “Mean Baston-Height Index = “Sar Tengi Fb z ‘Sea range (ter Stews 1965363) ‘awe 893 Neciam9.09-45.99 inertia. nan portant arc twa (195 rs atention tothe ft hal he ase of heal ofen damaged or mtg tus eenaes seh vate Za essen that he ving ner td in ode to ae the vacond of Starts nes (tan Pron Meghna iawn manent econ ¢ eight (end spanner) From porn to bregma gare 29) Fe th Swo eros in the exer acon menus ne ht nde pose ad the endothe eaited bar ences he oron-bropin height ere fom the ata Boe ut arcane a |E Moan Prin-Height Inder: compares the height ofthe sll ren oven withthe men of he length plus the breadth. Thi measie Tent can be cbianed when the face and the tase ofthe Shull are Jing and unly the anal Yau resin poron-bragm 109 ‘ansallengin + Bead Mean Prion Height index = Range ter Stee 198368) Tanke Medion «700-7199 Heoor20.X so ote Stewart eles that when more comparative data are avaible, {he ove lene osieron may ha ob ee Artie ccive inden sare halls acording to tna reigns beenpropsed oy Xurmans 91) inant ease Meet cade prch he olowing neosrement necessary to sate The ndev of Panes the Conia Bose "Rison pooun height Coordinate caper). Frm beson to poion {Eure iy Pc he ends of the sing caliper onthe right andporon. Move the cersinat tachment unt is over basen and read Esson-poron height rom the cabated ae een the ip othe ues placed on bsion 6 “Ipdex of Fates ofthe Cranial Bate: acconing to Neumann (982, ‘tania eight nes to compontats,basion-poran and ponon-beg tna beige Fe fecs hat can how sats are mais te real Ui fatening of the canal Sue, ne a short Raion porson distance. besion-ponon ight «10 Taght Indes of Fines ofthe Cra Base = Range (none proposed, but Neumann srg Tw-averge around 13 70(alet. Apache) Figh-average around 18 40(ON sees) ‘nui height ead panne). tom potan tote apex Figure 3) The head spanner has a device for onematon in the Freon Fiorini. Pye tro horizontal pees tito the ex opening (po fon) and when the atchment is placed oe the lll ort, the ‘Snelarheight i ead dry when the casted bre placed the Spex. shouldbe noted that thr measure jrsence ofthe fae toate the oral, Poson beep hee Eels enon and dente pr Minimum font breadth spreading or king clipe) From front temporate to froaatemporae (Figure 39) Ts mesure On the temporal ing and athe ait whee they ae closet togethers the "ininum itance between the tempo eels onthe Fol bone Metiometopc #8 0-69 9.-average or media Eugmetopc 70 IX bread gs Tol faa height (ding caliper) From natn to grthin (Figure 58) With teeth occluded pace xed maf caper a nsion and imovabe end on gration, This ges the height he complet ae 9. Upper acl height (dng cape). From mason fo alveolare (Figure Sa This gives ane height of the face excading the tet and he ‘nadie. is used when the mandibles missing tie 10. Facial width or bzygomatic breadth (Spreading or sing clipe) From 2ygion typo gue 9 the greatest breadth between the Dygumate ahes "Thee tnee measurements can be veed te determine the sizeof the face "Teo maces expres the over sition of Regt o Breadh of 1, Toa acl Index a nemeril expression ofthe ao he height the bend ofthe face including he tet, Tool Facil Index = “Tsgomatic beady Range WBreeurernap a.m se od ce saryproopy 8 {0-84 98—troad ace Mezsprosopy—5 0089.95 average o medium Leptopropy 10.00.94 slender or arto face rupenetoprosopy—8 Ob X—very sender reat face |. Upper Fock Inden gives a nomeral expression of the height fo Toebath ofthe face that dove notineate the mance teeth upper faci igh TBavgomatie Bead Upper Fal index = Range (attr Mains 198 dios THppereuryeny X-H very ide or broad fe Eurperny-#5 0049 9--wide or broad face “every 3000-4 9-average ot medium Ltpreny380b-58 9y—slencer a aro face Tippereyieny#000.X—very ender oe rato face ‘he Nose (Fgur 41) 1 Nal igh dg oe, om agen wun ace nel pln of ape at asin and wel evade point ain he ran ofthe Lowest nts of the ght and ete nasal arte (ssospie)gar Landini for nnn asl Nigh 12. Nasal breath (sting caliper) rom aloe to slave (Figure A). The hratimu bath of he nasal cavity Meosored at igh angle tothe oh _ Nestinges:a numeral method of expressing he ation o Oath Toheight ofthe anterior nasal aperture etn = on ty 370m pt terse eeneet ts Ppa Se oa he The orbits 13, Oba height ding cape), The maximum hugh om the vper tothe lover otal borders perpendialar othe honzonal av fe ‘it and using the mia of the inferior order asa eel pos (Figure 4} Either or Bah obs may be measured but the It onda 1, Oni breath (with) (ting cape). From masitrontle 4 sstocnchion (Figure 42). The masimum dtnce ofthe oe om ‘mowlfrotale to the mile ofthe lees cba boster (ete. oveion). Measurement als ean be fen fom dayon er eal ‘tT prefer smuirotte since ts pest at oe See tones the neil wall of the eye nt are ite Haile, acon an [ermal ten are missing in archaeological specimens. To Teste Imonloonse, extend the medial eage ofthe eve orbit wih 2 pen line unt he ine sss the ontomlary sure LL. Orb Indes expresses the relation of ego besa ria eg 100 va Uadex = SEN 2107 i "Ehamaeconchy X62 98—wide obits Stsocnchy= 9.0 8998-—werage ot medion ypuconhy—9 wx-rnatow eats Te Patate 15 Masiloalcolar length palatal length) (Sing or hinge exper from | Moston oles gure) On ask with proroding eth is ate meteen wh shdig tr Paw our libs caper en prion and he other ona aR we ith etic orkroodenred paced acon the ose ages ol he aveat processes (aveson) fhe vo ies 1s, Rnctocheatr bead (palatal breadth) (ding or hinge clipe. Fomecomolretectomeareicomolae) (igure #3)-The distance Eitdecoane cnet sutaces ofthe aveolr border, oval opposite Sherer oar eh te ate a eae ay Be cing eutward) onthe Dore hey are fo be wowed by Plcng ‘Beles fhe caper nan wafeted arenthe palate Note that this so ofthe few indices in which the smaller er ging an inde o ove 100, viloueotr nex = Butlesrlr bead « 109 ‘Balichurany—X-10999—long or narrow palate Meserany-110 00-114 98—-verge or median Beschyurany “113 0-X boas pte mens onc ” Measurements alt length (sing cape) From orale 19 stphslion (Figure 3) From the median point of 2 line tangent to the poten svete order of the median incisors orale) 10 the median pot oft nsterse ine camnecting the most anterior pine ofthe nhc in the posterior border of the palate Pala breadth (ating capes). From endomoare to endomoare (Diendomolere Figures). The grees wannverse breadth bees the one ims of the alveolar ait opposte the second ili Pratl Index: rurencl vais ofthe internal easement Of the palate alia Inde = mm pall engi Brachosaphyine $5 Wek bros palate licondsar breadth (Fguse #4) (cbding cape) Fom condyin to condo ster). The mocmum distance behotes the ster uae. ‘he condyles Bigonsl edth gure) (sing caliper. From gonion to gorson angles _ 2, Height engi) of ascending venus (igure 40) (sing ignton tothe uppermost pet of 7 ‘Bsectng tne angles formed by prolonged lines dawn on the inlet Sd poser borders 0 he bone and mark locaton. Pe fined the etcalper ontop of he condyes nd bing movate endo goion Minimum bendth of ascending ramus (Fiore 48) chiding Minimum datance between the anterior and posters sx smn Cane hen on ser gh Hugh of mandibular staphysis (gure 44s) siding sips. From fgthion to infadentie (gure $80) Height inthe mine fem incisors linfradentae °ests occu 8 ‘SEX ESTIMATION ‘he sll probably is he second best 229 ofthe skeleton to use for determining sem Eaton of sx bated on the generation that he fru eve robust rugged, an muscle masked than te fer [Absolute dilernces wldom oxxt, and many Iniinedte forme ae found, but distinguishing ensactersics area flows ‘8 Face igure 13) 1 Suprnortia igesae moxe prominent in mals than in females 2 Upper edges ofthe sye ots ae sharp in females, but in males. 5 The alt ingen ules. 4 Teeth are lnger nes. 2B, Manditetrgere #3) the cn more square in males and rounded with 2 point inthe linen females 2 Ter are lager is mas Waal gue.) 1 "The temo shi smalee smother, ana more gre. The female $a cine the cadood charateriscs of onl and pase brsing nto adultos (Keen 1950) 2. Mosce ger, especialy onthe ore Bone, ae arger in males (pacts ees 3, The poster ta ofthe 2ygomatic process extends acest farther inmules ofen mich poste etal aay menus 4 Man poceaes re agen males 2 Frontal smases ar legen males Fhe sent shouldbe fmaar wth the flowing ais that have continued to ates the question ot estimation of sex using charcierse features of the stl (Angel 1982, Holand 986; are Meindl 1985), {Gispecal intrest Hand's arse (182), which documents his attempts fo tee mecsrement of the bse of the cum fo determine sexe Sacred high degre of sucess with the formulae developed, and t {Sear thr more work ol appeoria the neo areG i cost! | / J hand snd the fal sea up. Pace a pn arose te nos ries on canner et Iacial skeleton and have followed two major approaches: (3) morphological Morphologieal and Anatomical Variations Much has bem wren on acl ifferences and the ear should be wana the probes pial an tone of ating ace othe sll ice Kroginan 192, Stewart 1979). The flowing marphologeal ais genet in nauce and usualy ate realy apparent ‘hel oberation ot the flowing erm