Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Definition of a Code:
A code is a standard that has been adopted by one or more governmental bodies and is
enforceable by law. Any set of standards set forth and enforced by a local government agency for
the protection of public safety, health, industrial procedures for product
production,
ion, safety, quality
control etc., safety as in the structural safety of buildings (building code), health (health code),
3 | Department of Mechanical Engineering,
ngineering, PESIT, Bangalore,
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
1 N/m2
1 x 106 N/ m2
1 x 109 N/ m2
1 x 10-6 N/ mm2
1 N/mm2
1 kN/mm2
Strain:
It is defined as the deformation per unit length under the action of external force or load.
Mathematically,
, =
,
=
= !
Tensile stress and tensile strain:
When a component is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulling force (tensile load) as
shown in Figure 1, then the stress induced at any section of the component is known as tensile
stress. The ratio of increase in length to the original length is known as tensile strain.
t
t
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
c
c
=
/
[For details of Mechanical properties of various engineering materials, refer Tabl1 I.1 to I.18
from page No. 458 to 475, Design Data Hand Book (DDHB)]
Shear stress and shear strain:
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the
resisting section, as a result of which the body tends to shear off the section as shown in
Figure 3, then the stress induced is called shear stress. The corresponding stain is known as
shear strain and it is measure in terms of angular deformation.
p
d
p
%
= ;
/
&
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
In designing various parts/elements of a machine, it is necessary to know how the material will
function/behave in service condition. For this purpose certain characteristics or properties of the
material should be known well in advance the machine design process. The mechanical
properties mostly used in mechanical engineering practice are commonly determined from a
standard tensile test. This test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen of a material and
noting the corresponding values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures. The load is
applied and measured by a testing machine. The stress is determined by dividing the load values
by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. The elongation is measured by determining
the amounts that two reference points on the specimen are moved apart by the action of the
machine. The original distance between the two reference points is known as gauge length. The
strain is determined by dividing the elongation values by the gauge length.
The values of the stress and corresponding strain are plotted taking stress in y-axis and strain
x-axis. Such plot/diagram is known as stress-strain diagram of the material tested, as shown in
Figure 4
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Steady load
Live load
Shock load
5 to 6
8 to 12
16 to 20
Wrought iron
10 to 15
Steel
12 to 16
15
Leather
12
15
Timber
10 to 15
20
Cast iron
l+l
P
d-d
(b)
(a)
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
1
-
=,=
=
-
Following Table 2 gives the values of Poisson's ratio for some of the materials commonly used
in engineering practice.
Table 2 Values of Poissons ratio for commonly used materials
Material
Material
Poissons Ratio ()
Poissons Ratio ()
0.32 to 0.36
Steel
0.25 to 0.33
Aluminium
Cast iron
0.23 to 0.27
Concrete
0.08 to 0.18
Copper
0.31 to 0.34
Rubber
0.45 to 0.50
Brass
0.32 to 0.42
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Figure 6
Solution:
Data Given:
Material: C14
Tensile load, = 2 / = 2 102
Nature of Load: Tensile
Factor of Safety, !# = 3
Diameter of the rod, d =?
Notice that one end of the rod is fixed and other end is subjected to a pull of 2 kN, i.e., the rod is
subjected to a tensile load.
From Design Data Hand Book (DDHB) Page No. 463, Table I.8 for C14 material we have,
Yield strength,
4 = 216 /
6
4
216
788 =
=
= 72 /
!#
3
We know that,
4
788 = =
;
4 2 102
72 =
;
<
,
= 5.94
Round it off to the next nearest inter number
@AB C = D EE
11 | Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore,
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Fig. 7
Solution:
Data Given:
Material: C14
Tensile load, = 2 / = 2 102
Nature of Load: Shear
Factor of Safety, !# = 3
Diameter of the rod, d =?
Notice that the rod is inserted through two plates, which are pulling the rod on either side
creating a shear load across the cross section of the rod with a magnitude of 2 kN.
From Design Data Hand Book (DDHB) Page No. 463, Table I.8 for C14 material we have,
Yield strength,
4 = 216 /
6
4
216
788 =
=
= 72 /
!#
3
Knowing the allowable yield stress, one can estimate the allowable shear stress of the material
using the following relation:
6 , $788 = 0.5 788 = 0.5 72 = 36 /
We know that,
4
$788 = =
;
4 2 102
36 =
;
<
,
= 8.41
Round it off to the next nearest inter number
@AB C = G EE
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
30 mm
Fig. 8
Solution:
Data Given:
Material: C14
Tensile load, = 2 / = 2 102
Nature of Load: Bending
Factor of Safety, !# = 3
Length of the rod, - = 30
Diameter of the rod, d =?
