Q1 a)

I - Reflector
A reflector is a "parasitic" element because it is not electrically connected to the dipole or
downlead/feeder; it is a length of conductor, usually aluminum, of length around 5% longer than
the dipole, mounted behind the dipole. If the reflector-dipole spacing is set at 0.15 to 0.25
electrical wavelengths, then the potential difference induced in it lags that developed across the
dipole by 180 degrees, which causes a lagging current to flow in the director (see next
paragraph). Thus, if the signal travels through the dipole to the reflector and reaches the dipole
once more in phase with the signal on the dipole (180 + 180 = 360 degrees behind or 1 whole
wavelength behind) and hence the two signals add, giving a stronger signal at the receiver. If the
signal is behind the antenna, the radiations at the dipole and from the reflector subtract, giving a
weaker signal at the receiver. Hence, the antenna is more directional.
II - Director
Further increases in gain and directionality can be achieved if an additional parasitic element or
"director" is added, 5% shorter than the dipole and the 0.1 to 0.15 wavelengths in front of it.
When the dipole radiates, a potential difference is induced in the director and a leading current
flows in it. It re-radiates and again adds to or subtracts from the radiations at the dipole,
increasing or decreasing the signal going to the receiver, depending on the direction in which the
antenna is pointing relative to the transmitter. Further directors can be added, but as the number
of directors is increased, so the contribution made by the director decreases and almost levels out
after 12 or so directors.
b) - A parasitic element is an element that is not directly connected to the feed line. Parasitic
elements are used for the purpose of obtaining directional power gain. Generally, parasitic
elements can be classified as either directors or reflectors; hence they work in opposite ways.
Parasitic elements operate by electromagnetic coupling to the driven element. Parasitic elements
are parallel to radiating element, at a specific distance from it, and of a certain length, causes the
radiation pattern to show gain in one direction and loss in the opposite direction.
c) The addition of one or more parasitic elements reduces the input impedance to perhaps, 50
with just a reflector and single- director assembly, or perhaps only 20 if several
directors are fitted. Then the reduction in input impedance caused by the addition of parasitic
elements would result in a impedance somewhere in the region of the 50 or 70
characteristic impedance of the cable.

d) The input impedance of the folded dipole is four times larger than that of the straight dipole,
i.e. it is equal to 4 x 73 = 292 . Impedance multiplying factors other than the four are
possible by making the two halves of the folded dipole from different-diameter rods. The
bandwidth of the Yagi array is also increased by the use of a folded dipole.

Q 2- a)1-Surface modes (ground wave)

In this mode the radio wave propagates by interacting with the semi-conductive surface of the
earth. The wave "clings" to the surface and thus follows the curvature of the earth. Vertical
polarization is used to alleviate short circuiting the electric field through the conductivity of the
ground. Since the ground is not a perfect electrical conductor, ground waves are attenuated
rapidly as they follow the earths surface. Attenuation is proportional to the frequency making
this mode mainly useful for LF and VLF frequencies (see also Earth-ionosphere waveguide).
2-Direct modes (line-of-sight)
Line-of-sight is the direct propagation of radio waves between antennas that are visible to each
other. This is probably the most common of the radio propagation modes at VHF and higher
frequencies. Because radio signals can travel through many non-metallic objects, radio can be
picked up through walls. This is still line-of-sight propagation. Examples would include
propagation between a satellite and a ground antenna or reception of television signals from a
local TV transmitter.
3-Ionospheric modes (sky wave)
Sky wave propagation, also referred to as skip, is any of the modes that rely on refraction of
radio waves in the ionosphere, which is made up of one or more ionized layers in the upper
atmosphere. F2-layer is the most important ionosphere layer for long-distance, multiple-hop HF
propagation, though F1, E, and D-layers also play significant roles. The D-layer, when present
during sunlight periods, causes significant amount of signal loss, as does the E-layer whose
maximum usable frequency can rise to 4 MHz and above and thus block higher frequency
signals from reaching the F2-layer. The layers, or more appropriately "regions", are directly
affected by the sun on a daily diurnal cycle, a seasonal cycle and the 11-year sunspot cycle and
determine the utility of these modes. During solar maxima, or sunspot highs and peaks, the
whole HF range up to 30 MHz can be used usually around the clock and F2 propagation up to
50 MHz is observed frequently depending upon daily solar flux 10.7cm radiation values. During

solar minima, or minimum sunspot counts down to zero, propagation of frequencies above
15 MHz is generally unavailable.

4-Tropospheric modes
Tropospheric scattering
At VHF and higher frequencies, small variations (turbulence) in the density of the atmosphere at
a height of around 6 miles (10 km) can scatter some of the normally line-of-sight beam of radio
the frequency energy back toward the ground, allowing over-the-horizon communication
between stations as far as 500 miles (800 km) apart. The military developed the White Alice
Communications System covering all of Alaska, using this tropospheric scattering principle.
5- Knife-Edge diffraction
Is the propagation mode where radio waves are bent around sharp edges. For example, this mode
is used to send radio signals over a mountain range when a line-of-sight path is not available.
However, the angle cannot be too sharp or the signal will not diffract. The diffraction mode
requires increased signal strength, so higher power or better antennas will be needed than for an
equivalent line-of-sight path.
b) Radio frequency bands.
Frequency band
10 -30 KHz
30 300 KHz
300 3000 KHz
3 30 MHz
30 300 MHz
300 3000 MHz
3 30 GHz

Classification

Abbreviation

Very low
Low
Medium
High
Very high
Ultra high
Super high

VLF
LF
MF
HF
VHF
UHF
SHF

81 N
f2
()

1
c) I - sin

81 N
f2
()

1
sin 60 =

81 N
f2

1
0.866 =

81 N
2
f
()2

1
2

(0.866)