osteaons- fromal and latent views of 2 Caucus (wht) skal (gure 6 ‘Negros blac stl figure ie.) and 4 Mongolod(Amenan inca Tatra shu gacete wilod in deeoping technoqes for estima tng rac ein. Cetin anata features se common each ree CCaveasold (Figure 48a, b) Nasal si Carefully bserve the tase of the nasal aperture. With your paral or ballpoint pen etng agaist te boe of he manila ast below Theresa opening! tr fo un the pene or por gently foto the nas Seing,n Caucreci thee easly» dam fas) hat wil slop the fos or penal n Negros! sul there fo dom ono nd te pen Eye a apere, Mongo sw age Reveating agora Ha the shl withthe octal gion your ty to inert yur inde inger Boner the cheek ergomate) bones hd ‘Re pena Cause havea face that comes ea pot lan he mine {nd heek boner that do ot extend forward. Tis il alle yout ser oa Ege nes heheh nes nthe pec shu ick Pence! Mongolode have seni fate ae (the cheekbones extending ‘wh une erway aod tdi to inert your ger betwen Ne Fell and the cheek Gones on 8 Mangold shal without bnocking the Pen o | | | |Mongotis egeoaape nie [UU lenthan onthe Cucnod safes gues SE Lite o no prognathism: Pace one end of your pene on oF ned he enter aus spine fon he edie ofthe sll) lhe bse of the nasal Spee Lower the pon toward the ce otha th pene wil touch the cen Cacagtts have "fa orthognathou) fein the de Song tne mide. Ths is the oppo of he Negrod face, which exis Prottusinef the mouth eegio, hows av propnathism ‘Other Cauesoid anatomical mas ncede Tong now acd Narfow nat opening Deprested mac ot at nsion) Narrow high bridge rose ee Negrola (Figure 46c, 4) tutering: The shape ofthe base ofthe nose Ras puter ane Tropa Negros are need for also prognathssm. of an anteror prenin, ofthe mouth region. A penal x Ellon pen placed ‘iin end onthe rasa spine (nme a bose of sal peta) wl mot Touch he cin he tet ptr too far forward) ‘ther Negeid anata! waits induce [ie or na nacl depression (2! mason) Beegmatc depression ‘ide al opening ete Mongoloid (Including American Indian) (Figure 46e, 1) ‘hiss cause pry y ie fot thatthe cheek Bone protades forward a mr Crucell seals Hol he skull rth the ocapta repon in your hand tnd ine ar area up, Paces pol or pen sros the nasal operture. Now iy to stocn your index hinges sehwesh the pene and the chert bone. Shee the chek tones proode im Mangolads you probaly wil not be She o get pour finger benveen the cheek tones ond pena without Sockng the penct ft : sehedge ite When yor cade the mandi an man in most ‘american ino sl the lncer tet wl aedade ee to eg intend el peesentng an avebite se usualy found in Caucnside or Negros If Sou find» mandate or mila with ocloal wear om the ines teh, YOu {in be fan eras that tis nda is Amercan Indian "amen ns fen Rad grt or isn he fod, causing wet fotheenamel of he tsth, Wah am edgetoedge tien the ine ein, the ‘Sl outaces af the incisor tthe re wor. ‘Keepin mind that incor teth have single rots. When the tissu cays inca tethean fal oat of her ancets ute easy Aller aSkall 5 found, check uneneiately for any receiymising eth. Reo socks ‘sithshar,welldefined edges ter reable eso ney missing teth Shove shaped incisors (se Chapter 4) In many Mongols the lung tongs) surace of te maul sncaor et especialy he cena ‘nc wil haven enamel exenion onthe ego, procuing Tooth {har gahovel shaped In seme caves the centralise abo maybe roe stity twat the mine ‘Addonal Mongolod anatomial tats nce Inferior sypomtie projection. The ygomaic bones dip below the lower edge of he al Nasal overgrowth. The ras bones project forward beyond ther function wth the ronal portion a the mail Anthropometric Measurements (One of the eater cicrminant fanctons used to ances ofa kul s that reputed by Gls and Et (90) lit dcrunant function along witha worksheet devised by Gls 1s reprodaced In Figute 47 The Gales and Eliot methad hen appli to [Aiea Inia samples, hasbeen ried by Bey (1546) and Ci sn Hughes (979). Faced with problems in Seterminng rac ongine tom Sela remains inthe nerthseste Crest Pin il (988) and Shere the University of Wyoming have deveoped sn anthropomete retod using tee nde hat ese ns niney percent ont ces ‘Son: Gil generously has provided decions for wing ths technique Which & reproduced tn te organ worshet forma (ure 5. Note thatasanometer required (gure 9), Figures Wand SOshow the inc hd landmarks wed for thi toca “The Giles2 ruvoeotncr ‘ | Bernas. J ae yy? eet tree eee as Seaman ; Seer Seeemtleetee oe i) nf dere aipha, 3 re rece ome See ‘Shear on he = echo cen ‘Sei taal Senor oe ot Sete spo SES pone mee Gree {HBO Dron formas aay on Habe 80 3 POSTCRANIAL SKELETON “The postcanial skeet neades al the bones bow the shll. Since ‘here ae 2 ie Huo count with Be Sal ones he sal hee Shen bo 9 henson the psc sheet acount or he usa 296 ines the all human heen, Nost of thee are pated Wes ‘ones having beth night an Fetes) "Fhe fllosing general (Tae T9) may’ help the student to beter cundertand the dretion of Bones i the postal skeleton. BONES OF THE VERTESRAL COLUMN General identification and Development ‘The vertebral slum usually composed of 3 segments Figur Sl Sometimes ove mow ot fess ay be hund. The upper 24 kere {fovso and Taman segiene ave sepute and ate oe oe movable trcese Of those, 12 arualace wih ie and 12'do not The fest 3 {cra nerebat saps decene size adi aly. ae fas 10 & (Sorta Ronee scroms mhikh ong wih the 2 arias, co funcine pei The net iy ov satimes 3 ave the cocnged oF bil [etebine (com, from ee total, the mamber and names of the etre ae a allows pe Region x centat ech 7 Shovece chest a Limon ewer book 5 Sica) pov 5 Coeeges) va 3 suaaut Bones (ssa os vereba aes plac i catlage rom 3 primar enters appearing fsum 230 mesks ntauenne and 3 secondo cevies ‘ating stout puters “ain each cal serebr oof thee Hoy parts-—the cent and she ra navel the ach gue 52), ion oymsteos) a he So ies el the atch takes place posteseely during the fis dtd Sear oo6 mevasonseact ‘The Bune ofeach regan have character Festus thal ae pte to tha segment of the spinal column, tut every Bone i the clam =| ‘er or more dingushng teu os ou. ‘Most evebae ste compose of four pure (igure 5 1 Body “weightbenang porn (excep forthe est erica] cere tsich has no bos 2. Veneta atch pare ha protect the ail cond 3. Spanos pose and ight andl transverse processes for atch iment of moses 4 Tour arctan processes: to superior (bore) a 60 lar (below) for etc ith verre above and Blo Io theft a vvtebue the sae the dy nesses ro hea 1 i tw support the incresses eight. Wher cle on to fassemele the Netcbre ofa uated column, gs ist conieeatin to terete Imvssvenee ot the odes an ater regard acl faces an inc ‘lartcularproseses,Abowe the sacrum al the bod eg supported (nthe seis calumny, Below the pcs, weghtse supported un He felurns theless Viritions co scurin te mumber of vertebrae, Wheres the eure of ‘eal vere jt onstant a seven: aon vetbroe am eo {bth the thovace aad Tamar regions Lest common i 2 ming ‘etn inthe ter regions Figure 5, Charset etre of am ad eee Cervical Vertebrae: 7 Unpaited, regular Bones (Figure 5) ‘es trough the eesial vertebrae tat the sl aticuats withthe poston shteon, and hese vertebrse posses «high degre of lex Sher ane the sullest ofthe mossbleserestrae. Maral, ith fe ‘nevptons ave seven ype Region x atte ek ; “anatomical Characteristics f Importance in ldentiteaton ‘Al have transverse foramina. A tansverst foramen is found nly ix cena vertebrae ‘Cena vercbae ae srl nize when compared with the thera and uma verte but insu In sie fom umber though “The ena (ont portion of the articular surtace of the od of rupters Sand the upper borders afeower he emer thao he Se Bones of Siler Shape where Confusion May Arse ‘Thorac aed posty lumbar veterae. There are lrger and 20 not ‘nave wanserse forein Cnvcat vertebra of Special Interest ‘Spite el te ere iat a odo ea mae one an nospinus pecan, es nee orgering upon which the hl st Str theo or qpatpess ‘The secon sribra To ened cay because of the dens epi str tat forma put on his the als caring the hed. ras Thelen, sometimes Locum asthe odonend process he sisplaced bo Tse ian es am aruclat facet an ts etal ont) suroce for Sain woh the a Ne Sjansonsl verebra situated at the junction of the cercal and ‘hore egone the pesos characte of BoM Fess Tae the age! Bod ane cer verebeh I hac fat or staight inten eto) edge ofthe Rasmo eas s.00) ‘Anatomical Characteristic of Importance In Ientieation AIL have costal pits onthe ses of the Boies ard on sms ofthe transverse proven fornication sth thes. Most orc rere Ive cosa ps atthe Boner one Malet the superar ume at the nso onde apace thatsach competes th the aiacent eres Ss or the ead of a ‘None ofthe horace vertebrae has ransverse foramin ‘Bones of Similar Shape where Contusion May Ari “Lube verse, Catefuly check for artcla pts (acts) that cur only onthe od te tharacesesebae ani forte angle of he atic process ohh orm sharp angle sn iubae vertebra ut ce parallel Tora venebae igure 37 Luunan verreana ToRace veRTeERA ute waco peal rte obra nt nee = ° Figure 7. Characters irene beter aa) a thong vena ‘horace Vrtebras of Special intrest unter 1 “his ha lean half coal