UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING
COURSE CODE: CEC 204

YEAR 2- SE MESTER 2
THEORY
Version 1: December 2008

CEC 204
Introduction to Highway Engineering: Theory

Index
WEEK 1

1.0

INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

WEEK 2

2.0

THE HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF

HIGHWAY IN NIGERIA
2.1

WEEK 3

3.0

4.0

WEEK 5

WEEK 6
WEEK 7

5.0

History of Highway in Nigeria

HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATIONAND
FINANCING IN NIGERIA
3.1
3.2

WEEK 4

Highway Definition
Activities necessitating movement of people
General Road Classification
Nigerian Road Classification
Benefit accruable from Provision of Highway

Highway Administration in Nigeria

Financing of Highway

TERMS USED IN HIGHWAY SCHEME

4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2

Users of Road
Driver Characteristics
Pedestrian Characteristics
Vehicular Characteristic

4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.4

Design requirement for a Highway Scheme

Traffic Characteristic for Design
Design Speed
Road Alignment
Cross Sectional Elements
Gradient
Sight Distances

COMPACTION OF SOILS
5.1
5.2

Soil Compaction and Consolidation

Strength Variation with varying degree of
water content
2

WEEK 8

6.0 PROCESSES OF PAVEMENT

CONSTRUCTION.
6.1
6.2
6.3

Types of Pavement
Pavement Structure and Functions
Difference between Flexible and Rigid

6.4
6.5

Preparation of construction of a Road base

Borrow Pits

WEEK 9

6.6

Joints in Rigid Pavement

WEEK 10

6.7
Stages of Road Construction
6.7.1 Construction of Flexible Pavement
6.7.2 Procedure for establishing Pavement

Pavement

structure
6.7.3 Construction of high type Asphaltic Concrete
Roads

WEEK 11

7.0

EQUIPMENT IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION

7.1

7.2
WEEK 12

8.0

Uses of Equipment
Economy, Cost, adaptability and versatility.

MATERIALS FOR PAVEMENT

CONSTRUCTION
8.1 Aggregate and Binding Material

WEEK 13

WEEK 14

9.0

8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.1.4

Gravel
Sand
Slag
Bituminous materials

8.2
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.2.4

Preparation of material
Requirement and tests for Aggregates
Uses of sand
Tests for Preparing Bituminous material
Cement

MAINTENANCE OF PAVEMENT
9.1

Types of Pavement Defects and Causes

WEEK 15

9.2
9.3
9.4

Defects in Rigid Pavements

Repair of Defective Pavements
Prevention of Defect Development

WEEK ONE
1.0

INTRODUCTION
Highway Engineering deals with provisions for meeting public needs for
highways, environmental impact planning, budgeting, design, construction,
maintenance and rehabilitation of highways, access to and exit from highway,
economics and financing of highway construction, traffic control; and safety
of those using or affected by the use of the highways.
The planning and consideration of financing is normally done before design
and construction of a new road. The planning process include estimation of
traffic requirement of an area for a stipulated design period, usually 20 years,
as well as the construction method that will be adopted.
An inventory study is carried out for information about the physical features of
existing facilities. Also, volume, character and distribution of existing traffic
are assessed. Detailed design is carried out after a suitable and acceptable
route is selected. Selecting the best route depends on: -

i.

Traffic requirement

ii.

Value of land needed for right of way and

iii.

Estimated cost of construction of numerous plans

1.1.1 Highway Definition

A highway is considered a conduit that carries vehicular traffic from one
location to another. It is a general term which defines a public way provided
for use of vehicular traffic including the entire area within the strip of land
reserved by mutual consent or acquired by statutory regulations.
A typical highway should be constructed in such a way that will enable the
operators of vehicle to have a clear view ahead of lines, curves, horizontal and
vertical alignment that merged.

1.1.2 Activities necessitating movement of people

The basic reason for providing highway is the necessity for movement of
goods and human beings across several communities, other activities include;
Farming, Educational benefits, Recreation and Social contacts, Employment
opportunities, Medical attentions, Economic prosperity and general
development of the community also defense for maintaining better law and
order. Emergence services rendered by most agencies depend on street and
highway system for optimized efficiency.

1.3

General Road Classification

Roads are classified based on system of routes or groups showing similar
characteristic. The main points considered in classification of roads are
authority responsible for the roads, accessibility to the abutting property,
6

location and functions of the road. The two main types of classification system
are administrative system and functional system.
Administrative System - is based on the governmental responsibly for
construction and maintenance of the highway under this system are:Township roads (ii) Country roads (iii) City roads (iv) States and roads in
federal lands.
Functional System - This is based on grouping of roads for the purpose of
transportation planning and design. The roads under this category range from
expressway which provide a high degree of mobility with access provided at
spaced interchange to preserve the high speed and volume of facility to local
speed roads which mostly provide access to adjacent land area. Functional
highways include expressway, arterials and streets.
Roads also could be classified on the basis of location and function. The roads
under this classification are
i.

Urban roads and

ii.

Rural roads
Urban roads are road network within urban areas and these roads are
Expressway, Arterial, Local street collector roads or streets. Rural roads
consist of federal highways state highways, village roads, local government
roads and DFRRI roads.

1.4

Nigerian Road Classification

The Nigerian road system is classified into four broad categories. These are:-

i.

Trunk A Roads: - This form the major network around which other categories
of roads are built. They run through the length and breadth of the country.
They connect ports, capitals of various states and also provide international
links with neighbouring countries.

ii.

Trunk B Roads:- These are the highway within the states, as they connect
important towns and cities of the states. They also connect the cities of the
states to federal highways end serve as the main arteries of traffic to and from
eh district roads.

iii.

Trunk C Roads:- These are also called local government roads. They are
constructed with nearly the same specifications as those of the state highways.
They are intended to connect areas of production and market with state
highways and railways.

iv.