Notice that the rod is subjected to a bending load of 2 kN acting at the free end. The cross section
near to the fixed is the critical cross-section.
From Design Data Hand Book (DDHB) Page No. 463, Table I.8 for C14 material we have,
Yield strength,
4 = 216 /
6
4
216
788 =
=
= 72 /
!#
3
Bending moment, H = - = 2 102 30 = 6 10I
From DDHB, Page No. 2, Equation, 1.1 (b), we have
H 32H
J = =
K
;
2
Where, Z is section modulus and given by DDHB, Page No. 13, Table 1.3 (a), g row
;
2
K=
32
[Note that this induced bending stress should be less than or equal to allowable stress of the
material]
32H
J = 788 =
;
2
32 6 10I
72 =
;
2
<
,
= 20.39
C = LM EE
13 | Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore,
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
b
50
A
50
Fig. 9 Steel Bracket
5. A mild steel bracket shown in Figure 10 is subjected to a pull of 10 kN. The bracket has a
rectangular cross-section whose depth is twice the width. If the allowable stress for the
material is 80 N/mm2, determine c/s of the bracket.
150
600
200
X
A
10kN
t
2t
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Bearing A
Bearing B
yx
xy
x
X
xy
yx
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
P + 4
P 4
R + ST
U + $P4
2
2
P + 4
P 4
R ST
U + $P4
2
2
P 4
= N
U + $P4
2
2
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
P + 4
P 4
R + ST
U + $P4
2
2
30 + 15
30 15
R + SO
R + 25 = 22.5 + 26.1
2
2
P + 4
P 4
R ST
U + $P4
2
2
30 + 15
30 15
S
= O
R O
R + 25 = 22.5 26.1
2
2
]L = g. D `/EEL (hiEjkbddelb)
Maximum Shear Stress,
$[7P = ST
$[7P
P 4
U + $P4
2
= S O
30 15
R + 25
2
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
P + 4
P 4
R + ST
U + $P4
2
2
120 + 30
120 30
R + SO
R + 60 = 75 + 75
2
2
P + 4
P 4
R ST
U + $P4
2
2
120 + 30
120 30
S
= O
R O
R + 60 = 75 75
2
2
]L = p
= S T
P 4
U + $P4
2
= S O
120 30
R + 60
2
mEAn = qo `/EEL
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the
maximum principal or normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strength of
the material in a simple tension test.
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
u = N ,
u = N
N
mEAn = x
y ; z N
2
N
mEAn = - x , y ; z N
2 2
[Note: mEAn =
{|
L}~@
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the
maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear stress at yield
point in a simple tension test.
Shear Energy Theory or Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises
Theory) [Ref: DDHB, Eq. No. 2.8(d), Page No. 22]
u = N + N
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion
strain energy (also called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches
the limiting distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined
from a simple tension test.
Maximum Total Strain Energy Theory (Haighs Theory)
[Ref: DDHB, Eq. No. 2.8(e), Page No. 22]
u = N + 2,N
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the strain
energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e. strain
energy at the yield point) per unit volume as determined from simple tension test.
21 | Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore,
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Solution:
Given
P + 4
P 4
R + ST
U + $P4
2
2
150 + 100
150 100
S
N = O
R+ O
R + 50 = 125 + 55.90
2
2
]M = M_p. Gp `/EEL (abcdefb)
Minimum Principal Stress,
P + 4
P 4
S
= O
R T
U + $P4
2
2
150 + 100
150 100
S
= O
R O
R + 50 = 125 55.90
2
2
]L = DG. Mp `/EEL (abcdefb)
Maximum Shear Stress,
$[7P = ST
P 4
U + $P4
2
$[7P = SO
150 100
R + 50
2
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
!#
180.9 =
353
!#
!# = 1.96
b. Maximum Shear Stress Theory
Since N
,
N
180.90 69.10
$[7P = - x , y ;
$[7P = - v
,
w
2
2
2 2
$[7P = - (90.45,34.55)
$[7P = 90.45 /
W,
$[7P =
;
2!#
90.45 =
353
2!#
!# = 1.9513
c. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky - Mises Theory)
u
= N + N
!#
353
= 180.9 + 69.1 180.9 69.1
!#
!# = 2.2325
10. A material has maximum yield strength in tension and compression as 100 MPa.
Compute factor of safety for the following theories of failure
a. Maximum Normal Stress Theory
b. Maximum Shear Stress Theory and
c. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory
Considering the following stresses:
i.