pe ues? rong ‘i ave hal pts on she superior and iteioe bois wnt 10 “aise hole pts othe bods ant onthe transverse proces. unter I “This has a whole pom the body but sone a the anaerse process. Naber 2 This resembles Nurber 11, encept that the inferior acl sacs se not parallel and assume the lamar pte ‘Lumbar Verterae: § Unpaired, regular Bones (Figure 58) The lumbar vertebrae ae the largest of the presicialverebae and suppor the weight ofthe kod above the pels ype Region s Lamar lowe Bk 3 “Anatomical Characteristics of Importence in isentiation Xo transverse foramina Se comps or arto he ibs Uniget ofthe mol vera ansvere spines cnt ard Spins cess ae arate more iz hn in race “The superior and inferior articular act re Ushaped (igre 7a for fetes spoon anda cleroe rm th praesent Svea and thor vetebae gure SO) ‘ones of Similar Shape where Cantusion May Avie Thoracic vertebrae: Note that there are no aril facts onthe by for nbs and the angles ofthe atcuarprocesee ae diferent Irom the mow vertebrae (rue $7), S2erum: 5 Unpate, regular Sones (Figure 58) ocayn « Unparesigulr Bones (rgur 3) subseut Bones “The sacrom esis rom 38 cents, with ech fhe Selous having the tpl Tereba's 3 primar centers plus Dior he ess) tle (Figne sf). Segments Land haven sa ents. The etl ‘tenets begin to fe wth ach other about per Epinboteal ings for baues appear around pubes: wth the vngs and Sut ing a bio ane opr en the 12 ear age ein Me the corey ten fuses wh he sacar<<) Ht (a IF oomianings Cea ‘duit Bones The scrum usu single wangaaesh five sepsete bones that utente 3 food. Tiss lng, curved, wedge bone that forms the base of the veal column and firmly et withthe seo hp bones a he sae jt The sacrum apis dccase inn smn the iat verte wich agen tothe th (shh rudiment) “he sdes of the upper thie vertebrae of the sacrum form a arse setae th eae pron oe The the blr surfaces he suum srtlotes with he ith mbar vert ‘uperarivat the promontory, ith hese pot the aromnate SP) I Toramina transmit nerves, arteries, Cocergesl ait bs ones of Similar Shape where Confusion hay Arse When ims fragmentary it pose to coniuse th the Measurements ofthe Sacrum (Figure 613) |. faximur anriorheght sing caliper. Measurement then fom the seal promontos tothe middle oe anterinenor torr of he nl fit). For comparative purposes we fl aera with five segments A) Ss ng cape). Measures the greatest, lace beet the wings teal aes) fe is acta ere ‘Reaman me) hoa:108 savono.os Sex Estimation (Figure 618) “he tera generally more curved in mses a Hater i temas. Insome cates the wh ofthe bo ofthe acre te ala eaten sales Anderson (1969 12) has noted hat ems the ih of he Gt ‘owt bode tamer area) i eyustin ith to each revs 10% 1 te umber af segments in the tru, four oi ate numbers on Figure bla) Nove sss sucaiaed (pai sed) fh um or 9 fist ‘Sloat venelva tots pany ve umtantes). older sees noe ie ipping ‘Stexnum: Unpsired, Flat Bone (Figure 62) “The sternum oF brett foae, i 4 lat plate of hoe sites inthe ental (ion wall the har is sa oo rod sar ts ihe nenve.on the dom fac) suslace, and has thee poe Munsinrnhendle {pus serine or Bade ipho proces In goung indus tis comnposed of segments Tinegemains parte an forms the manbrum nae sth fe ta form the Pe ftheteaine septate a forms the np. Anatomical Characteristics of Importance in ldentitication ‘Manubrun—Me broadest and thchest port ofthe bone. The sup steal or upularnteh es can he ois the main at he speron ee the sternum, "Bedi longer nar, an Minne than the manu. Te ines of non of he ar pes making up hab can te een nthe aa Bone ‘inhetd prcceo—thin ad the let Geelopes ofthe parts of the “seenum iis catlaginous nears He perl esaiied ada, and 8 Ob Spe tends to become void nui an sed 9h the bode ones of Simla Shape where Confusion Mey Arise ‘Asaiions! Observations ‘kcasonally nthe caps sion here il be 8 fermen Figure 6 ‘eral fonemina se sng ssl al to o2cua in shape, and range Gismetr rm 3to 18mm. McCormick 19812132 fund the foramina fe presentin 77 0434 cadavers He ats Inat “such foramina were ever found nuns Younger han 30 vars of age bel occured atl Incr apes tothe estromescf ie fldest-88 vers ard were stout bc 9 Cinmonimimen ati women, occuring ne and 4 respectivelySten ForemenTis # o! (G90) ave developed a formula hat uses shee sternal rmeasunments tn determine se Tenge of the manu, Inge ofthe ‘heme, sd ath fhe aernebra (gure ‘Band on ransuvements ken on 400 North Amen Ina sera (ot ante, S8 females) Heo V080217)soncladed tat ihe combed engine the antrum and mesonteram was more thats HO the ‘Seno was male anf ens han 131 mm as female. ‘Sten ard McCormick (1983 measured the steal length on chest Plate Keays of 61? autopsied acu Amescans to assess the aly to Franti ana meseternal legis were measured indi Uy andthe sum of tei Ings obnined sn each case The noted hat "The meine manutiio-mesoseral lenght were ore ea docu mentale when signtiant pid fasion was ot presen (Setar ane MeComich 1985217) SEM Septet anman B= length ofthe mente. 5 = wih ot the rani, ad) = wh fhe ster rom 1500 In eis ample no male messucement ell elo 121m. and no females were toon 123 mn, The range of 137m is the rnin ren (veriphetwec female and sae and gave prec sales thal na De Ther thansbt acute Tht maneemens forthe feng othe ern I men and women ae given is Table Te ‘Showa and SeCorck (96320) rte that he angen sera eng is gremrin cocovers tom the United Sate than among ose reported frm nar ind a her spect hat thor data age me veer the f the United Sates populauon wins large mliac mantre he Strum in Alt Males and Feralas” See eS a 3 3 ‘Scapula: Palted, Flat Bones (Figure 65) Subadut Bones ‘Ossian of he sap acu rom primary centers (the Bod ofthe sepa on the corso) an sven secondary enters gure) “The econ ses wth th cal tepnoing att he enh ese songs ine hat inlades the upper pat othe glee ev and ual ‘pleted by the eghtersh sear “Foe scapula vuole presents sh epi ses se lon teres ot union “ior the sleqoid cavity Vor the seo 1b the md era Bode “There appeats to be goal arity sn the age of union of the cepipyes clube scapula ee section om age esimation Belowua esas tench ( oe : [ sntry von Figwe 8. Chores etre of the sap et ne dept, roster ns “The acapala it alge, fat bone thet tegulr in shape i uated jn tne dora ack) side of he thera between the vel he secon ‘Secenth be Eom the hone there are to projecting processes) the orscod process for muncle tachment) ond (2) the spine, sehich terminate neal inthe aromion (atcaates wth the ea) The ‘tnt the scapula provide stachment for usces ad et the seeet of the shoulder ort where acts wth The grestec porto he opal const of thin rane nan a the Bods, fom hich the coro een spine postr “ne mel ov verbal horde i the longest he tree Eades and can present conve, staght, oF concave pate (patos in the Inde one third secon). The alley borders the ces and enters {fom the fewer margin of the lena cavity t the nferirangle a he tone. The sypenor Sorder ithe shertest of the thee bowers andnates nial at he scapula note. The seapue neh shows great Sanity may amon be absent mas presenta notch that ther ‘Slow, madi or dep. o¢ mat be a complete foramen, Antomical Characteristics of Importance intention os—soncave when vswd from the anterior of ot side (antenie ste oe teste onthe onal alae). ‘Corson procese—snterr poeton Spine-aing inte scromon or postnr proaction Choad caity—atcustor forthe eat of tne Romer ‘Bones of Simiar Shape where Confusion May Arise ip bones nominates, oth a fat bones. but the rest of the anatomy emt sina The body ofthe seaplane than the Mp Tones and ually presents thaner and shazper Borders On sme cases the tragmentaryaeapelemsy be conosee with the ft Sones of he {Sani shuld be remembered thet cranial bees have er Aad ote able of hard. compact Bone at» splot of lowe Haaue enren those. Dip foot found ir most ok the seaplane sure be ‘curs nt apa Side ldentication Hold spine toward you, concave sie ana: Boh the oracidan the aroma prostsie, which shoul be supence fon tp) pont othe ae the Bone om ‘Phe "With spine toward you ang the raid super, the vertebral toe says ward the in (ong the hors verbs ad therefore {pposit the ae the scapula comes from Fr examen edits postin i the etebral rer ison the ight ideo the bane he Boe Is From the ede of te by and vic er, “The scapula man, a oa essex i some of the primates, i expanded anteroposterior fr in exes ofthat of st lhe mamas $e neaspinous proces the main ps tht has lengthen nan Measurements ofthe Scapule (Figure 61) 1. Maximuen length ott height) (eng caliper or oeteometri Bose). ‘The moximurystaigheline disace (A-B) liom the superior to the {nlenr border gue Landa for capa messrene Staxinum beedth (ding calpee!