DFRRI Roads:- These are the least in Nigerian classifying system and they
are connected to major district roads and railways. They are intended to serve
the interior rural population of the district.

1.5

Benefit Accruable from the provision of highway

The users of improved highway facilities benefit from enhanced ease of travel,
safety and economy of time. The owners of abutting property benefit from
better access and increased property value. Good highway system make for
effective emergency service, better street parking. Concentration of people in
urban areas can be greatly reduced, as an efficient transportation encourages
the people to live in places away from their work centres. It thus help in
decreasing the growth of slums in urban area.
Specifically the economic benefits due to provision of highways are:i.

Employment Generation - A considerable number of job is highway related

and expenditure on highway forms a big portion of G.N.P.

ii.

Highway system not only provides direct benefits for its users but impact
heavily on the overall economy. This is due to lowered cost of producing and
distributing products which make up the economy and directly feeds the
G.N.P.

iii.

Makes the defence of the territory against aggression and to guard the borders
easier.

WEEK TWO
2.0

THE HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT OF

HIGHWAY IN NIGERIA

The networks of road existed since ages in all parts of the world historically
people have traveled and goods have been moved by road. Roads as they are
presently metamorphosed from the trails traversed by man and his animals
from ages. Thus these trails deliberately chosen by man became the fore
runners of todays road. As civilization developed and people desire for
communication increased, the early trails become pathways, and the pathways
evolved into recognized travel ways.
The entry of wheeled and later motorized vehicles necessitated an improved
surface for travel thereby resulting in the building of special hard surface to
withstand the hard and concentrated load from traffic.
The first real roads were designed by Roman who needed the extensive road
network to broaden their empire. Romans roads were constructed with stones
generally well above the ground level, being in some cases, on embankments
up to 2m high. Their roads are renowned for their straightness especially
between one hill top and another. The first operation was to cut deep ditches
and then build up an embankment with layers of chalk, flint, sand and gravel
topped off with huge stone slabs.
The structural aspects of road in use today result from the work of John
Macadam which was mainly outstanding as he initiated the use of broken
stones throughout the structure of the road way. The formation was also
shaped to the road camber and was a cheaper form of construction. Due to the
effort of Macadam and Telford, there was a vast improvement in
communications, roads being provided to suit the needs of the traffic.

2.1

History of Highway in Nigeria

There were no motorable roadways in Nigeria before the First World War.
The road network that developed resulted from the Post World War I effort on
the part of those concerned. The road system began in the early 1900s

essentially as a feeder road network for the new rail roads. The practice then
was fashioned after the British standard with aspect of British Engineering
suitable to the country adapted by the colonials Engineers. The road network
then was complimentary to the railways that form the main travel routes.
Integrated road development in Nigeria dates back to 1925, when the road
board was established by the then colonial administration. The board was
given the responsibility to evolved blueprints for trunk road network,
connecting major administrative centres in colonial time. A basic grid of two
north-south trunk roads from Lagos and Port Harcourt to Kano and several
east-west roads, two north and two south of the natural division created by
Niger and Benue rivers.
In later decades, this system was expanded until most state capitals and large
towns were accessible by paved road.
As at 1951, 1,782km out of the total of 44,414km of road built in Nigeria was
surfaced. The roads were lacking in standards design and were in single lane,
with sharp bends and poor drainage system.
The growth of economic activities due to population growth also places
increasing demand for road network to make available the food and other
essential for livelihood.

Consequent upon this, the quality of road

construction was improved as the length and network increased such that by
1952, 15,785km of bituminous surfaces and 75,200km of earth/gravel surface
roads were already in place is Nigeria.
In 1978 an expressway was constructed from Lagos to Ibadan, and a branch of
this route was later extended east to Benin city. Another expressway
connected Port Harcourt with Enugu. In 1990 Nigeria had 108,000km of roads
of which 30,000km were paved, 25,000km were gravel and the rest were
unimproved earth.
The estimated current total road network is about 194,000 kilometers.

10

11

WEEK 3
3.0

HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATIONAND FINANCING IN

NIGERIA
The standard practice in administration of highway is such that the
responsibility for public highway falls under the jurisdiction of government.
This function is fully or partially shared or delegated to the appropriate
ministry /department.
Effective administration pattern is attained by maintaining close contact
among government sections concerned with roads/highways and a clear
description of function as well as responsibilities.

3.1

Highway Administration in Nigeria

The administration of highway in Nigeria does not differ considerably from
the standard practice. The federal ministry of work is the agency designated to
administer the highway program of the Federal Government i.e. they are
responsible for all the road system that form the core of the natural grid. The
Federal ministry of works in conjunction with consulting engineers works
together and recently Ferma was also established to oversee the rehabilitation
and maintenance of road. The various jobs under this agency or organization
are:

(a)

Federal highways

(b)

Roads other than federal highways financed by the ministry.

(c)

Bridge works in the territories

(d)

Roads of interstate or economic importance approved

by the federal

government.
(e)

Administration of federal road funds

(f)

Administration of the execution of road works financed partly or wholly by

the federal government.

The states are responsible for work on highway system within their area of
authority. The Chief Engineer is in charge of state road. Local government
roads are administered by the various council departments of works.

12

13

Minister of Works

Permanent
Secretry

Director of Works

Public
Information

Personnel

Management
Review

Programming
& Scheduling

Director of
Finance

Accounting

Data
Process

Purchasing

Legal

Director of
Support Services

Cheif Engineer
( Deputy Dirctors)

Budgeting

Aircraft
Operation

Facilities
Management

Central
Services

Cheif Engineer

Deputy
Chief
Engineer
Planning

Highway
Planing
Survey

Planning &
Programm
ming

Research

Deputy Chief
Engineer
Development

Highway
Planing
Survey

Road

Road
Design

Bridge
Design14

Deputy
Chief
Engineer
Operations

Contracs

Construction

Maintenance

Traffic &
Safety

3.2

Financing of Highway
The highways and streets on which motor vehicles travel are provided, maintained and
operated by government as one of its primary function. The funds to pay for them are
raised through various means.
Highway financing is the sourcing and usage of capital for the construction and
improvement of these highways.
There are different finance sources for a road scheme:

i.

