ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS

ADVANCED QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS IN RESEARCH

STUDIES

ABSTRACT
Research is at times mistaken for gathering information, documenting facts,
and rummaging for information. Research is the process of collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting data in order to understand a phenomenon. The
three common approaches to conducting research are quantitative,
qualitative, and mixed methods. This paper examines quantitative and
qualitative research methods. The research process is systematic in that
defining the objective, managing the data, and communicating the findings
occur within established frameworks and in accordance with existing
guidelines. The frameworks and guidelines provide researchers with an
indication of what to include in the research, how to perform the research,
and what types of inferences are probable based on the data collected.
The purpose of this paper on one hand is to explore the usage of advanced
qualitative and quantitative research methods in hospitality and tourism
studies while on the other hand to examine the challenges and opportunities
that a researcher in the hospitality and tourism industry undergoes in
adoption of either said research methods. This paper provides a briefing on
the two research methods, merits of both methods, techniques employed by
each method and types of studies being done and some of the important
results being generated by both methods.
Qualitative research method has been criticized widely in other disciplines
for lack of scientific rigor while quantitative research method remains
widely accepted and adopted in most cases of scientific research studies.
Increasing the quality and quantity of qualitative and quantitative research
in hospitality and tourism studies requires two things, an increase in the
acceptance and appreciation of both techniques, and an increase in training
in their use among researchers. Recognition of what qualitative and
quantitative research has contributed to the hospitality and tourism field is
so far is a starting point.
Keywords: Qualitative research, Quantitative research

INTRODUCTION
Research on education has and will continue to produce growing bodies of
knowledge. This knowledge growth does not naturally occur, rather, It is
produced through the inquiries of scholars - empiricists, theorists,
practitioners and is therefore a function of the kinds of questions asked,
problems posed, and issues framed by those who do research. There are
diverse communities involved in research on teaching and these
communities can be divided into two general categories of study:
quantitative research and qualitative research (Shulman, 1986). While most
in the field of education recognize the existence of these two general
approaches for conducting educational research: quantitative and
qualitative, there seems to be two perspectives as to how these different
approaches are viewed and conducted. Some researchers are exclusively
affiliated with one or the other approach. Hoepfl (1997), Neill (2007) and
Firestone (1987) suggest that it is not necessary to pit one approach against
the other, Siegle (2002) notes that each approach functions with different
assumptions and It is unfair to judge qualitative research by a quantitative
research paradigm, just as it is unfair to judge quantitative research from
the qualitative research paradigm. Each approach should be judged by its
own standards. Furthermore, Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996) suggest that at an
epistemological level it is not clear that one approach has a greater claim to
truth than the other, rather it should be noted that both approaches have
helped educational researchers make important discoveries. Bogdan and
Biklen (1998) explain that there is no best method because the choice
depends on what you are studying and what you want to find out while
Krathwohl (1998) and Howe & Eisenhart (1990), argue that coming from
the same perspective, suggest that the appropriate approach is determined
by the research question.
Until about the middle of the 1970's the majority of research on was
conducted using a quantitative approach.
More recently, qualitative
research and hybrid studies have become more prevalent (McMillan, 2000).
McMillan asserts that quantitative and qualitative research each has its own
research types or models. Quantitatively, a distinction is made between
experimental and non-experimental research. In experimental research,
researchers have control over one or more factors (variables). Three types
of experimental research include: true experimental, random assignment of
subjects; quasi-experimental, subjects not randomly assigned; and singlesubject, focused on an individual or a few persons. Non-experimental