_ From the mide of the dose ORE a Senta saith endo the spinal aso he ese onder (C-D1 oo poethewtatiecn : TRtch rape ihding clipe). rom the en of he spin ans on he Lemma ede nme paints above tothe most dl po on Ie Eom press DE sree heen 4 Tost Sopssanens in (ing lp) From se endothe sia [aekin‘the tetera onder ame potas aove) tte fap of the Shien angle i5-D)5. Length of infaspinous ine sing clipe). fom thee the spi sus. the verter Borer fo te tip ot the postenor angle (0-8 Seapuaringes = MNnum bod «109 emainon eR Additonal Observations ‘Th orn ofthe vertebral eds maybe conven, ight, concave. oF snscombnation of these Figure 69, d\ 3)\ 3 ~\ \) 4 ~~ N \ Bg 68 anton seaplarwtba onder The rae mension oe pf mst armas hoe. ‘)isin the same dacton asthe spine the Best 3 gh angie tis igure 69) ™ mers “ne shape of the neh formed br the supenor bode ofthe sap anne oraot process mas We absent, salons, msm, ee or aD Soran gue a Cf \f “In gue. Varaton inthe scapula of Hom) spe and most ther mame (Sie TR IR I Age Estimation Crifation ofthe sapola and the appeoranes and union of the pipsee are ven in Figure Table 17 (ler Severson 1245, and ‘lhe nee recent source) sunimarzes the ages signed 0 Union af the pipes Vibe lle age range, Graves (192227) has noted the appearance of strope spots" Atop spots ate defined as Tocaaed discrete, ot fuletng sess of bane steps (Graves 190227). It shuld be notes, SSowever the not il Hsien sess the body of the saps are hophic spots, no mater sch her degree of tance Thee also Ihultea nized sheranonin te sascolont and stucture of thetone “Svophic spate sary in ie fom 3mm to 10 mm oe more, ae dere ang ehforinegalr pins in ther en stages Later thes become 0 rear and onset neve te gener porton ot he Hain some “Sale bones ln such bones the God Gesomes very fin, and va dees “Shing nse om 2 to 3 mim may cecur inthe etme thin portions (Gre mst detente between ue delet nd "peeudo-delcts” (which ‘Sena ound in scapulae flowing Body rare) Trae and pseudo. “fetes “oe iene fom sophie spots by the Iger ethiherEy owas onoioer ‘A ssgne by Varinus Autos for Union of Eps” Autocity comelt__Aeomion “Sale Drona mas Toe 3a wes Honan Ie Erne 18 = e Fence = we Semintwae piv pel ‘go tee ws s OS ‘margins and tthe absence of erations in vasculay and bone sue fre (Graves 8222) ‘Graves tho found that atrophic spots ether yee absent, small, or intrequent in sexpase fom ines under 4 ear ape. where ‘eapulae tom indivisuls over 45 years of age Usay Showed thew Mt fremer amber size and dope Sex Estimation Kroginan (19622056) has summarized the data on sex estimation based'on the rapla, an his two bles ave reproduced bere (bes 16, », Dwight syste at tm mens of he cpl a el indicators of sex the mansmum length between the aupense and inferior, {nals gure 6) andthe length othe pena avy (rgure 7, Table 2) Steve (97) checked Deights messuemenis using des and 4 Females tom the fry Callen and fund the ater mesure as vane 1remeron to 1m Seaplar Dimension and nds Rage of ation” ee ee ‘Leng Females Males: Sine sig, tthe tag Res se is ‘oa ipo estas Kapa a =a) =H wie God coy =m >y Ng Tua’ Na Naas Fresuemaspeneae sen ease ge not well defined. Stewart (197998) transits Valo (190) direction or sin x a ne leno caity length ae flows ee he aor pt ey End aie Me ar magn we s ihe lm eon pce oh apg cere ane Me BRP fos To take this messurernent use a sliding caliper and place the stable end the sharp intenor Soe (A) andthe moves eon the eae ese bons we inte the llocr proeton (igs 5) oa a0 nhe scapula it funchins a # sat or prop to the shoulder. Urb Holding tbe sspula and woper lim tel, bahar, and eights ard Rls tht use their freibs mele for suppor oF Scorn chars ones aninale that use thee forbs for fying. citing, rwping, or burrowing ee, prmates, rodents bas) hae dass Telos of the Covel seule in “lenginering’ of the nb in 3 fantonal see, ts inated of singing fom the lem the forlene Soong om the suscularnachment between the scapula and thos wchSvoeation reve in longer side (ground dance depos ones of Similar Shape where Cantusion May Arce scapula The sro ress othe scapula has no conoid tube ker, or dil, end is atten cndand always postenor The cold ter alvaysinenoe (ow 1 igh clvies with 1. Maximum length osrometnc ote dig clipes). One end af the ine placed again he stationary endo the bse aod the movable nul ofthe boards trough nto conta! mith te opponte en of the vile The oved rom sie side ané Up an daw ut the maar enh i obtained (A-8) (gure 750, 2 Gemicece ti ofan al pi of ap apo. 3. Chsculahumeral Indes useful as a nde ofthe selauve develop trent of the tora om sare ae as ca) buns (ccumference tenth) index = Seemdteet <1 sh Age Estimation ‘soding io Mek and Sten theca ph 8 begins to nite n the seventeenth or eighteenth sete They eu unallchedepiphyses slate asthe twenty-enond year, Gut no ses ol eomplete union were found Relore age 23 in summary they saleus sasomccooy {Enon gis at he pointe cen fe ce an rae the vine sbaeutnal debs ag the eps opie Teun ker a Sear 0591-8). Recent research by Song ca 985) on timing ofthe epiphyes uion| ‘ofthe sl hve whe ele has loud each reer vation 9 the tine of union than previous thought They found fusion a ath 3s So Sand unused meal eppyses a te a6 age 32 In a sample ating ofthe chest Roa oF 11 Females. Sochey and’ some of her student and colbagues have analyzed ‘epiliysel union ot the medal ale io lege same (9 males and SSVeemates) of modern Amencans, ape 1 1040 (Owings 195: Suche 21 19EL Webb and Shey 1985}. Their sample inlades Aronian whites ‘Amerian lah Latiy Americans, and Oneal. Ths he fest seltal investigation using 3 tre tarple uf ndiiduais of koawn agence the TBS McKevn sid Stewart td aa nae ices ferment the ise, which as not dane by eKem and Stewart. Theda suppbed ty Suchey Gates 21,2 vary sight or those epated by Sache (Ost) and pclae nfrmation on bh the night ad et casi ‘Owings 1981) and Web and Suchey {1985 sogest the flowing iene les for selta age deleresnaon sing eppmvscl union othe ‘etal lavage able 2). ‘Sex Estimation “The accuracy of estimating an nds ws based on measurements lof he clavicle Ras met th sarin degres of Sucess Thieme (1957 ves cai len ss one fs sees of eight measure imenisto estimate on te Rego skeleton. Although his singe measte= trent isnot to accurate er stating sex Thieme reps the falonng {da for a American Negro sample (Table 23). Tweand Singh (968) ose dats on AUR Cte ro nd o pred sear and they rept the flowing (Where no sch single chaser which can determing the sof 3 epee rene Sede net Benth Bren eis can died yt erin cv eat ana perce et ses iemate Unoien, weight Soe not help in more thane crt i ceo Age Disibution of the Sige Uan for ilps ote Medal Clee es* a Coo Boe ns 8 Tal_50. ‘out Saray oe ‘Soe toe ‘Sonam sh ph 2 cannon aha ep ra fore Sean Sep pees g peta 1As Ditnaton fhe Sopa on fae Epipiyse othe Mil ase ae 8 peat te Newanion wth oreiiand _ Soe Bop om ‘alter Owings (98T5 9nd WH od Sache C85) ~ Ribs: 12 Paired, Flat Bones (Figure 76) Subacult Bones Around the eighth week ona a center near he ange of ach re fe thers begin tsa rom sfeation progresses pil and brm seruwostowoey nias Fig 7%, Chaarerit tes fhe the end ofthe forth month teaches astra the costal calage (igure 7 ‘Sesondary centers forthe head and the atcuar pat of the tubercle appens about putety and fase bebeen the ages 1b and 2 MeKeen on ‘Stevan (1957 dy ste that “onseston begins Ha the Upper and ower g ® Figue 7. season of» ypc sis and slowly progresses tear the midala. Thos, the lst sibs 10 ‘come fully unaea are nib 109 Adult Bones ‘The ribe—12 on cach side—consitule 2 serie of pied. seo faitned bones tat posenony arate wilh the vertebral rm The Upper pars decir wate with the sides al the sternum tO (Gage End ie termed ver, The ersining 5 pie tected os tae nis and are of 2 hinds. 1 "Tn ephh, nth, ond tent ibs have catage that wena the ffonp connect withthe earlage of the rib bose 2. The venta enrmesae fread ze ped wath earlage onthe lesen a ttn nbs. “re be ate dase 3 follows Rib number Common Name Anatomica rst? nbe ‘me verebrosters) fh than 10h be Srtebmebondeal ibang (| Note that the ibs increase in length fom the st rough the seventh sip tnddevrene om Ihe eghuh tough the toh Tne seventh of ‘Byard asthe post type and presents (2) a vertebral extremity that ‘pehides ahead, 2 ache ands Iuberde 2) a shall oF Body and G) “Tre stanal (etena or op sure ofa bs conven and usual ith sone. The caudal ner toto) srtace concave and cenains thesosal groove on the lower edge. The cans ee ofthe nb Ban, ‘heeas the auc edge sharp vith the costal grove onthe sie. “Ie ist ste aden, most curved, 3nd wealth notes fall the ngs The head ususy nas ony oe aula feet. The second | [onze han te st, stongl curved Bt lke mare ike the bs lw foating ‘vertebralBones of Simla Shape where Confusion ay Ase les dca tel the exact number of he ab without a comparative ‘Side tdnttestion The hea always dorsal toward the buck an the aber abs sun (dowe) This enough to otent then butational oboe sons nore the sbve foe roperosentation are thatthe ik eo he ‘ould be up (eaniahs an the costal groove and the sharp ier {Cauda edge should be down fol he ides ofthe fib, ey the vb on table the hen wl pint owe (rest. the tbe when te ib oneted 3 i nthe body eS thehead down, the groove forthe subclavian vein wil Be on fp. gn Estimation The minerazton ofthe cost arta of bs a an ndcator has teen reported by Cormick (1960), ho pubabed «Pant {ding te mineakoation of costal eartage on roy of ces ples om Bieonewsbie) to 4 (very