Private financing which could be by savings, reinvested income, stocks and bonds.
Sourcing funds through capital market is a viable way of raising funds for highway. This
is done by private firm floating bonds in order to generate funds rather than depending
on the traditional source of funds such as statutory allocations and internally generated
revenue. This eases the problems of loans and interest payment and thus releases more
funds for road maintenance.

ii.

Public finance: This is based on general credit and taxing power of the government. It
could also come in form of grants from government and international donors. The taxes
include import duty on motor vehicles, parts and accessories (b) Excise duty on vehicle
types and tubes. Excise duty from motor fuel. All these are paid into federation account
and the budget for the road is from budgeting provision for this purpose.

iii.

Joint venture: This is a partnership between the government and the private sector to
achieve the needed efficiency and effectiveness in the sector. This is achieved by
involving private sector in

provision of services such as consultancy and procurement

undertaking of works such as maintenance and rehabilitation

Financing new works, rehabilitation and equipment.

iv.

By the use of credit facility: This is by borrowing to finance

highway scheme. Whichever method is
agency concerned

the development of a

used depends on the guiding policy of the

and the desirability of the roadway.

Methods of generating revenue from road scheme: 1.

Highway tolls (tolls gate collection)

2.

Vehicle taxes

3.

Truck weighs bridges

4.

Parking fees

5.

Motor fuel tax

6.

Passengers and good tax

15

7.

Licensing fee for drivers

8.

Property tax

16

WEEK FOUR
4.0

TERMS USED IN HIGHWAY SCHEME

4.1

Users of the Road

Motor vehicles travel the highway under the control of individual operators. It follows
that the design of a typical roadway should be done to allow for the influence of the
various users of the roadway.
The major users of a given roadway are:-

1.

Drivers

2.

Pedestrians
It is however necessary to broaden the scope of the design to accommodate other users
including motorcycles and bicycle operators.
This consideration ensures that the vehicle-capacity characteristic are viewed from the
extremes and the varied characteristics exhibited by operators of vehicles (drivers) and
pedestrians are well taken care of.

4.2

Driver, Vehicle and Pedestrian Characteristics

In order to incorporate the wide differences existing among each class of user of a
highway and the various kinds of vehicles expected on the roadway with different
operating characteristic into the design process, it is necessary to understand the features
of the Driver, the vehicle and the pedestrian.
This is because vehicles come in different types and shapes and pedestrians and vehicle
operators have different abilities to grasp and respond to highway features and traffic
events.

4.2.1

Driver Characteristics
In any discussion of human beings as vehicle operators, it must be recognized at the
outset that there is no such things as an average driver or an average driving condition.
Drivers in a single age group have different abilities to see, process information, judge
and react. These abilities may change under certain effects. So much of the safe and
efficient operation of a highway scheme depends on the tendencies exhibited by the
driver.
There should be an

expected coordination of the decision and actions taken by a

vehicle operator. These are in turn, controlled by the human sensory process that
depends entirely on the operation of the central nervous system.
17

Drivers, often react and act based on objects viewed, perceived motion, distortion in
balance (e.g. negotiating a bend) and sound.
Thus the senses frequently used are those of sight (visual), Auditory, Kinesthetic
(movement), vestibules (equilibrium balance).
The understanding or perception of these various senses and the subsequent
development of alertness vary from driver to driver and across age barriers. Thus the
sense of sight declines with age so also is the ability to judge, even though older drivers
may compensate for some of these deficiencies by experience and by being more
cautious.
The driver characteristic is fundamentally described by the perception reaction time.
Perception-Reaction time is defined as the time that elapses between the observation of a
particular situation on the highway and the initial action that is taken in response to such
a situation.
It is broken down into 4 components
i.

Perception

ii.

Intellection

iii.

Emotion

iv.

Volition or PIEV time

PIEV time is the time from when the situation or object is seen to when the operator has
a feel of the brake pedal and it varies from 0.5 to 3secs or more.
The Perception-Reaction time forms the basis for the design of safe stopping and
passing distances on highways.
Other driver related characteristics are: -

i.

Fear of possible accidents may control driver decisions. Operating speeds are
ordinarily set instinctively at the highest level of which the driver feels that his
information gathering, data processing, and reacting abilities match the situation, so
that he feels secure.

ii.

Fear of arrest and punishment also affects driver behaviour, for instance drivers
reduced their speed when they sight highway patrol car.

4.2.2 Pedestrian Characteristics

The design of safe and convenient facilities for pedestrian is largely dependent on the
evaluated characteristics of pedestrian. This is necessary to prevent the casualties that
18

arise from a collapsed highway which is usually the pedestrian as this class forms the
major user of the roadway.
The characteristics exhibited by the pedestrian that are of importance include space
requirement and walking (running) speeds. Also the nature and characters of a group of
human traffic is important.
Empirical studies show that the pedestrian facility is based on shoulder breadth and body
girth of the average human body. These are respectively 570mm and 325mm and serve
as a guide for the design of the facility.
Walking speed of pedestrians vary from 0.61 to 1.83mls for conditions of free
movement. Variation depend on the condition existing.

4.2.3

Vehicle and Vehicular Characteristics

These are classified into physical and performance characteristics. The physical
characteristics of vehicles in use and anticipated use for the future are essential in design
of roads. The physical characteristic includes the weight and size of different kinds of
vehicles.
These are indicated by tonnage, overall length, width, wheel base, overhang, thread
width etc. They are given in standard tables for different classes of vehicles with
specified min, max and accepted values.

i.