research can be classified as: descriptive, simple information about

frequency or amount; comparative, differences between groups on a
variable; correlational relationships among two or more variables; and
causal comparative, or ex post facto, relationships between past and
subsequent responses (McMillan, 2000). Qualitative research is referred to
as interpretive research by Erickson (1986) and he suggests that the term
qualitative essentially carries the distinction of being non-quantitative.
Denzin and Lincoln (1994) seem to agree as they explain that qualitative
research can be viewed as a set of interpretive practices where no single
practice has privilege over any other. They claim that qualitative research
includes constructivism, cultural studies, feminism, Marxism, and ethnic
studies.
A quantitative approach is one in which the investigatory primarily uses
postpositive claims for developing knowledge (i.e., cause and effect
thinking, reduction to specific variables and hypotheses and questions, use
of measurement and observation, and the test of theories), employs
strategies of inquiry such as experiments and surveys, and collect data on
predetermined instruments that yield statistics data.
Postpositive knowledge claims, experimental strategy of inquiry, and preand posttest measures of attitudes. In this scenario, the researcher tests a
theory by specifying narrow hypotheses and the collection of data to
support or refute the hypotheses. An experimental design is used in which
attitudes are assessed both before and after an experimental treatment. The
data are collected on an instrument that measures attitudes, and he
information collected is analyzed using statistical procedures and
hypothesis testing.
Alternatively, a qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer often
makes knowledge claims based primarily on constructivist perspectives
(i.e., the multiple meanings of individual experiences meanings socially and
historically constructed, with an intent of developing a theory or pattern) or
advocacy/participatory
perspectives
(i.e.,
political,
issue-oriented,
collaborative, or change oriented) or both. It also sues strategies of inquiry
such as narratives, phenomenologies, ethnographies, grounded theory
studies, or case studies. The researcher collect open-ended, emerging data
with the primary intent of developing themes from the data.
A constructivist knowledge claims, ethnographic design, and observation of
behavior. In this situation the researcher seeks to establish the meaning of a

phenomenon from the view of participants. This means identifying a culturesharing group and studying how it developed shared patterns of behavior
over time (i.e., ethnography). One of the key elements of collecting data is
to observe participants behaviors by participating in their activities.
COMPARISONS OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
UNDER THE FOLLOWING AREAS;
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
In trying to differentiate between these two research approaches, it may
help to consider each programs goal for conducting research on teaching.
From a quantitative aspect, the goal of research is collecting facts of
human behavior, which when accumulated will provide verification and
elaboration on a theory that will allow scientists to state causes and predict
human behavior (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998, p. 38). On the other hand, the
goal of qualitative research is to better understand human behavior and
experience grasp the processes by which people construct meaning and to
describe what those meaning are (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998, p. 38). The goal
of quantitative research can be: to show relationships between variables,
statistical description and establishing facts (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998),
validation (Krathwohl, 1998), prediction and control (Gage, 1989), and
testing hypotheses (Gall, et al., 1996). Conversely, the goal of qualitative
research, depending on the conceptual framework of the study (cultural
studies, feminism, post modernism, and critical theory), can be to develop
understanding (Maxwell, 1996; Bogdan & Biklen,1998), describe multiple
realities, develop grounded theory (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998), description
(Krathwohl, 1998), generation of insight (Gall, et al., 1996), and giving
voice and empowerment to the maginalized in society (Cherryholmes,1993).

QUESTIONS/HYPOTHESIS
In many quantitative studies, the research question or hypotheses usually
follows the review of the literature. The researcher uses the theories,
results, and findings of other studies in order to form a hypothesis to test. A
hypothesis is an informed guess or prediction that indicates what the

researcher thinks the results will be before the study is carried out
(McMillan, 2000). This type of inquiry usually produces a research design
that is structured, formal, and specific, outlining a detailed plan of
operation (Bogdan & Biklen, 1998). In qualitative studies there are two
general positions on question/design matters depending on the researchers
view. The first is an emergent study where the design is somewhat open
and loose and the researcher is immersed in the situations to see what
emerges. This is an inductive process where the researcher relies on what
is observed in the field to develop a grounded theory rather than imposing a
particular framework on the study by reviewing the literature first
(Krathwohl, 1998).