N = 70 H , = 70 H
2 = 0
ii.
N = 70 H , = 30 H
2 = 0
iii. N = 0 , = 30 H
2 = 70 H
[(a). (i). FOS = 1.43; (ii). FOS = 1.43; (iii). FOS = 1.43
(b). (i). FOS = 1.43; (ii). FOS = 1.43; (iii). FOS = 1.43 and
(c). (i). FOS = 1.43; (ii). FOS = 1.644; (iii). FOS = 1.644]
11. A mild steel shaft of 60 mm diameter is subjected to a bending moment of 25 x 105 Nmm and Torque T. If the yield point of steel in tension is 230 N/ mm2, find the maximum
value of Torque without causing yield of the shaft according to:
a. Maximum Principal Stress Theory
b. Maximum Shear Stress Theory and
24 | Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore,
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Crank Pin
25
10 kN
75
Crank Shaft
A
125
Crank Web
A
40 25
100
Fig. 12 Crank
25 | Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore,
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
1 kNm
50
15 kN
250
Fig. 13
16. Determine the maximum normal stress and maximum shear stress at section A-A for the
crank shown in Figure 14, when a load of 10 kN is assumed to be concentrated ,is
applied at the centre of crank pin. Neglect the effect of transverse shear.
50
10 kN
30
Crank Pin
25
75
Crank Shaft
A
125
Crank Web
A
38 25
75
Fig. 14 Crank
50
100 Nm
28
9 kN
Fig. 15
26 | Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore,
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
50
B
15 kN
250
Fig. 16
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
W
L
h
F
Fig. 17 Impact load (Ref. page No. 27 and 28 DDHB)
Let,
A = Cross-sectional area of the bar in mm2
E = Youngs modulus of the material of the bar in N/mm2
L= Length of the bar in mm
W = Falling load in N
h = Height through which the load falls in mm
1
2
= ( + )
(1)
(2)
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
1
= ( + )
2
2( + )
=
=
"
/. ,
(3)
(4)
2( + )
=
"
=
"
2( + )
=
W,
On simplification, we get
2 2 = 0
On making substitution =
=
=
2"
1 + S1 +
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
W
h
y
L
Fig. 18 Impact load (Ref. page No. 27 and 28 DDHB)
Let,
E = Youngs modulus of the material of the beam in N/mm2
I = Moment of inertia of the beam cross-section in mm4
L= Length of the beam in mm
W = Falling load in N
h = Height through which the load falls in mm
y= deformation of the bar in mm
b = Impact Stress or Instantaneous stress induced in the beam due to the impact lad in N/mm2
F = Force at which the deflection y is produced in N
= Equivalent load producing the same deflection
The potential energy lost by the weight = the strain energy absorbed by the system
Strain energy absorbed by the system,
=
1
2
= ( + )
1
= ( + )
2
(1)
(2)
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
/. ,
2( + )
-2
48"z
On simplification, we get
(4)
2( + ) -2
48"z
-2
=
48"z
W,
(3)
2( + )
2 2 = 0
N
-2 12" -2 12"
2
=
1 + S1 +
48"z
48"z
On making substitution =
- -
2
=
1 + S1 +
4z
4z
=
we get
J = J 1 + S1 +
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
103 = 15.6 1 + S1 +
0.25
= 3.798 = 3.8
z , z = 1 + S1 +
2
2 3.8
= 1 + S1 +
0.25
0.25
z = 6.6
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
2
"
200 10 2
=
=
= 200 /
2 102
But, From DDHB, Equation 2.26 (a),
= 1 + S1 +
200 =
2"
= 1 + S1 +
-
500
2 102
10 10I = 1 + S1 +
2 10
2 10
10 10I
1 = S1 +
10 10I
2 10
1 1 =
10 10I
2 10 10I
2 10
+1
1=
10 10 2 10 = 2 10
10 10 = 22 10
10 10
=
22 10
= 4545.45
z , z = 1 + S1 +
2 10
2 10
= 1 + S1 +
= 22
4545.45
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
J =?
=?