Width the width of vehicle will affect the lane width, shoulders and width of parking
spaces.

ii.

Length - the length of vehicle will affect the extra widening and minimum turning
radius, passing sight distance, road capacity and parking facility.

iii.

Height The height of vehicle affects clearance to be provided for electric service lines,
tunnel, under bridge and under structure.

iv.

Weight weight of vehicles affect

pavement thickness requirement, and limiting

gradient and design of bridges as there are standard permissible axle load limit.
v.

Speed vehicle speed affect horizontal and vertical alignment design, super elevation
limiting radius, sight distances, grades and width of pavement on straight and curves.

Vehicle Performance Characteristics: - This is a measure of the operating limitations and

capabilities of different kinds of vehicles. It thus entails on evaluation of the various
impediment s to the smooth motion of a vehicle type.
Five kinds of resistance are known to impair the motion of vehicles. These are:

19

(a)

Inertia Resistance: - The tendency for the vehicle not to accelerate (to remain at rest).
The inertia effect may also be plus or minus and is proportional to the mass and
acceleration.

(b)

Grade Resistance: - This is the part of the weight of the vehicle that equalizes the
frictional effect on a grade.

(c)

Rolling Resistance: - The irregularities that manifest normally on a road surface impart a
rolling resistance on the motion of the vehicle due to the internal friction of the body arts
and the undulating of the tyres.

(d)

Air or wind resistance : - is a function of the area (A) exposed to the direction of the
wind and the speed of vehicle given by
Ra = CA V2
Where Ra = Total air resistance, that is required to clear air from vehicle pathway and
eliminate air from the top, side and underneath the vehicle.
A = Projected Area of the vehicle
V = Speed, C = Constant

(e)

Curve Resistance:- Is the force that makes a vehicle conform to a curved path and this
depends on the degree of curve or radius.

20

WEEK FIVE
4.3

Design Requirement for a Highway Scheme

Geometric Design
This is the process of establishing the visible (physical) elements of the road. It is the
process of relating the physical element to the vehicle, driver and pedestrian
characteristics as well as to merge with the natural terrain. The main criteria that guide
the highway design procedure include:-

(a)

Traffic characteristics i.e. traffic volume or roadway capacity.

(b)

Design speed

(c)

Road alignment including horizontal and vertical profile.

(d)

Cross sectional elements

(e)

Sight distance
Other factors to varying degree affect the design standard adopted for the geometric
element. They are the functional classification of the roadway, topography, cost and
available funds, safety consideration (signing), society cum environmental factors.
Possibly the most important single rule in highway design is consistency. Only by
making every element conform to the drivers expectations and by avoiding abrupt
changes in standard can a smooth flowing, accident free facility be produced.

4.3.1

Traffic Characteristic for Design

The function of a proposed highway largely depends on the volume and composition of
traffic. Traffic flow on a highway is measured by the number of vehicles a particular
station during a given interval of time. Traffic flow at a given location depends on
numerous factors peculiar to that site. It varies by hours of the day, days of the week and
month of the year. Traffic is stated are the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) Deign hourly
volume (DHV).
Another traffic parameter considered is the highway design capacity which is important
to the operation of the highway. Capacity of the highway is defined as the maximum
number of vehicles which has a reasonable expectation of passing over a section of a
lane or a roadway in one direction or in

both direction for a two lane during a given

time period under prevailing roadway and traffic condition.

As the main purpose of a highway is to carry traffic and its capacity is a measure of how
well it fulfills that purpose.

21

Thus the facility should be designed to accommodate the predicted traffic volume. The
volume of traffic chosen should also correspond to a particular level of service. This
L.O.S is a measure of the restrictive effects of increased volume.

4.3.2

Design Speed
This is defined as speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of
a highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so favourable that
the design feature of the highway governs.
Selection of the proper design speed is extremely important, because this choice sets the
limit for curvature, sight distance and other geometric features. Design speed range from
58 112k/hr with significant intermediate values depending on the classification of
highways. It is advisable to use a constant speed in design of roadway of substantial
large distance. Changes in speed as informed by terrain or other conditions are effected
over sufficient distance for gradual change in speed.

4.3.3

Road Alignment
The alignment of a road is a series of straight lines called tangents connected by circular
curves. Alignment must be consistent sudden changes from flat to sharp curves and long
tangents followed by sharp curves must be avoided; otherwise accident hazard will be
created. Placing circular curves of different radii end to end or having a short tangent
between two curves should be avoided, unless suitable transitions between them are
provided. Long, flat curves are preferable at times. Horizontal and vertical alignment
must be considered together not separately.

4.3.4

Cross Sectional Elements

The design of the cross section of highways elements depends on variables such as
volume of traffic, character and speed of vehicles. Therefore the design of the cross
section of highway should be able to accommodate these variables.
In meeting on coming vehicles or passing slower ones, the position selected by a driver
depends primarily on the paved or surfaced width of the highway. The types of roads in
cross-section are 2 lanes 3 lanes, multilane undivided and multilane divided. Two lane
roadways constitute the bulk of rural roads and are about 7.5m and with 3m shoulders on

22

either side. Multilane highways have similar travel width with 2 lane roads with the
provision of median on divided highways.
Other cross-sectional elements are shoulders, curbs/kerbs, gutters/ditches R.O.W, guard
rails.
Shoulder is that portion of roadway between the outer edge of the traffic lane and the
inside edge of the ditch, gutter curb or slope. Shoulders provide a place for vehicle to
park when disabled or when stopped for any other reasons.
The carriage way intended for one line of traffic movement is called a traffic lane.

Typical Road cross section on 2 lane way road.

