MECHANICAL STOKERS

Grate burning can be classified as (1) mass burning (MB) and (2) spreader burning (SB),
depending on whether the fuel burns on the grate or partly in suspension and partly on grate.
There are two designs each for MB and SB. The spreader stokers (SS) are the most common.
1. MB with gravity feeding
A. Chain or traveling grates (CG/TG)
B. Reciprocating or pulsating grates (RG/PG)
2. SB with spreader feeding
A. CG/TG
B. Dumping grates (DG)
Other types of grates for wood and bagasse firing are
Pinhole grates (PHGs) for low- and high-moisture fuels (up to 55% moisture)
Inclined water-cooled grates (IWCGs) for even higher-moisture fuels (up to 70% moisture)
Both are stationary grates, and combustion is by pile burning. They are discussed in detail in
Chapter 9.
Based on the type of feeding, the stokers are classified as follows:
Underfeed stokers
Overfeed stokers
Underfeed stokers have both coal and air feeding from the bottom of the grate and ash
discharging from the sides. The boiler capacities are very small for single and doubleretort
stokers. Multiple-retort stokers can be built in large sizes. This type of stoker has practically
disappeared from industrial use, surviving only in small pockets for niche applications, where
good coal is available.
Overfeed stokers have coal feeding from the top of the grate and air from the bottom. Mass
burning and SB are the two principles of overfeeding, where mass feeding is by gravity and
spreader feeding is by throw. Even in overfeed stokers the gravity-fed MB boilers now have
very little market, but many units were built to fairly large sizes when the coals were good.
But the overfeed SS, with either over or under-throw design, with substantial combustion
in suspension is more versatile and enduring. Spreader stokers can be combined with any
grateCG/TG, DG, and RG/PG. Table 11.1 lists the workings of the various grates.

There is practically no solid fuel that cannot be burnt satisfactorily in a stoker. Table 11.2
examines the compatibility of the various stokers and fuels.
Among all the systems SS, with suspension firing, is exceptionally versatile, flexible, and
dynamic and hence became the workhorse of the industry and small utilities by the 1930s.
Well into the 1960s, SSs were employed in the utilities for units up to 50 MW and even
higher with good coals. The largest SS-fired boiler built appears to be 80 MW on lignite. As
the average sizes for the utility units grew, the SSs were left behind.
Fuel (PF) was for utilities, and SSs for captive and cogen power and process steam were
prominent for decades. The position started to change only in the 1980s because of the
following four factors:
1. Deteriorating quality of coals across the globe, along with hardening of prices. Stokers
demand good quality coals with proper sizing, as the performance is very sensitive to size,
fines, and ash. They are also not capable of dealing with much sulfur in fuel.
2. The emerging pollution norms were beyond the ability of stokers to meet effectively and
efficiently.
3. More efficient technology in the form of FBC, which is also more fuel-flexible and
ecofriendly. The low-temperature combustion and in-furnace desulfurization answered the
pollution issues.
4. Larger sizes required by utilities.
Although the reign of the stokers has practically ended for coal firing, interest in
Firing of ecofriendly biofuels worldwide
Bagasse-based cogen in tropical regions
Woodchips-based power generation in temperate climates
Municipal refuse firing worldwide
Is giving a fresh life to stokers. Biofuels do not contain sulfur (<0.1%) and the fuel moisture
depresses the combustion temperatures; hence, the formation of SOx and NOx is no longer
the issue. At the same time, biofuel is an area where FBC is not strong as most fuels are too
light and fluffy to work well and present no advantage in combustion efficiency. Further, as
necessary ash is not present in the fuels for bed replenishment, the arrangement works out to
be comparatively expensive. Stokers present an elegant and economical solution in this
growing market, although the present situation cannot be compared with the former good
times.

Although stokers are employed primarily for biofuel firing, coal firing is practiced on stokers
for auxiliary and supplementary or alternate fuel duties as biofuel availability is seasonal and
shortfalls are normal.
The following points are common to all designs.
Grates and Stokers
The grate and stoker terms are used interchangeably in the industry. Grate is the flat bed at
the furnace bottom, which is either stationary or moving, on which the fuel burns. When
combined with the fuel distributors it becomes a stoker. Fuel distributors for spreading the
fuel on grate are also called stokers.
Solid fuel is delivered by gravity or flight, and air is admitted mainly from below the grate to
burn the fuel. Part of the air is delivered above the grate for burning the volatiles and fines.
The ash is conveyed to the ash pit. The grate or bed firing burns slowly on the grate and
suspension firing burns vigorously above the grate.
CG versus TG
These two terms are also used interchangeably in the industry. In CGs the individual stoker
links (Figure 11.1) transmit the chain forces and experience the tensile loads caused in the
movement of grate. In the TGs, the stoker links (Figure 11.2) rest on bulb or T-bars, which
are attached to the chains experiencing the loads. The grate bars are not subject to any forces.