THE RESPONDENTS
In many quantitative research situations, it is not feasible to involve all
members of the population being studied, so a subset of the population, a
sample, is usually randomly selected (Jurs, 1998). The random selection is
to ensure that the characteristics of the subjects in the study appear in the
same proportion as they exist in the total population (Bogdan & Biklen,
1998). Those being researched in a qualitative study are selected in what
Bogdan and Bicklin refer to as a purposeful sampling.
Particular
participants are chosen for a qualitative study because they are believed to
facilitate the expansion of the developing theory.

THE RESEARCHER
Looking at the quantitative approach, Shulman (1986) speaks of the
positivistic or etic (own point of view) perspective of the researcher as, an
outside observer attempting to discover a law of relationships among
observable features. McMillan (2000) explains that the researcher has a
neutral role where he or she remains detached, uninvolved, and distant.
Erickson (1986) refers to quantitative research as process/product research
where the role of the researcher, for example, is to look at causal links
between teacher effectiveness, as measured on end of the year tests, and
particular teaching practices.
Whereas, the qualitative, interpretive and emic (others points of view)
approach, according to Shulman (1986), the interpretive perspective

focuses on discovering the meanings constructed by the participants as

they attempt to make sense of the circumstances they both encounter and
create. The interpretive researchers role is involved, trusting, intense and
close to the participants (McMillan, 2000; Bogdan & Biklen, 1998).
Erickson (1986) proposes that the task of the researcher is to discover
specific ways local and nonlocal social organizations and culture relate to
activities of specific purpose in making choices and conducting social action
together

DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS

Data for a quantitative study are quantitative, quantifiable coding with
counts and measures and operationalized variables (Bogdan & Biklen,
1998). Preconceived concepts and theories are used to determine what
data will be collected. Numerical data are generated to represent the social
environment, and statistical methods and deductive reasoning are utilized
to analyze data. Statistical inference procedures are used to generalize
findings from a sample to a defined population. Impersonal, objective
reports usually summarize quantitative research findings (Gall, et al., 1996).
Three kinds of data collection are utilized with qualitative research:
interviews, observations, and written documents (Patton, 1990). Most data
comes from fieldwork where the researcher spends time in the setting
under study. The researcher makes first-hand observations of activities and
interactions, sometimes engaging personally in those activities as a
participant observer (Patton, 1990).
Data analysis is an ongoing,
inductive process where data are sorted, sifted through, read and reread.
With some methods, codes are assigned to certain themes and patterns that
emerge. Categories are formed and restructured until the relationships
seem appropriately represented, and the story and interpretation can be
written (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
SUMMARY OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODS
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
Leedy and Ormrod (2001) alleged that quantitative research is specific in its
surveying and experimentation, as it builds upon existing theories. The
methodology of a quantitative research maintains the assumption of an

empiricist paradigm (Creswell, 2003). The research itself is independent of

the researcher. As a result, data is used to objectively measure reality.
Quantitative research creates meaning through objectivity uncovered in the
collected data.
Quantitative researchers seek explanations and predictions that will
generate to other persons and places. The intent is to establish, confirm, or
validate relationships and to develop generalizations that contribute to
theory (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001). Quantitative research begins with a
problem statement and involves the formation of a hypothesis, a literature
review, and a quantitative data analysis. Creswell (2003) states, quantitative
research employ strategies of inquiry such as experimental and surveys,
and collect data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical data.
The findings from quantitative research can be predictive, explanatory, and
confirming. The next section focuses on quantitative research methodology.
Quantitative research involves the collection of data so that information can
be quantified and subjected to statistical treatment in order to support or
refute alternate knowledge claims (Creswell, 2003, p. 153). Creswell,
(2002) asserts that quantitative research originated in the physical
sciences, particularly in chemistry and physics. The researcher uses
mathematical models as the methodology of data analysis. Three historical
trends pertaining to quantitative research include research design, test and
measurement procedures, and statistical analysis. Quantitative research
also involves data collection that is typically numeric and the researcher
tends to use mathematical models as the methodology of data analysis.
Additionally, the researcher uses the inquiry methods to ensure alignment
with statistical data collection methodology (Williams, 2007). There are
three broad classifications of quantitative research: descriptive
experimental and causal comparative (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001). The
descriptive research approach is a basic research method that examines the
situation, as it exists in its current state. Descriptive research involves
identification of attributes of a particular phenomenon based on an
observational basis, or the exploration of correlation between two or more
phenomena (Williams, 2007).
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
Qualitative research is a holistic approach that involves discovery.
Qualitative research is also described as an unfolding model that occurs in a