From DDHB, Table 1.4, Page No. 15,
H. W
, H[7P = - = 1,000 1.5 102 = 1.5 10
-2
-2 12
H. <, =
=
3 " z 3 " 6
2
1,000 (1.5 102 )2 12
=
= 0.388 (
)
3 20.6 10I 50 1502
J =
H 6H 6 1.5 10
=
=
= 8 /
50 150
K 6
z , z = 1 + S1 +
2
2 10
= 1 + S1 +
= 8.25
0.388
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
H H 2 6.25 10 2
J =
=
=
= 9.7656 /
z
z
9.6 x 10
But, we know that,
J = J 1 + S1 +
2
2
= 9.7656 1 + S1 +
0.646
For safe design, this induced impact bending stress must be less than or equal to
allowable stress, i.e.,
J
!#
9.7656 1 + S1 +
2
324
=
0.646
3
= gL. gD EE
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Curved Beam
centre of curvature
co
c2
co
c1
ci
ci
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
O
R
& +
The maximum stress occurs either at the inner fiber or at the outer fiver and is given by,
Maximum tensile stress due to bending,
= +
H
&
, = + = N +
H
&
Note:
* For symmetrical cross-sections, such as Circular or Rectangular, the maximum bending stress
always occurs at the inner fiber.
* For unsymmetrical cross-sections, it is necessary to calculate the stresses at the inner as well
as outer fiber to determine the maximum stress.
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
31. A crane hook having an approximate trapezoidal cross-section is shown in Figure 20. It is
made of plain carbon steel 45C8 and the factor of safety is 3.5. Determine the load
carrying capacity of the hook.
c2
C
N c
i
c1
h =120
A
e
A
b1 = 90
Ri Rn R Ro
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
& =
(& + )
6N (& + ) 6(& N )
u
R (6N 6)
(& N )
= N = 120 50 = 70
(6 + 6N )
(30 + 90)
=
120 = 7200
2
2
7200
& =
(100 + 70)
90(100 + 70) 30(100 50)
O
R (90 30)
u
120
(100 50)
=
& = 89.1819
= 100 89.1819
Step III: Determine the bending stresses at the inner fibre and outer fibre as follows:
From DDHB, Equation No. 10.1(b), page No. 159, we have
=
H
H
=
&
&
= + = 70 + 10.8184 = 80.8184
& = & + = 50 + 120 = 170
=
=
H
(100)39.1816
7.2435
=
=v
w /
& 7200 10.8184 50
7200
H
(100)80.8184
4.3943
=
=v
w /
& 7200 10.8184 170
7200
=
/
qLpp
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Superimposing the two stresses
with direct stress and equating the resultant to
permissible stress separately, we get
4
= +
320
7.2435
=
+
3.5 7200
7200
= qG, _oo`
And
4
= +
4.3943
320
=
+
7200
3.5 7200
= M, LL, pgL`
Therefore the load carrying capacity of the crane-hook is P =79, 855 N (Choose the lowest
value)
32. A ring of steel bar has a diameter of 20 mm and carries a pull of 4 kN as shown in Figure
22. Determine the stresses at points A, B, C and D of the rim. The mean radius of the rim
is 100mm.
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
ci
R
Rn
Ri
R0
=
H
&
Bending moment at point A & B at a point of application of load, is given by Eqn. 10.5 as
H = 0.318& = 0.318 4 102 100
H = 1.272 10
= + = 10 + 0.2506 = 10.2506
& = & + = 100 + 10 = 110
=
I
= 314.159 mm
= = 10 0.2506 = 9.7494
& = & = 100 10 = 90
H
1.272 10 10.2506
=
=
= Mop. oD `/EEL (abcdefb) and
& 314.159 0.2506 110
=
H
1.272 10 9.7494
=
= Mqo. pL `/EEL (hiEjkbddeic)
& 314.159 0.2506 90
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
H
0.728 10 9.7494
=
= Mpp. Mq `/EEL (abcdefb)
& 314.159 0.2506 90
I N
Fig. 24
45 | Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore,
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Fig. 25 Trough
35. A portable hydraulic riveter has maximum riveting force of 70 KN. The U-frame is made
of cast steel shown in Figure 26 with an ultimate tensile strength of 480 MN/m2 and a
yield point in tension of 240 MN/m2. Compute the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses in the section AB by
(a). Applying straight beam formula
(b). Applying curved beam formula
(c). By what theory would you design this section?
(d). If the radius of curvature is increased to 200 mm, will the stress as indicated by the
curved beam formula be marginally changed?
(e). Draw any conclusion regarding the radius of curvature of beam
Fig. 26
Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Fig. 28 C-clamp
Dr. C V Chandrashekara