severe) ‘MeConmi’srescach indicates that clciation ofthe costal catage ommon below the age of 2 and appears develop some Slsely in emales He nots tht “Mineaantin sos ssa fs de fein the ai seventh, and eighth alge adc the str rdrs At fess 3 "ace of mineilaatin ws evident within the coal ge of 25 years (SComich [980535 carlages ina lanion (to t+) was usd ater age ee. tat "mld to ade 5S) miseralzation wan rogue encountered i cagscers ser he ape 50, even to advanced age Ge es) Studies y isan ta (984, 1984) and Stew net MeCocmick (1988) have focused atenson on the age and sex ousiestion pater othe sternal en of thers acne 198010996) have elas pce analy” Fas on 8 autopsied white males dtectobse of the soral end of the night fourth nb. and the sate that The “stabi of pecans inf phases es besa on changes ted inthe eta, ad overall gusty ofthe sternal ni The del there phases died Ic a [SBA0pates 13) are diluted in gues 730, shed »Isa (985) alo Rave reported on age estintion trom the nib by phase anlsifor mite mses Inermaton on the ine pases wel {she aseaons shown in figures 1-83 have been provide by 8. Lath. McCormick and Stewart (1983) examined the chest Kays of 7 autopsied males tnd 258 fran 29 yess age olde sd fund 95x agp that ypcal mal pattems exh pepherl ub tmagal linear ossieon (eague 8).fy term eit 8 {ent oofsubpertcnda ands of oniextion. These ae composed titer of multiple relatively age often coalescing oac nodules (igure 15) fe, regular pakered outation often sng submacggally = ‘se tongues from the comtachondl uncon (MeCoxmich and Stewart 18 Ina ter report Stewart and McComick (198) decss two pate o pe esination would appt om of female sex and song inate egies of precson, xcendng any tecniqur Sphere or globultFigure. Deeopents sgesl he hrersat eth andat 0, an 8 yes rosea erro 15 ‘Subsdat Bones ‘The hurers oss rom one primary center (he shalt, o physi) andseven secondary centers teen ine pron oF Read end aed fut {nthe cnt end (Figure St). The thee eiphye Chalesce abo the zath year ad fue sh eo “ D 1 he proximal end 0 —B gue, Osication centers of the hues ar Loch 198418 ‘uit Bones ‘The hurr isthe largest and longest tone inthe em fe arhclates proximal” wih the sap tthe sboule) and distally wah the eas nd ulna atthe elton). The humerus 6 eided into 1) a shat (2) Presimal extents witha head. anode. and to Wberles grater and ‘Eisen, and) distal extemty with peo epconsbes resi sd tera) > Saris races for the asi (espa) ona the ln (ec) “the ntrtabecsar grove extends dwn the sera side of he one and lodges the long tendon of the beeps The naent foramen. oF otsent coal ested onthe medal sue of the bone amin cener fnethird. Note that ths foramen, tough which the natent ser nters the bone, src toward he distal endo he bare (gue 83M6 sas ontexcct The ciao fh mut amen he ng one impaan i {he ideniation of hat ragments you st in suating postion a ‘ex you ame so that your fst are rex to Your shoulder, the nurent foramina enter the log bones of the upper and lower exes in = ‘deccon away fon the sal ‘Bones of Similar Shape where Contsion May rise Sie lenticaion ‘When eld in anatomical potion (Figure #9) with the head toward youn rer suc dhe bad snp si ii) d= pote the side the Sone comes from. The meal eicone the ame “Feimebereaae grooves anteron om th tral et the bone, nds Con the sume sie te bone i rom The capil an lateral epcondyle en uth ends of the bone as missing and You ae et thon the sft, locate the nutent foramen and etermine #lncnaton (aways foward the distal end). Holding the asta end of te fragment tur te ‘Shavers tha he maten foramen so the side of the Dane oppose {am you The radia groove wil be Inclined wen the bone towed the "de the bone comes Hom (Figure 85). © &, © By Figure, Side Mefeaton of he Rameau: den of he ran {ohne he comptes rena che haphys ei bae epee) Measurements of the Humerus (igure 90) 1. Maximum length (osteometric ber). Place the hes agains the fet arta of the board and ada the movable upg tothe dtl end Raise the bone slightly and moveitup and dow at wells thom ae 0 Side und the mmr engin sbtaned (8h 2 Masimum diameter midst (siding caliper) Lacte the midpoint of ‘he shaft onthe esteomeic Bout and mark the bone with peel “Measure the maxim diameter wil bein at sntromedildgeton ON Figure 90. Landmors for estroge hues7 eauworntoey 3. Minimum dims muha ing clipes). Tae at aright angle to the previous measuements (5, isthe manu camer oF he 4 Stlmum dimer ofthe head (ling cape Taken fom point on the ede othe arculrsurtace othe bone cross othe opposte side “The bone ated ui the manana distance obtained {-D) This Ineasuemest suid asa indicator of these ofthe indie 5, Peet cicumirence ofthe shaft graduated steel ape), Measurement taken at about the second one-third (2), stl othe dtd tuberosity Itusualy te osted about «centimeter ital othe suet foramen Robustelty Index express the rite aie ofthe shat least rumlerenceof shaft 100 Robusticty Index = “Samar length of Pures 2. Raishumer! Index expresses he relative length of he freer tthe upper atm asim length of rads = 100 adohameral de, are eng of Hue ‘Aesiona! Ossratons ‘Atheist end of many humert jst above the rochiea here may bea foramen entering oraugh int the olecranon fossa thas eee 10353 ‘pt apertre (irda 1952). These sepalapetores, can reseie + Popoint be smal median, or lange, oe ma Be asent llogether Figure Jin Piano hat hey occur Tomales more fesuestl ‘ge Estimation Jofnton (962) has published onthe growth of ng hones using data ton Infants snd cilren nthe Incan Kool Kentucky steal popeltion ‘The relation of age to length of suet Bones shown in Tae ‘MeKern and Stewart 15574) state thatthe epiphves une flow Distal epiphysis: complete united by ege 17-18. ead of the humerus completly unt by age 24. Medal eicondle compere ited by age ‘The medial epicondve unites fom below upward, leaving a smal noth tte super end asthe lst sof union (gate 92, ‘Shan (189) adgraphcllystdied age changes rom the eternal ‘sratue ef the humerus tees o 250 rsceated Ramen Reported bel {re is ining beginning with age 23 ns study he began at age 15 123.25 yurt—The development othe metaphy st aecomplohed. The lntena sactare of the epiphyi so longer Gite rad that ofthe ‘yen N Me 0 m= 3 a om Sas ° Se ‘Aberin GHB *Allmesereane nm gure 92. Medal epeandt showing lao ooninhi is opal. The mdullir cavity i fa om the coll ecu ee 26-30 yeurs—the radial arangement of the ines structure ofthe spipysi fading, The itera sractre ofthe phe gia. The trelary cavity his oot yet reached the eal cirrgcum, SLU years —The internal stractre ofthe epiphysis lox eaher horace appearence, The internal srw the daphiss or Ealumiforn The most supenor pare of the medullor” caste mat Spproich the colum ehwagum cone ofthe medullary cavity has reached the collum chirrgicum. Between thercne andthe epphysel line lacunae may bein evidence Stesd—Peesiced lacunae appear the tuberculin eas 6-74 years—The outer surface ofthe Bore Fough and the ote is ‘hin The apysel Sucre lacks character fatores. The meuley {uy has rach the epphsea line. Bronzed, or even ager Bene tre present inthe tubercalum maja. Kruse taken of the eet show ners teansparency ‘Over 73 yeute~Theexeral surface ofthe bone i rough, The tube ulm maj has Tt is prominence. The cortex thin. Vey ile spongy "Sou emai ithe medal cat Inthe gros spelen the ep iseen tagmentay Xeas ofthe caput show an increased transparency "esti thease ge gn np oh ee inthe wo sexe. The dference favors females and amounts to Seaee St puberty, 9 tears at maturity, and 70 pears In sent (Scene “The humerus is 2 poot one for 50x estimation, One of the most obvious ser eifreces in the lang tones Bat tpi! male Boe sre longer and more massive than ples! femaie Fonts, an epreson of ‘owal dimorphism However uber of researchers have sade Ue omens and presen the following dat in eatin tose estimation In 1905 Dwight (se als Krogman 195218) publishes onthe ameter in mm of the humeral ead si 76 es Female ae he Diterence 609 368 Stewart (179100) hs report onthe vers diameter ofthe hunerat Drea on dy bones for 30 males and 5 females fom the Tey Calton a se. Females Indeterminate Males Vertical dismeterofhumeathead Sim 4etemm 2 in Length ofthe Hamers Thieme (195773) used length and epicondylar width ofthe mers in his study of sex estimation in Negro skeletons. AlNough ether measave- sent proved tobe 3 highly acre nda, Ms date re pete Humes lngih MSs 8 According to Teter (193428), a septal aperture occu 37 tines ore frojurtyin females than in males The spratrochiee ora ome of theater group rca trait athe homens sod te varahon etter the senes also mutes ita uselul sex instr. Titr V1934207) found the Sepia penne in 2% of Caucanans and 128 of Amernan Negiees For the same roca! gooups, Hedldha (93245) found @9% a las, ‘especvely, and 29.62. fr American IndaneActrding tw Akabol BEI he oer age iar spout the shalt terminates sooner tha nthe male, Carn {09016} thatin cases where roengenograms are invlve, the lation betwen he ‘epi of the radius ani Ihe medal epconieo the huts con be Sed to determine sex in Young specimens. Therese» apr sexual