natural setting that enables the researcher to develop a level of detail from
high involvement in the actual experiences (Creswell, 1994).
What constitutes qualitative research involves purposeful use for
describing, explaining, and interpreting collected data. Leedy and Ormrod
(2001) alleged that qualitative research is less structured in description
because it formulates and builds new theories. Qualitative research can
also be described as an effective model that occurs in a natural setting that
enables the researcher to develop a level of detail from being highly
involved in the actual experiences (Creswell, 2003).
Qualitative research is conducted within a poststructuralist paradigm.
There are five areas of qualitative research: case study, ethnography study,
phenomenological study, grounded theory study, and content analysis. These
five areas are representative of research that is built upon inductive
reasoning and associated methodologies. Qualitative research builds its
premises on inductive, rather than deductive reasoning. It is from the
observational elements that pose questions that the researcher attempts to
explain. The strong correlation between the observer and the data is a
marked difference from quantitative research, where the researcher is
strictly outside of the phenomena being investigated. There is no beginning
point of truth or any established assumptions from which the researcher
can begin (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001).
There are several different methods for conducting a qualitative research;
however, Leedy and Ormrod (2001) recommend the following five: Case
studies,
grounded
theory,
ethnography,
content
analysis,
and
phenomenological. Creswell (2003) describes how these methods meet
different needs. For instance, case studies and the grounded theory
research explore processes, activities, and events while ethnographic
research analyses broad cultural-sharing behaviors of individuals or groups.
Case studies as well as phenomenology can be used to study individuals.
TABLE 1. FEATURES OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
RESAERCH
Qualitative

Quantitative

"All research ultimately has

a qualitative grounding"

"There's no such thing

as qualitative data.

- Donald Campbell

Everything is either 1 or
0"
- Fred Kerlinger

The aim is a complete, detailed

description.

The aim is to classify

features, count them,
and construct statistical
models in an attempt to
explain what is
observed.

Researcher may only know roughly

in advance what he/she is looking
for.

Researcher knows
clearly in advance what
he/she is looking for.

Recommended during earlier

phases of research projects.

Recommended during
latter phases of research
projects.

The design emerges as the study

unfolds.

All aspects of the study

are carefully designed
before data is collected.

Researcher is the data gathering

instrument.

Researcher uses tools,

such as questionnaires
or equipment to collect
numerical data.

Data is in the form of words,

pictures or objects.

Data is in the form of

numbers and statistics.

Subjective - individuals?
interpretation of events is
important ,e.g., uses participant
observation, in-depth interviews
etc.

Objective ? seeks
precise measurement &
analysis of target
concepts, e.g., uses
surveys, questionnaires
etc.

Qualitative data is more 'rich', time

Quantitative data is

consuming, and less able to be

generalized.

more efficient, able to

test hypotheses, but may
miss contextual detail.

Researcher tends to become

subjectively immersed in the
subject matter.

Researcher tends to
remain objectively
separated from the
subject matter.

Source: Miles & Huberman (1994)

CONCLUSIONS
Quantitative and qualitative research methods investigate and explore the
different claims to knowledge and both methods are designed to address a
specific type of research question. While the quantitative method provides
an objective measure of reality, the qualitative method allows the
researcher to explore and better understand the complexity of a
phenomenon. This paper presented a clear statement of what constitutes
quantitative and qualitative research designs and summarized techniques
used to conduct studies for both research approaches.

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