Foot
way

Side strip
Lane

Lane
Foot way
Pavement
crown

2 Lane Street (Urban 2 way road)

23

Median

Foot way Service road

Lane

Lane

Service
Road
Parking
Lane

Outer
Separation
4.3.5

Foot
Way

Urban Free Way

Gradient
This is the rate of rise or fall of road level along its length. When the road is ascending
the inclination is said to be positive but when descending, the inclination is said to be
negative. Determination of the gradient between any two stretches of the highway is one
of the most important factors of highway design. Higher grades affect the operating cost
of vehicle as there is increased in consumption of fuel and reduced speed.
Gradient are classified into:

Minimum gradient This type is provided on a flat or level road to drain off the rain
water. Its value depends on the topography type of soil. In general 1 in 200 is sufficient
but for cement concrete surface a grade of 1 in 500 is quite sufficient.

Maximum gradient - Is the maximum or steepest gradient which is allowed to be

provided in a road which must never be exceeded in any part of the road as steeper
gradients are very inconvenient to the traffic, more especially on slow moving vehicle. It
is permissible for short stretch.

Ruling gradient This is the desirable upper limit or permissible limit of the gradient in
the alignment of a road. This is fixed in such a way that vehicles can negotiate long
stretches of this gradient without much fatigue or uneconomic consumption of petrol.
For flat or rolling terrain 1:30 for it ll terrain 1::20.

Exceptional gradient During the alignment of the road, there may be situations where
grades may have to be provided with either lesser than the minimum or greater than the
maximum. Thus this type of gradient are provided in exceptional situations such near
hairpin bends. These types should be provided only for very short stretches not

24

exceeding 60 to 100m in one kilometer length and should be separated by a minimum

length of 100m.

25

WEEK SIX
4.3

Sight Distance
Most of the accidents on highway take place because of the inability of the drivers to
stop the vehicles well before it may collide with on obstruction or obstacle.
If it is not possible for the driver to see the obstacle from such distance that he may be
able to stop the vehicle by slowing down and applying the brakes, he may be able to
avoid the accident although he has taken every care to do so. To avoid such situations, it
is necessary that the road be open to view from all points from a distance known as sight
distance from which the driver should be able to see ahead and be able to bring the
vehicle to dead stop or otherwise take a detour to avoid collision. Therefore for a safe
vehicle operation, a clear line of sight of suitable length must be provided along the
road.
Sight distance therefore may be defined as the length of the road visible to the driver
while driving a vehicle.
Sight distances are of two types namely:

i.

Stopping sight distance or non passing sight distance.

ii.

Passing sight distance or overtaking S.D

Stopping sight distance the minimum distance required for stopping a vehicle traveling
at or near the design speed before reaching an object in its path.

The ability of the drivers to stop the vehicle before striking the obstacle while driving at
design speed depends upon:

Perception time and brake reaction time of the driver.

Efficiency of the brakes

26

Frictional resistance between the roads surface and the tyre of the vehicles.
Therefore,
Stopping sight distance = perception reaction distance + braking distance which is given
as
0.28vt + 0.01v2
where:
V = design speed in km/h
t = time in sec for passing manoeuvre
But when the braking efficiency is given, the equation for stopping sight distance =
0.28vt + 0.28v2
2.9
where = braking efficiency
g = acceleration due to gravity.

1.2m
10cm High
Obstacle
Non Passing
Sight Distance
Non Passing Sight Distance
Example (a)
Determine the stopping sight distance for a level road, for which the design speed is
40kmph. The reaction time of the driver may be assumed as 3.0 seconds.
Stopping sight distance = 0.28v.t + 0.01v2
= 0.28 x 40 x 3 + 0.01 x 40 x 40
= 33.6 + 16

= 49.6m

~50m
Example (b)
Find out the stopping sight distance for a road for which the design speed is 55kmph.
The brake efficiency may be taken ass 50% and the reaction time of driver be taken as
3secs.
Stopping sight distance = 0.28vt + 0.28v2
2.gn

27

ii.

Passing Sight Distance or Overtaking Sight Distance:- This is the distance required by a
vehicle to overtake and pass another vehicle on a 2 lane highway without impendence
from opposing traffic stream or the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of
the overtaking slow moving vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic from opposite
direction. The overtaking sight distance is governed by following factors:-

a.

Speeds of overtaking, vehicle and other vehicles from opposite direction

b.

Space between the vehicles

c.

Perception time of the driver

d.

Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle

1.2m

1.2m

Passing Sight
Distance

Passing Sight Distance

28

Overtaking or passing sight distance consist of three (3) stretches of lengths as

illustrated below :

d2
d3
Passing/Overtaking Sight Distances

d2

Pss = d1 + d2 + d3 , the following parameters are normally considered in the calculate.

where
d1 = 0.28 (v m) T
d2 = 2s + 0.28 (v m) t
d3 = 0.28vt
where v = design speed in km/h
m

= difference between design speed and assumed of overtaken vehicle normally

between 16km/h to 30km/h, 16km/h is normally taken as safe for purposes of

calculation.
a=

acceleration of passing vehicle in kmh/sec and is and is usually taken as

4kmh/sec.
s =

Average value of spacing between the vehicle.

t =

time in secs required for the passing manoeurvre

T=

Perception and reaction time in secs normally taken as 3 secs.

d1 = distance traveled during perception and reaction time.

d2

= Horizontal distance traveled by the overtaking vehicle during the period of

overtaking.
d3 = distance traveled by the vehicle coming from the opposite direction during the
period of overtaking.
In view of so many variable parameters the following empirical formulae have been
suggested for use.

S =

[0.2(v m) + 6] metres
29

= 2.7s secs
a

30

WEEK SEVEN
5.0

COMPACTION OF SOILS
As it exists naturally soil provides the foundation support for many structures
including road pavements. Specifically for roadways, it is necessary to reshape

natural topography of the area in which a road is to be built to suit the

the

chosen profile of the

road. This is achieved by the use of the soil as fill material for low locations. It is however
necessary to improve the bearing of the soil by placing and compacting layers which results in
soil mass with improved strength and support capabilities.