(0.866)

= 1-

81 N
f2

(0.866)21 =

0.75

1 =

0.25 =

81 N
2
f
81 N
f2

81 N
f2

81 N
2
f

0.25 =

2
0.25 f =

81 N
f2
2
x
f

2
0.25 f = 81N

0.25 f
0.25

81 N
0.25

81 N
0.25

f2 =

81 N
0.25

81 x 6 x 1011
0.25

1.94 x 1015

f = 13. 943 MHz

IIsin =

30=
sin

0.5 =

0.25 =

( 181 N )
f2

( 181 N )
f2

( 181 x 6 x 1011 )
f

1( 81 x 6 x 10 11 )
f2

( 81 x 6 x 1011 )
0.75

f = 8.5 MHz

d) I- Fading
Is deviation of the attenuation affecting a signal over certain propagation media. The fading may
vary with time, geographical position or radio frequency, and is often modeled as a random
process. A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading. In wireless
systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath induced
fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles affecting the.
II - General fading- is introduced describing the nonlinearity, and at the same time the
non-homogeneous nature of the propagation medium.
III- Selective fading
Is a radio propagation anomaly caused by partial cancellation of a radio signal by itself the
signal arrives at the receiver by two different paths, and at least one of the paths is changing
(lengthening or shortening). This typically happens in the early evening or early morning as the
various layers in the ionosphere move, separate, and combine. The two paths can both be sky
wave or one is ground wave.
Selective fading manifests as a slow, cyclic disturbance; the cancellation effect, or "null", is
deepest at one particular frequency, which changes constantly, sweeping through the received
audio.

Q3- a) - Demodulation Is extracting the original information-bearing signal from a modulated

carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or computer program in a software-defined
radio) that is used to recover the information content from the modulated carrier wave.

b)

Most practical envelope detectors use either half- wave or full- wave rectification of the signal to
convert the AC audio into a pulsed DC signal. Filtering is then used to smooth the final result.
This filtering is rarely perfect and some ripple is likely to remain on the envelope follower
output, particularly for low frequency inputs such as notes from a base guitar. More filtering
gives a smoother result, but decreases the responsiveness, thus real-world designs must be
optimized for the application.
The folded element of the folded dipole antenna has a transmission line effect attached with it. It
can be viewed that the impedance of the dipole appears in parallel with the impedance of the
shorted transmission line sections, although the arguments for the impedance given above still
hold true - it is just another way of looking at the same issue.
The length is affected by this effect. Normally the wavelength of a standing wave in a feeder is
affected by the velocity factor. If air is used, this will by around 95% of the free space value.
However if a flat feeder with a lower velocity factor is used, then this will have the effect of
shortening the required length.
The feeder effect also results in the folded dipole antenna having a flatter response, i.e. a wider
bandwidth than a non-folded dipole.
It occurs because at a frequency away from resonance, the reactance of the dipole is of the
opposite form from that of the sorted transmission line and as a result there is some reactance
cancellation at the feed point of the antenna.

c) When transmitting SSB-SC you need half the power. When receiving the band is half
clouded. SSB is much faster to tune on. With DSB, when tuning, one must tune on zero
point(missing carrier) in order to achieve accurate response. SSB is two types- USB and LSB.

In DSD SC the transmitted power is more as the name suggest it is double side band with
suppress carrier.

Q4 - a)-

In a direct FM method of generating FM signal, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal
is varied directly by the amplitude variation of message signal (generally called a modulating
signal).
So the message signal applied to changes the capacitance of the varactor diode MV2201 which
in turn changes the frequency of the carrier signal oscillator. In effect, the variation of the
amplitude of the message signal changes the frequency of the oscillating.

b) - Automatic gain control (AGC; also called automatic voltage gain) is a closedloop feedback regulating circuit, the purpose of which is to provide a controlled signal amplitude
at its output, despite variation of the amplitude in the input signal. The average or peak output
signal level is used to dynamically adjust the input-to-output gain to a suitable value, enabling
the circuit to work satisfactorily with a greater range of input signal levels. It is used in
most radio receivers to equalize the average volume (loudness) of different radio stations due to
differences in received signal strength, as well as variations in a single station's radio signal due
to fading. Without AGC the sound emitted from an AM radio receiver would vary to an extreme
extent from a weak to a strong signal; the AGC effectively reduces the volume if the signal is
strong and raises it when it is weaker.
The signal to be gain controlled (the detector output in a radio) goes to a diode & capacitor,
which produce a peak-following DC voltage. This is fed to the RF gain blocks to alter their bias,
thus altering their gain. Traditionally all the gain-controlled stages came before the signal
detection, but it is also possible to improve gain control by adding a gain-controlled stage after
signal detection.

C) The capture effect, or FM capture effect, is a phenomenon associated with FM reception in

which only the stronger of two signals at, or near, the same frequency or channel will be
demodulated.
The capture effect is the defined as the complete suppression of the weaker signal at the receiver
limiter ( if it has one ) where the weaker signal is not amplified, but attenuated. When both
signals are nearly equal in strength, or are fading independently, the receiver may switch from
one to the other and exhibit picket fencing.
The capture effect can occur at the signal limiter, or in the demodulation stage, for circuits that
do not require a signal limiter some types of radio receiver circuits have a strong capture effect
than others. The measurement of how well a receiver can reject a second signal on the same
frequency is called the capture ratio for a specific receiver. It is measured as the lowest ratio of
the power of two signals that will result in the suppression of the smaller signal.