Aiarphism, nth over 70% csciintoy elceney in ther parte fsstconcrder They found thatthe onan cade cpm ra,1 . sen ose. ‘en medi epcondye, in a est 75% of Ihe mals, while 70% ofthe females had the opposite oder ised en his vecent esearch an sexual dimorphism inthe human umes France 98352-8) sttes that {th ft citing eas arming ee se mes Celene tong gre! aze meron fave ‘en ado ‘eich ihe dscrunatanajte was sed ey wl rever Bente ‘Reiruresermng sarge tema stm ale scr a Sith fee eS tre’ fot cepa: derars) aie ‘ret ears ne sae the homers. The pron mere Senda ‘Sper aecls nt he appind costcaal pec whe ‘lpn teers re bus France (198597) has continued to refine the meazureeats and regres sion formulae ad in hi 196 dy and has spied he flv ts fn sex estimation of the humeraswsing sng Famales fom diferent teas f the umes (ce Sigurer 3 and 8 and associate information er Shaded pager nal ormule, les rege hen the eal” number 2 females ave ssl BG gure 9. Measuing bepondylr with (oan ara wth () 99 the ‘SEX DETERMINATION OF THE HUMERUS USING SINGLE \VARIABLES FROM DIFFERENT POSITIONS ON THE BONE (AFTER FRANCE 15647, 1565" pian Sess ey dd 1, tal 2133 scien (ritmo, Fete id 7c 9133 ‘ee bana oe od eee ae Fr ect 8-15 cn ya a= 25 io Fic ted in, = 151 epee) ae iar rc ny rie 94 c= 296 sequent) ire ny Hine SM, = ‘ee an hl pose tee erty a = 15 rglzanftare a) Sed Fro iin 228 = 136 imu Sie ns mann Siren ih) Wcttet in s «336 dupe HM Ete Sa teak Reem tna, = 11 tal Pare Remar Sein 12, «151‘ene antral pre TBS Felcame nin 2918 = L eld eb peta Free ome tn 9% ol = 1.08 re a a ol ee eter id 209, = 104 Nena tne dp i in Se dap jroe-new cet ind on = 04 aa ea anton So Se ee oma: Hecirnhireadto Speeches EN nues-in ‘sal ete bared ee newest Fee ge a Lesa eT ie pte “iy Set ep nih aan) ee a Fern arcyed ,o«11 Tease ane nel) errasehy oe es TH = La renters estos 18 ratte att ie ut none Nera a Scat Seteures ioral {ingens ehh de ae Dick (1979) and Datrck and Suchey (1986) Nave studied sexual Alimorphism of boh the fern and humeres using prehstorc skeletal ‘mpl rom cent Callers They sport tat the est ingle sar forthe humerss the transverse ameter of the head igure 39), ‘Accuracy obtained ih thi tae measurement ale is 862i are Hovion, 86 in he combined Nidle and Late horizons. tn 88% ora Taian’ combined (ce Tabe 27 Dirk and Sucey 163) Deseret f the Heat Using a siding caliper ake measurements righ angles othe shat Ince the rage the end ofthe abun sure fy (ater Otviee 1985, Stature Estimation ‘The estimation of stature from long bones hag been attempted by numerous authors However, with the hemes rads and ln ater $d Gleser 195812 note hl" canbe sted tos general ale tht novet ge Menu rene meter rd er eet te opines organ S82 ent se ‘ase should lengths of upper tinh bones be used. the estimation of Sure uniessns lower limb bone ave Stature Formulae forthe Humerss (Male) wnite 289 humerss + 7810 = 437 Negro BShumers © 348 = 123 Mongoloit Des humerss + ah 16 = 416 Mexican 252 hamerss = 2394242 Too ot roscrasa EROS 7 ram Given hamens hte male Rat neasures 41.810: Graig). 40s 37 ie» rae 83 19659 0m = mean ange 19059 "437 = 19202 em low) We. #4 57 = 202 18cm igh) Twi ee Ne aie Gs tad 35 wer iis Be fe” 1 Ba fase A Uden. 7 Bon + 330 Boe See Ta gg es Sten = ai Fenn 2 ls Tn = 63 ‘Aker oer and lt 99, Tae 1599. RNS tae ernst sO oe ers = ron ater ne Ger 977359), Radius: Paired Long Bone (figures 95, 96) Subseut Bone Tre rain uf rom a sing eter nee mt he ne the eguih week of nrauerine he (Fare 97), The SATE appears Between age II's and ies im oles a abou SEE aa eal between 1017 year age “for panel ephysa Gwad) appears about age $6 and ies tesween ihe ages of land 181 sravosto.oct Fee 97 Panay onsen center ‘aut Bone “The rads he Iter end shorter of het bones of the fren. Protmaly atthe Ree) the tas shouts with the Rumer ot he how), and medaly with the via, The stl end of he rads arias ‘nh thenaviuas and linate Bones of he earpus st) an eal wit The winaa the ulnar noth The proumal extent sma than the {Esl and he head ea orca dik forming the expended arcu endo the bone “Te distal extent concae fo arcultion with he lat, and the siylod process avetes withthe nascar tone, The ted surface ‘Sinai thease neh Note thar the nue fxamen nine proinaly (ow igure 835) ‘ones of Sila Shape where Contusion Moy Arise The ulna and fila are simise because ofthe comparable sizeof the sat, The shale he asus's tanga ith 9 promines ntereseous test he ura oppostethi crest ater sth abd founded. and he teangular edges ae no pramnent The una sso hs 9 tanga st ‘Sian artereseous cet Put ne surface opp the intenonseous crest (Tends has sharper one snl edges The shal he Rul tends to ‘eIegular bu more ose resemles ine shaft ofthe lna than does thenadue The nuent foramen in he unas ager and mare prominent thin nthe bal Sie leentieation When the bone i held in approsimate anatomic postion with she ea towora you he nutter armen antec aa the dsl end a ‘om you, the sti! proce vay on the eral side and onthe sie the bone i ont “Te ntosseous est nd the rad uberost abate medal and co the opposite side the Bone cores re. The atmos stale) 5 Shorea thus, Wicecrs on the gh side of the Fone you ae holding ina et bone Moszurements ofthe Recius (Figure 98) 1. Masimum length osteometri toad), Messaes maximum length fom | the head to the tip of the syed process. Taken In Same ay Ipawimum length of the burners (A-8) 2 Hameroadia Inde: usu for orspaison ofthe Romer andthe masingn fet of ras «100 Hamerradal index = nun eng of nue ‘ge Estimation Johnston 1362) has publshed onthe growth of long bones using ta on nls an chien form the Indian all sell poputaten The ‘Shon ge fo length ofthe stack Koei shown Table. “Te pips ofthe provmal ens sua utes tthe halt atout age 15-18, Theuhion cut fom 2 fo 4 years pi fo uo ofthe isi nd ‘nheh-unsesin females re 3617 an in les am 17-18 (reach a Poe)(en The epphyses ofthe ragus and alma nite simultaneous: and the dugg in ie dus ae Sma fhe fr te ur Mekern Sra Stewar" B57) rept that in tie sump ct sou “Amencan Korean War Sad the pronialeipses had al und Oy 56 |p" Ean stages of union or the sna epipses ccna for ages 29 in the male sample. Last stages of uaton ithe acs osc on te elitr portion of he epighrsea line ‘sex Estmation A numberof authors hve reported on he difecence ia the prop ‘ions Gf upper to lower arm legis expres in the Hutetoadal l a ‘Ag Einar he Rast timated age Sid asi3 a B36 ae pes ; De e Index However ew of these messurements have Been accurate enough predic sex and race based om age bane ‘Ociation pans» major role the sexing ofthe radu. The enale sens to have aesieaton centers appearing sarker spd complet one ‘sith the shat terminating soner shan the male. Studies be Gar a {09410 ound that in esea where roeniganograre ae mvcved ther Tato betwen hea eaptlum of the radon snd the medi pond (fhe humerus an be sed to esate sexin soung specimens Theresa Shoo nun dmorpnim, wn ewer 70% ceclantoy enc nthe arcolr osieatin oder Thws found thatthe orieston ender i Epa ead, then real epiondyie, in atest 7 of he male, 7K Stine females had te oppente cede. Stature Extimation ‘noe eat, the lengths of upper mb bones shoul not be ued ie ‘heccumuton ol stture unless noes: Kb bonef wae (Teter ad {Gls 1988130) Olan ofthe long bones ested Tre and Clever the Tengen stndand err af the estimate occurred eth then, followed Be Theseus Stature Formulae forthe Radios Male Ne 3Riadus + 6H 2457 Mongol binds + 92012 400 Menten SSpragns + 9071 = 4ves esas omvoer When stature ie estiates fora individual over 3 years of age, the cstimae should be reduced by the amount of 0.083 agen yeas ~ 30) aaa senate male that measures 2 Dem (230) SP Gha) + aE = 465 e390 = mean Ringe 459 460 ~ 172 93em (los) ea) = Sto = Tal 28cm hh Lina: Pared Long Bone (igures 99, 100) ‘SupattBone “The una is wssied fom 2 single center nese the middle ofthe sft ‘tnt apocas about the eighth week of intautsee ie (Figure 10). The Aisul epiphysis appes (ssn stage 7, or ome 5-6 yee er than the dou epiphyce of herve Thivepipsis appears ares than that ihe proumal end ft nites later et about age 17-20 “Tnfepiphyica he prowl nd appears at aout age 1 in he age range’ fan uaus br the nineteen year Epiphrses at the elbow fone {out he egheenth yar tho athe shoulder and writ fose abot the twenties yee ‘aut Bone Theulnasalong bone on the medial side ofthe forearm, ariculating at ‘he proumal end (low! wath the ume a neal wa the ads Dis arscltes with te rade tut cones ly snd withthe pus wnt Thelproanal extemity# of regular shape and isthe thickest and strange pact the Sone, Ii well to keep In md the folowing thee pointe egding the proximal exten “The eecanan process tent the olecranon fos ofthe humers. The seoulnar soe anelates th the rxhlen ofthe humerus. The edi ‘otha the tel de of the corona process is orartialation with he Seamlcence ofthe disshaped heod ofthe adits “Te shat or body, of Thea tee sided hroughout much fs engin bu tapers ner the del esteem here Becomes sooth end Founded 7Ae matnent foramen inclined tard the proximal end 85 the au (oe Fue 9). rovromsga see08 ry " INA Figure 9. Canc ata fhe