5.1

Soil Compaction and Consolidation

Compaction is the process whereby soil particles are constrained to pack more

process of increasing the dry density of soil by artificial rearranging and packing

is the
the

soil

particles into a closer state contacts under dynamic load.

The advantages which occur through compaction of the soil mass are:i.

Increase in density and bearing capacity

ii.

Roadway immobility of soil.

iii.

Reduction in settlement under repeated loading due to

iv.

Reduction in shrinkage.

reduced void ratio.

Consolidation The application of standard compactive effort during the compaction

process results in an increase in the applied vertical load on the
the pore water pressure and creates a pressure
away from the soil. The pressure (pore
they fill the void spaces

entire mass. This increases

gradient which results in water moving

H2O pressure) is transferred to the soil particles as

initially occupied by the pure water and they become

consolidated. Consolidation is thus the process whereby soil particles are packed closely
together by the explosion of pure water from the soil through the application

of

load transfer.

5.1.1

Compaction Equipment
The various types of compaction equipment

i.

Sheep foot roller with projecting feet and used to compact cohesive and are pushed
pulled by crawler tractors.

ii.

Pneumatic roller to compact send base for highway.

iii.

Vibratory compactor with pads or drum used where soil has cohesion.

iv.

Smooth wheel roller compacting the base course for a roadway.

31

Soil compaction Characteristics and Recommended Compaction Equipment

Soil Description
Sand and gravel mixture (no
silt or clay)
Sand or sand-gravel with silt

Compaction
Characteristic
Good

Good

Sand or sand-gravel with clay.

Good-fair

Silt

Fair poor

Recommended
Compaction Equipment
Vibratory drum roller,
Vibratory rubber tire,
Pneumatic tire.
Vibratory drum roller,
Vibratory rubber tire,
Pneumatic tire.
Pneumatic tire,
Vibratory rubber tire,
Sheep foot.
Sheep foot roller &
pneumatic
Pneumatic tire, sheep foot,
vibratory & rubber tire.

Clay

Good fair

5.2.

Strength Variation with Varying Degree of Water Content

Compaction results in total elimination of void spaces in a soil mass. This is

prevented by the resistance provided by friction ands interlocking of the soil
particles. Thus there are void spaces left in the compacted mass.
During compaction, increase in water content of the soil causes the soil

particles

to

be lubricated and thus reduced the friction and greater density and strength for a particular
compactive effort is achieved. This increase in
place up to the certain limit
density. At

strength with increasing water content takes

beyond which further increase in moisture content decreases the

this stage the soil has reached its saturation point. The increased in amount of

moisture act as a space filler and holds the soil grains apart and for cohesive
the increase moisture cause the soil to become plastic. This limiting

moisture

soils,
content

value is referred to as the optimum moisture content and is shown on a plot of lab compaction
rest as the peak of the graph as given below

32

d max

omc
Water content w%

The max. density is at optimum moisture content and is the ultimate water content
achieve high density for the given soil when a compacting energy corresponding

to

to

the

particular lab test is used.

5.3

Standard Compaction Tests

These are standard methods of simulating field conditions in the laboratory to

determine the compaction characteristics of a given soil. The most widely applied
method of laboratory compaction test is the Protors density test. In

this rest the standard

compaction effort used is a 2.5kg hammer that falls through a distance of 30cm to compact the
soil. The test specimen (soil) is
0.01m3. the specimen in
through the

placed is a 10cm diameter mould with a capacity of

the mould are compacted in 3 layers with the hammer falling

specified fall height and with a regulated number of blows per layer 27 blows.

The soil after compaction is struck off the top of the mould and the density of

the

specimen is determined by weight the sample.

Dry density is then obtained and is plotted against different M.C. The

highest point

on the curve is indicated as OMC & Maximum Dry Density.

Dry Density =

W
1 + 100

b = Bulk density

The other laboratory tests are similar but with different mould dimensions

and

capacity and rammer height. The fall distances are also different.
Modified Proctor Test :-

This a test using 10cm diameter mould with the

capacity of 0.0094m and 4.5kg rammer falling through a height of 45cm. no

of

blows = 27 blows.
USBR Compaction Test - 10cm diameter mould with a capacity of 0.014m3
rammer of 2.5kg and a height of 45cm.
33

and a

The Vibrating Hammer Method

The test is carried out on soil in the 152mm diameter mould with capacity of
2305cm3. It is compacted in 3 layers by pushing the tamper firmly down the

soil

and operating for 60 secs per layer. It is used for fine grained soils and for fraction of medium
and coarse grained granular soils passing the 37.5mm
results for uniformly graded coarse sands

sieve. This gives more dependable

and clean gravels.

Example:
The following results were obtained from a compaction test using 2.5kg
Mass of mould + wet soil (g) 2783

3057 3224 3281 3250 3196

Moisture content

8.1

(%)

9.9

12.0

rammer

14.3 16.1 18.2

Plot the curve of dry d3ensity against moisture content and determine the OMC
MDD

Solution
W

Mass of mould
+ wet soil

Mass of soil
Wet = m1 (g)

8.1

2783

S1653

1529

Dry density
Pd = m2/1000
Mg/m3
1.53

9.9

3057

1927

1753

1.75

12.0

3224

2094

1870

1.87

14.3

3281

2151

1882

1.88

16.1

3250

2120

1826

1.83

18.2

3196

2066

1748

1.75

OMC = 14% = Dry density = 1.89mg/m3

34

Mass of dry oil

M2 = m1/Hw

and

WEEK EIGHT
6.0

6.1

PROCESSES OF PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION.