FIGURE 11.2
Typical link of traveling grate.

As the grate bars are not under load, it is possible to build TGs of larger size. Chain grates
tend to be lighter and more rigid because the additional members such as bulbs and T-bars are
not present. But the links of the CG have to be stronger to withstand the forces of
transmission. The big advantage of TGs is the ability of the links to break loose and dangle

FIGURE 11.1
Typical link of chain grate.

Vertically in the return travel, making it possible for the ash to drop into the hopper below.
Tip and jolt bars are added to further scrape the top surface.
Using Same Grate for Mass and Spreader Burning
The grate carries the fuel through the various burning zones until the combustion is complete.
It is advantageous to have the same stoker construction for both types of firing provided the
following conditions are met.
The combustion processes differ based on fuel bed thicknesses requiring different airpressure drops in the grate, 55 and 40 mm w. g. (2 M and 1 V in. w. g.) for mass and spreader,
respectively. The grate link construction has to be modified to reduce the area exposed to air.
In most cases the stoker has to travel forward in SB and backward in MB.
Some grates can work with both types of feeding.
Moistening of Coal before Firing
In all types of stokers it is necessary to moisten the coal so that it forms a loose lump when
pressed. This would correspond to ~10% free moisture. This moistening is done on coal
conveyors in the yard or the coal chutes or both. Water and steam sprays are both employed.
The purpose of moistening is to
Make the coal bed porous by streams of steam (formed on water evaporation), to improve
combustion quality.
Make the coal fines stick to the lumps so that they burn. This improves the combustion
efficiency by better burning and reduced unburnt loss and minimizes dust.
Clinker
Clinker is the molten ash slag that accumulates coal and ash particles on its surface and turns

into a lump. Clinker is a nightmare to any boiler operator. Ash fusing at high temperature and
forming small clinker toward the discharge end of a grate are normal to an extent and cause
no disruption. But when it grows in size and disturbs the grate operation, a chain reaction
promotes more clinker and there can be total disruption of fire.
Melting of ash, which is the root cause of clinker formation, arises from
High alkali content of the ash, which results in low ash-melting temperature.
Presence of reducing conditions that depress the melting temperature of normal ash (see
Figure 3.12) due to low amounts or poor distribution of air.
High-swelling coals that swell disproportionately and agglomerate in plastic condition,
disrupting the air distribution pattern and creating reducing conditions.
High fines in coal that attach themselves to the burning coal whose ash is in a semimolten
state.
Agitation of actively burning coal bed. This makes the semimolten ash spread and hold
other coal pieces, fines, and ash particles to form a lump, which disturbs the bed conditions
and keeps growing. Reciprocating grates are not suited for coals for this reason. Even
nonagglomerating coals clinker with bed agitation.
Segregation of coal across the width of the bed resulting in an uneven distribution of coal
and air, resulting in patches of air leading to reducing conditions.
Uneven coal flow and airflows in the grate, which creates conditions similar to segregation.
One-sided entry of primary air (PA), shallow ash-air hoppers, substoichiometric conditions,
and improper air seals leading to reduced conditions in the bed.
Clinker formation leads to disturbance in steam generation and consequential losses.
Segregation of coal, high percentage of fines, and air-fuel mismatch are the issues that may
need correction. Ash and coal properties are to be checked next.
Coal Segregation
In coal crushing and subsequent sizing, generation of fines is natural. But separation of fines
and large pieces adversely affect the combustion efficiency in any stoker, and every effort is
needed to prevent such separation. This separation is found to take place as coal travels from
bunker to hopper. The following two methods help in achieving even distribution of coal:
1. Traversing chute (Figure 11.3) spanning the width of the hopper so that the coal is evenly
fed.
2. Antisegregation chute (Figure 11.4) where coal is made to travel from the inlet to the outlet
on the bottom plate of a parabolic chute so that the fines and lumps spread evenly. The

bottom of the chute is bolted to the coal hopper in front of the boiler.
The traversing chute is the better in terms of even distribution of coal but involves more
complicated construction and more headroom.
Smooth flow of coal from bunker to hopper without any hang-ups is very important. This is
ensured by keeping the inclination of the chutes at >60 to the horizontal. Steam connections
for coal moistening are installed at the top of the chutes with the help of ~6 mm connections
at the bottom side. For abrasive and moist coals, causing wear and rust, respectively, the
chutes are made of stainless steel (ss). Glass lining of the traversing chutes is another popular
method.
Coal Sizing
Coal sizing is perhaps the most important characteristic affecting the performance of stokers.
When coal is naturally crushed, fines are generated. Every coal transfer during the transport
from mine to yard adds to the fines.