ns a Be depThe dial exrerty i sal ne and consists ofthe antomi vie The rid process Pret or the mel and posers parts ofthe bone Bones of Simlar Shape where Confusion May Arise Sis shopes the radius and ula rosie th abe eps but re eosel resembles the hat ofthe fits the vadue The net lraen tthe la age ahd ‘hore prominent han ine SlSide laenticstion eva got ih ero saad rae: amen a Seon he Holding nebone in approve Measurements ofthe Una igure 103) |. Marin lng (oslo Pans). Maximum length i fom the op least reumference » 00Cater indices ofthe uns (ater Wier 192039) (Caliber Indices of he ina (after Wider 192088) Srine . wo Gon 5 ba Chimpanzee 2 3 asta é ae Netiesiane 5 BF Regntoes ‘ ie South Geom 3 163 ‘ge Estimation ‘Using data foes is Indian Kool te, Jonatan (1982) state age ‘imation ttm the una The relation o age to engi of the subadat fone sll ere bone length in (able). "The eps tor the pron end usual wes with the shaft at age 1s. tsinferals and by age Inte (ckern and Stewart 1S747) The ist end unites in females irom 15-16 Sears of age and ia males fom 18 (Creaich and Psi 935), “Sanda 3 on ua “ner son (Tae Sor Eetimaion Although many measurements and observations have been hen om se ulna, none shows 9 high corelton with sen genera females ae recreate m smaller an males ae large, bt the oval ofthe te popula s 30 feat that act estiton sing te na hassel Stature Estimation (Only those formulae given by Troter and Giese 1952, 198) wil be pean The win usualy gave the largest standard eno fest fan tthe lng bones teste ‘Statue Forme for he Uns (Me) white Sele Newio Souin Nong Siena Ea Cinemania hte lethal measures 23.0cm (230 ma- Sreu30) 35 242 Weis T5472 16203 cm = mean Range "102.03 472 = 15731 em tow) 162.03 + 472 = lee 73 cm Cg ‘hen stature estimated fr an ned over 30 Sears age the ‘esate shold be reduced bythe amount of 0.0 age sear A} ‘Carpal Bones: Paired, regular Bones (figures 104-105) ‘The skeleton of he wens consis of ih oral bones. aang in too reweof four From the thum tothe ite ing ie presale, 1 ens Tr Navi, or saphoid Y Lanate 3. Tegra 4 Pastor ‘ne distal oF second, row consists of: 1 Greater multsgulse oe rapes 2 Lesser mullangila. or apezo 3 Gone 4 Hamat%, Qe PAIgG, ScKIITSS a “ee so IE , °8Q ely

6056 = 3.26 Mean Soha + 73H 233 Tarsl Bones: ated, regular Bones (Figure 158) 1 Eines ‘which it comes. - _Sulace along the lamer maga opposte the ie the bove comes om “The fourth metatarsal usualy shore than the third, an the ose resembles that fie thd vey coe en sewing the sors sae Urine bse ne base pects atheros he same sige he bone comes rm (Eigse 18. “ie fifth meatal easy is eecogized by the rough, sonaricua evinonce knowns he tubers on te tral side a ts base Wh he {Foor betecn ine acta act ante tuberosity down, the terest En Ge on the sume side the Bone comes om Phalanges (Toes): Pale, Short Bones (Figure 168) There ae 4 phalanges in each foot, 2for he big toe, and 3 foreach of Abe othe digits They ee Unie ito 3 rome: ft. or prota —S (he Ltpeoy scan, or ale (no mde hala inthe big toe and SAFE, ais, or terminal“5 (ihe sales) fn all phalanges the ett {rl (emen) sete foward the ital etre. They are no easy Fish of proximal row (Figure IoSal—The phalanges ar onseced in tte idle ofthe hate and expand at ether exter. The prowmal ‘eremitypresnts a slightly concave, oval aaarsurtace that reeves te convex head ofthe metatarsal bone The distal eremiy i grooved ‘odyles, on the dtl entre of the prosimal and middle phalanges reemble the dial of lower ené ofthe femur Tovortespond wth these ‘odes, the Bases ofthe terminal and mle patnges have wo sl \dpressions end cesemble the prvial or upper end tthe a, Second, or middle. tow [Figure 1}—These ae stunted! ard mach smal bones han the conespondingphalnges ofthe fingers. The tae ot Frninal exten. preents two salon depressions separied by ‘Zit re that areata withthe st ow of phalanges, The dal ot ‘rlates withthe base ofthe hid ow of phalanges and grooved ih ‘Se center and sessed on each side ino wd smal tones. Thad or dtl, ow (Figure I6)Sial in sae, the tied phan ognized easly because the distal ends tapered. One side oral) 2 {rremooth, ver whieh the tora sand the othe planar sure ® fgh because ofthe altachiente ofthe iber bands of the pulp tthe ape. Te proximal end sir in shape to tat of the second phalans tia it prevents twoshallow deprstons spate bya etal nage One tmuld ever confuse the phalanges ofthe miele and dial row ie 8 ‘Bmerbered that both ands of the aie phalanges have articaar SReoces, wheres ony the proximal end a9 neu surfac om the flange in theta ove o & @ For4 HUMAN DENTITION" 32 TEETH IN ADULTS 20 TEETH IN CHILDREN The stay of teeth i very important to he antrepoogist and paeon- logs benase tevth are consvcted of dense and hard mater est “ecy in the ground, and ten outlast bone. Conseguenly, eth have ‘ved an impetat len the study of fost ean, Faleoncogists spend much ine shading the various genetic and functional ehafctersics of the tet The sty of eth es pe ed ok Irowiedge ite he anata terms used to desert fe single eth 1nd the ceil atch dtr sgt rm thowe en shay There are four “types” of eth Inthe human desl sich; incor canines, promolrs, and molars This easienton e Based on bth the Iporphelegy and fancion ofthe respective ee The aeusl gene oF fgtsted that tbe dentnon i under the inert of « morpho genet held that controle te rphsogiel epeeson, This ther hes. fren advanced bv Bute (157, 1998, 1961, 163) an has been applied to th human enon by arg (9, 3), ater esa Sieret tooth groups ae under erent morphogenetic hells sn fet these elds re concentrated a certain teeth ihn she tat group. This Produces the distinct "types" rth a5 we as sore teth that appt Frese and less varie than errs win te group. Whateve he evelopment reasons behind the formation of distinct pes of tet, ‘hey eal are exprsee in "dental formu sch 3 he faloing. T= incisors tooth designed for cating PAE» premalesteth oth road eset sumac ih mplapadshei— a9 09) 0NI— ANATOMICAL TERMS FOR TEETH (Figure 1700)ach tooth consist "Enamela te compact and vers had substance that avers Cementurm—a ner of tone tase cose the rot oth Dentin the shai tanue ot the foot that surtounds the pulp Sooty is coed ean on mont te ped fr Dentin forms te main Sls ofthe tosh 4: Papas plp cmb and al hin he woh Fach tooth has five surfaces (Figure Cabal (ape) or buea chee cheek, is used with premolars and molars. LUngual-the sige toward the ongse the teeth of the opposite ja (the bling surace). 4, Mesal=the suc ofthe tooth tha es ann an tooth and faces toward Ihe mean ine 5, Dsathe stave af the tooth that fis aint am adining a the side oad he pis @ oe BD which TOOTH Is 172 ‘STEPS TO FOLLOW IN IDENTIFYING TEETH (One ofthe best Books forthe sudy af eth Anderson's (962) Te om Stn 4 Maal fy bi The sr tert she "When ave faced withthe poker of entying bones or test, i nc elie to prcted by folding certain steps [ae sep for bones Chapter 1. The fllowing ve sep ae recommended step Determine whether the loth is decdvous or adult. Deciduous uth se als them inte od equslents and sre more yellow in calor Fecnse the enamel and erent aves 2 not a5 hich ash adult eth Step2. Inthe loath am incisor canine, premolar in ait) moar? This & Sop 3 Isthe oth frm the upper a mesilate fer aw (mance)? This i's ct sep and veyures stu Some student would vather eves steps 3 and’ 4s and tis can be done without ically (oe ‘Anderson's ep, whi ae in iferent sequen) ‘Step 4 - ht putin nt op dhe oth ol? Onc he pe fo ‘second premolar, ora fis, second, or third molar This is 9 mare ‘ifel slep and eguves a considerable knowedge of dental anatrn Step 6 15 the tooth from the righ or sie? This probly is he mos tical sep, and compas deta) arches shouldbe const ‘hates comparative dena arches, both upper and ower, sould be costed ninun Wenifying ees jos 203 skeleton should be conslted en senting bone en there's Some doubt in the ents minReplacing Teeth in a Dental Arch When ane i equred to replace ow the arouses of eth an ‘ove asthe jaw i sn operation ond therfore rub producingsick wear susface. Thane il nach pene when te prover Notched ache a (evcesuie near om the ecu sulae due 1 ali my “The follwing envi presents data on each typeof than lon f the sprout’ above ( £ g be Inicisons (Figure 172) 4 CENTRAL—2 UPPER AND 2 LOWER 4 LATERALS—2 UPPER AND 2 LOWER (weno ge o dee heya esos resent fos tcthinarchaclopicl specimens and the roa frequently encountered outa othe dental arch, sete hace LW shor ig deciduous radu La t reson-veconsiecale sale than adult sore abr i olor the donial ach present eile upper or ihre ce btn the eh iene ppecis er (Once the ors fee hve formed the eth donot gt ay pe but ‘cio nag he mane nd mening nd ee ‘An incisor has 2A oot ots ge a cae) 3. ASoet sped lingua surface, poriculrym Mongol rasa {oupe In same ces an enamel extension sso present onthe Sonal the ites ennson wil eoeloye an are the cote nd produce &"bare-shaped incor (gure V3) <=Step 3-isit oppor ore? 3 Has cngulam 5 finn ve spn ud on eg Sp ia poston us Tepe hae a eins 4 fe Sete mente 4 Is mort kes to have shove! shape sn sper ea nar 1 ESate ana wpe cent cir ay has. po le ba ot 1s ager tan a lose cents incisor but smaller an an uppet 2 Has wider exon (opesding ut snk fan shape) a th ell sure Always be aate ofthe wea facets between aeighbring teeth susp leith ove ms Upper "The angle formed by the mesial ant ols edges i right 2. Theale onet bythe diva and clas ages is iovceses a perpendcle tothe aie of the ctw. "The roots are wider obingwaly shan mesodaally When held in proper poston {ty theo! wth the lingual sue lacing You). there wl be {fore onthe fat var ofthe oat (itl sure} om these ide the oth comes fom igure 17) GE g CANINES (Figure 175) 2 UPPERS—1 RIGHT AND 1 LEFT 2 LOWERS—1 RIGHT ANO 1 LEFT he canines sometimes are called eye teth (because of thei poston ectow the eyes) or deg teh foeause ot tet erp siren tat a Ti th th have he eft eS une igh hese te the second. mon! frequent fost seth a8 archacalogal pecmens othe send most esuenty encountered eth outside tthe Sou ih Reaches Rave een ame "deciduous canine i smaller and more yellow than en adult canine step What type of foth i? PA ne ge rot ge han a incisor 2 snp pated cusp 2 lane oot ia reltion 1 ts cow,- ~ —Is it upper or lower? 