Pavement Types
There are two (2) broad categories of road way pavements namely flexible and
pavement.
All the pavements for earth, kankar, dry bond macadam, WBM, stabilized soil

bituminous surface roads fall under the category of flexible pavements.

concrete roads constructed to behave as a slab or cantilever are

While

and
cement

known as rigid pavement

roads. These might be reinforced or mass concrete pavement.

Pavement Structure and Function

Flexible: this type of pavement function by gradual dispersal of traffic load
considerably large area thus the strength requirement of the sub-grade is
upper layers. Flexible pavement is composed of a series of granular
relatively thin high quality bituminous wearing

over a

less than that of the

layers

topped

by

surface. It is a structure that maintains and

distribute load to the sub-grade and it depends on aggregate interlock, particle friction and
cohesion for stability. Layers of flexible pavement comprises of:
a.

Wearing surface: This ranges from 25mm bituminous surface treatment for low-cost,
light traffic road to asphalt concrete for heavily travelled roads. Provides smooth riding
surface, resist wear and abrasion due to moving vehicles. Provide water proof surface
and protect the base and sub-grade from surface water.

b.

Base: Layer of very high stability and density. It distributes stresses due to wheel load
on wearing surface and transmits mineral stresses on sub-grade in order to prevent
excessive deformation of foundation. Must be capable of resisting effect of capillary
water and/or frost action.

c.

Sub-base: Used in cases of weak sub-grade or as a construction table. It is used to build

up the pavement strength economically above that provided by the subgrade soil.

d.

Sub-grade: Serves as foundation of the road, support all load applied on pavement
structure. Usually natural earth surface, compacted soil from cut section or upper layer
of embankment.

35

Wearing course

Surface/Wearing Course

Prime coat

Base Stabilized

Base

Subbase
Sub base

Rigid pavements: These have sufficient rigidity and have high modulus of elasticity.
Thus a small thickness to distribute the wheel load upon the subgrade and equalizes
(bridge) minor irregularities in the subgrade support due to flexural strength and load
transfer capacity in sheer. It is normally laid directly on the subgrades
R.C.
Steel fabric reinforcement
Crown slope

- Section of rigid pavement

6.2

Differences Between Flexible and Rigid Pavement

The fundamental difference between flexible and rigid pavement is in the structural
composition.

36

Flexible Pavement

Rigid Pavement

S/N
1

Build with several layers over the Usually one layer (concrete surfacing) is
sub-grade (natural soil), base, sub- built over sub-grade
base and surface layers

2.

Layers dispersed and distribute Concrete surface bears and distribute load
loads to the sub-grade

to the sub-grade

3.

Considerable thickness

Lesser thickness

4.

Strength requirement of sub-grade Strength requirement of the sub-grade is

not too stringent as the upper layers higher as there are no layered structures
bears substantial loads

5.

Provide fairly good riding surface

Provide enhanced riding surface and

reduces the operating cost of vehicles

6.3

Preparation and Construction of a Road Base

The natural soil upon which the road would be built serves as the foundation

of the

road. This is the typical sub-grade of the pavement structure.

Specifically, for flexible and rigid pavements the road base upon which the
surface course is built comprises the base and sub-base layer over a well

prepared sub-

grade.
In flexible pavement construction, the different layers that made up the base
constructed in stages. The sub-grade is compacted for enhanced strength or
using admixtures where necessary. The base is built using material hauled
granular, compacted properly is layers to the specified

are

stabilized
to

site

usually

thickness.

In cases where the sub-grade soil is entirely suited as a road base, only proper
compaction and drainage are necessary before building the concrete wearing
surface.
The base constructed should provide uniform foundation support for the

roadway and

free from deleterious substances.

Soils of low shearing strength, high volume change, organic and alkali soils
should not be used for foundation of road pavements. The road base is finally
brought to shape and dimension by the use of suitable fine grading machines.

6.4

Borrow Pits
37

Materials that are needed for the formation of roadway alignment are not
obtained from the excavation within the limits of R.O.W. of the
additional full materials are required to complete the full
obtained on mass off site. The sources of such
specification for the kinds of
highway construction

usually

highway. Thus
operation and are therefore

materials are called Borrow pits. Standard

Borrow materials and the source (Borrow pits) for major

are indicated in design. This is to regulate excavation of materials

and their incorporation into the roadway structure.

38

WEEK NINE
6.5

Joints in rigid Pavement

The cross-section of a rigid roadway compress a pavement superimposed upon

sub grade, and most usually this pavement is composed of cement concrete
sub grade, this slab is composed of pavement quality concrete
and high modulus of elasticity which enables it to

the

slab on top of

with considerable rigidity

act as a beam and bridge over any localized

or minor irregularities in the surface of the layers beneath cement concrete pavement is ideal as
traffic surface with relatively small thickness, it distributes wheel load upon sub grade.
provides a good riding surface. Maintenance costs are comparatively
clean and it is dust free. The vehicle operation cost on

It

low and it is easy to

cement concrete road is minimum

and wear and tear and mechanically breakdown of vehicle is comparatively less. it has a high
salvage value as a

base for a new wearing course.

Pavements are exposed to severe temperature and moisture conditions as well

wheel load influence which produce severe stresses on cement concrete

pavement.

as
Among

these are bending or deflection under wheel loads, warping of the slab due to difference of the
top and bottom of the pavement, which lead to the slab being raised off the sub-grade which the
self weight of the slab

might not be able to take.

Warping of the slab due to difference in moisture content at top and bottom of

the

slab and tension produced as contraction during falling of temperature or while drying out is
restricted by sliding friction between the slab and the sub-

grade.

Compression

failures and buckling or blow up also occur because of the

expansion of slab.

To prevent progressive cracking up of the pavement and for control of the

expansion and contraction of the slab , longitudinal and transverse joints are
provided..
These joints are;< Expansion joints
<Contraction joints
<Construction joints
Expansion joints;-These are usually placed transversely at regular intervals
provide adequate space for slab to expand due to temperature changes. The

to

approximate

width for this type of joint is provided from 2 to 2.5cm. These

joints are placed across

the full width of the slab and are 19mm to 25mm

wide.