3A Blan! singe poin cusp, 4 Nocing Step sha prion does hla? SiepSisitagh rer 'Tvhen held in prope postion he ot with lingual uae facing ou there al eo grove om he fiat surface of te fo! (dt ume — + Xx wil be need hat the mesa slope e the crown the i pene me pl a te 2 Theat en sual popltios ten pried 0 4 TT vhen held by the root th he comn pointing down an ng at Surface facing vou thar wil bea pone the ht ute ue i noo (stl suslace onthe same ede te oth srr gute - PREMOLARS (Figure 17) 4 UPPER—2 RIGHT AND 2 LEFT 4 LOWER—2 RIGHT AND 2 LEFT mete’ brown as Beuspids because they usualy <==X) CE Cie s =D -=x Ca TEThe second upper prem 2 oth csp ae seat 09 5. Mesa sic ofthe con is conve, May hate groove om the mesa sutae ofits rot “3 My haves leer 1. Hlasa smal someties double lingual cusp. E Hs no gree onthe mes slace of fs oot saps thse ep soe perigee 180) TS When he bythe rot wth he ros pointing down and nga setts ou eo te al Lower figure Wi) Tr Whon hel by the oe ith thetngual sac fcing you, hep Mm 4 \ sas oon » 2. Theft lower premolar say have a rcove onthe mesial surace ftom tobe held bythe ot with the ingol sles facing You). MOLARS (Figure 173) 5 UPPER—3 RIGHT AND 9 LEFT 6 LOWER RIGHT AND 9 LEFT Mow sha will nave 12 molars, but many may ave only & The hid th gioding eth that ake ap the dental seh behind the premabs tas eropt at any age om 28 years he hie dest Mas te the eset fequemi st teen atchaecgeal specimens because of her mule rot Indeed, they sve dieu emtove fom 4 Have rot hat ve much wider apart Thee ruts maybe tus Step hat p Inga tnt and olen widely divergent 2 Conia facet ate found mesly sd itl“OWN we Oo & 4v6 ean omeo.201 bight frequent somite in tudes of archaelogal specimens sine n'hany pehsione agncatural people spss wore down thet eth, ‘nen itp taken, it usually i expresed othe dstane from the rown-tot juncture tthe maine Reght ofthe own “The mesial dame ae called brat edt oe length the erature enresed the mavinnum dimer between the Mei 3M Saco The twceinguol diameter woul ig spree a the maim lamer kena aight angle 1 the sid 8, computed by averaging the mest and Bucecngul dmeters Took bagi tealy should be ncuaed to sepresent a compete dercption of ‘row mas bat ine the eecoring of toth Height sted 0 Severely Pe dion to messucements ofthe teeth, there also area numberof cbserate chtaterstcs of the feth tae offers 0 psa) Snihropagits The recording of there observations #5 importa 1 Slavin te eisng saabon of madern tan and to see how the ‘Seton of un fas changed feom tat of is foal ancestors. TRese (SSmatns fallin two genet clegonce csristons im tooth eumber Sind poston ant carats in tat merpholog VARIATIONS IN TOOTH NUMBER AND POSITION ‘Supernumerary Teeth canint premolar, oe mola tooth groups. Supermumecey teeth may be "Stepan ofthe nim hth a pee moral {sui anddreduous dentine but onl ace the deasuous dentition Frucnty aupersursrary teh il ocr iterally and my eee ree Congenital Absence of Teeth ‘Occasionally ene or more tah normally present in ie dentition tbe missing Of all he teeth, the third alas fe the mast requ ising Table), but any of te other etn may be absent congesills ‘eth unerpee eth or eth at ere lost belo death. Ueeupted tet {resent but lst betore examinat tem tooth loss usually can be detected br the charcterisic distorted and Ine appropriate sueaces ofthe tech —Rotation of Teeth (Oceasionali eth wil bin thee proper potion i he oath os, But ther will appurto Re olted ts much #4186 tPgure BI hon oth yw Ie a 5! Crowsing of Teeth nly the adult deation wll appee be crowded wh one shed out o tha noraalposion. Th condom uals reduction in ine sizeof the leth, The space i the alveolus nt lenge fmough to perm the teeth fo erupt in hee honral postions 80 come {Suenty they must erupt in aller postions Crowding Frequent Smpanie impact third molars andthe rote tt teth Slewrbed above, Deciduous eth seldom aw tow since mal they ave pent of room or enpion Ora the fee hemor sual VARIATIONS IN TOOTH MORPHOLOGY Molar Cusp Pattern ‘The pater ofcuipr ane grooves onthe aces surfces of he mois has long bern of ovat fo phvstal sihroplops for enebhing veausvnesry » Aierences amng inodem populations ann revealing out primate Sneotee Ths coer atone severe mie when sted man Prehs {Enc populetons, snc the grt ature of he diet equa cont stulpeatre uh wear th eigen pater Om eth SToulary and reandiblar ole dpa ileent csp pater. The ‘mouilo molas esl have ve oF for cusps separated distr Je Inthe second maniaty molars the fourth cusp, er hspocone su Sreducedn see Inthd nus molars he hypocane may be absent fhe lise tere sunpe Dalberg (95115) has suggested he olwng Irae ae hypocre notes eee fence a he age ames ew. PHOS Geog es ay cht emannon se ec eae in “pute though eter the Sor the PEI" Seiman mts egret ale anlar es i pequrney eh ote! thee pairs Kshs bem2 soa meice, ties pops The cd ass fare ce Shovel rape Teeth hp ~ ‘ms ‘Teurodontism Enamel Extensions and Pearls revolts ora tra shape ta shapng mest en seu Peg-Shaped Teetha wn sunt toe, Es pone a fanona a or Missing Roots oss sent eis portant (9 Faord he Purest Saamhenese’ possible ‘Mong Msn othe one cen sea ens 4 Occlusal Wear ontils Ths conta abasve acon chefs 6 er ofthe tet dest) “Spd the und Ry eeu expo ‘ach hs itn takes pace ges sinh demesne ~ Weg Se esti ‘aetna maa Sek aetna ne eset tence Bete ee to Cara ccurey of age estimation by this method, and oer entra should be ‘Srwuled whenever posse "I flowing Brothels (19 pacrn.on premedieval Bish eth ‘gure 18 ‘ eelusion ‘The type of oclusion tha ents between the ma teeth fas been of iveret to anthro Mangolide most frequent Tgure 88a) In conta, tet so that the masa ‘Figure 186) In adult skills, irequesy apne» corn projet ere aneritt ta Te mandible Figure Ie) Underbes ae uncomment rou TFgure 18Dental Development ‘One of the move accuree Indios of conslgial age trough jtcaten and eruption. Nomeross ‘Gan be compared. One of the best documented and current chars es ‘Simpoed byeUbvtaker 978) ee Figore 190) Artificial Deformation Several tures of toh morphology may be stabuted sours In some svete teeth ave been He or chippedistentonally fproduce sp amass Deatal mutans in America have been [ese nt seven types by Romer (1958). These principal wer ound in Maco, Several eavierstuiescincss the wrid dition of eel fon, aso fo is practic ad echniguar inves. Tey describe uta rom A and Egypt in ation tthe ‘lamples fom the Neve Word. The ncors are te eth usualy valved Since they ate the teth most vise som outie the mouth ake a (18) have reported the occurence facial grooves located interprovinall nthe ole repos of several Ameian flan Popuations These grooves sual occur neat te uncon ofthe cown ed ino of she tooth involved (Figur 169). The lequen! assodation ot these grooves with capous tenons, sinclar absceses and aber eo ton sezting fom petontl ease suggest Ut these grooves were produced inn stempt to vec dscomor in the Immeate aea The [rvesigatorscbseed the phenomenon i mater fom archacologcal tes geagraphcaly dstbuted. over much of the United Sates and Temp distributed fen the Avchu: pes 0 he prone Ths peo ‘iematon ss oerooked esa and cre shou be taken to describe is ELEYIIIS os reas APPENDIX 1 GLOSSARY AND MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION FOR THE OSTEOLOGY STUDENT CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO SHAPE LONG BONES—such atthe femur, mers and rads consis of (or cnphys) and ta extremities (oe epiphes SORT BONES™such as those ofthe melacyrus (hand) gd met ‘ean cons of anf and ee ented setimes ae ered 0 FLAT'RONTS suchas those of the sl, ccspulae, and innernnctes IRREGULAR BONES" such au the ventrac, and ine man ard {pheroid oes, These have ireglar and ten ver complex shapes PARTS OF BONES ALAC wing FORANEN—a hole SROPHYSIS™— prominence Fossa depression {Gomed drei’ upon» bone FOVEATs porch (CANAL nano page ot ‘eps ee Moca ot abd Brropractioenl get at hoe Sharp peomnence