39

The joint space is filled with a compressible filler material that permits the

slab

to expand. Filler material can be cork, rubber or bitumen material. A

means of transferring

the load across the joint space is provided as there are

no aggregate that will

develop as interlocking mechanism. This means is

usually

which are embedded and kept fixed in concrete at one end

and the other is kept

free to expand. At the free end a metal cap is provided

to offer a space of

dowel

bars

about 2.5cm for movement during expansion.

Contraction joints: these are the most commonly used transverse joint in jointed
concrete pavement. They are placed transversely at regular intervals

(but spaced closer than

the expansion depending on the type aggregate use

end type of sub grade)

across the width of the pavement to release some of

the tensile stresses that

are induced due to contraction of the slab when its

temperature falls. The

load transfer is affected through the physical

interlocking

aggregate projecting out the joints. It may be necessary to

install a load transfer

mechanism, where there is doubt about the ability of

the interlocking gains

to transfer the load. When a load transfer mechanism is

used, no receiving cap

is provided, each bar is covered with a plastic sheath

for two-third of its

of

the

length
so that when a slab contracts, the free end of the dowel leaves a gap into which it can
return when the slab expands to its original length.

40

Contraction Joint

Construction joints: these are those other than expansion and contraction joints that are
formed when construction work is unexpectedly interrupted

e.g.

breakdown or bad weather, at points where joints are not

normally required by

the design. When the full length of a pavement is not

laid in one concreting

operation, a formal constitutional construction joints

has to be established

between the two abutting slabs. These slabs are tied

with tie bars in order

to develop proper bond between the new and old

concrete.

41

by

mechanical

WEEK TEN
6.6

Stages of Road Construction

6.4.1

Construction of Flexible Pavement

Construction is done for two broad categories of pavement; simple surface
treatment of an aggregate base and full-depth, high type asphaltic concrete
Surface Treatment procedure
Surface treatment does not, strictly, result in the development of a typical pavement

structure but results in a waterproof surface over the base. It also

enhanced resistance to abrasion and traffic. The
i.

results in a structure with

various methods of surface treatment are:

Primes: Prime is an application of bituminous material on a compacted base to penetrate

the surface of the base or foundation course which is to receive some kind of bituminous
weary course subsequently.

ii.

Dust laying: This also termed palliative and is a simple application of liquid asphaltic
material to a road surface. It is applied in specified uniform rate and precedes subsequent
improvement of low cost roads into full scale asphaltic surfaced roads.

iii.

Single and multiple surface treatments: Single application of asphalt followed by

aggregate to give single surface treatment. It results in waterproofing covering for
aggregates and economical wearing surface for medium and low volume traffic. It serves
as wearing surface on the base for stage construction leading to placement of asphalt
concrete.

6.4.2 The specific procedures for establishing pavement structure after concrete is properly
mixed take the following sequence:

1.

Spreading: This is the use of manual or mechanical implements to disperse the concrete
mix in uniform widths across the pavement structure. Dump trucks are used to directly
dump the concrete on grade or from the shoulders. Spreading is facilitated by the use of
various augers which are mechanical spreading devices.

2.

Consolidation or vibration of con is accomplished by use of vibrators spaced across the

width of the slab to consolidate the concrete.

42

3.

Finishing the effect giving to the effect the final riding quality and durability of
pavement. This is achieved by the use of finishing machines equipped with screeds and
floats for giving the final surface to the slab.

4.

Texturing: This is done to ensure skid resistance properties on the slab. It entails using
mechanized action to create a desired texture of the surface. The equipment used for
texturing include buslaps, brooms (wire & fibre), comb (steel brooms) and the use of
grooving devices (diamond saws, plastics).

5.

Placing reinforcement: Where wire mesh are used, the reinforcement are placed by
depressing the mesh on top of the concrete by machine. Where joints are used, they are
placed according to the specified intervals given in design and are sealed off by the use
of sealing materials such as asphalt, rubber/asphalt blend.

6.4.3

Construction of High type Asphaltic Concrete Roads

There are two main methods in the construction of full depth asphaltic

concrete

surface roads:
a.

Road mix surface construction

b.

Central plant mix construction

Road Mix Surface Method

This is also referred to as mix-in place construction. It is used for surface base

and

subbase construction suitable for medium and light traffic roads. A wide, variety of aggregates
and soil aggregate combination are used and the types
determined by the characteristics of the aggregate

and grades of asphalt used is

type of road mixing equipment and climate

conditions.
Prior to mixing operations, the base on which the mixed material is to be placed

must

be thoroughly shaped and compacted. Prime coats are applied and allowed to cure. This is
followed by the actual road mixing operation.
The various methods of road mixing operation are:
i.

Travel plant mixing: This is the use of motorised equipment to proportion asphalt and
aggregates to give a final product of adequate uniformity. This is then spread on a
prepared base and broken down by the use of pneumatic thread roller and finally rolled
with a smooth wheeled roller.

ii.

Blade mixing: Motor graders are used to mix the road surfacing materials. It ensures
uniformity in quality and gradationo f aggregate. Asphalt is applied in multiples from a

43

truck and the grader is properly manipulated to disperse the asphalt is the aggregate and
coat the aggregate particles. Spreading is done after mixing is completed.
iii.

Rotary mixing: This system combines the asphalt and aggregate under a hood with
whirling blades as the machine moves over the surface. Rotary mixers are equipped with
sprayers that apply the asphalt while mixing. The operation entails mixing the aggregate
thoroughly, adding the asphalt in specified increments and maintaining the surface true
to grade and cross-section by the use of motor grader.

2.

Central Plant Mixing Method

Construction of roadways by preparing asphaltic concrete of designated central mixing
plants for production of hot-mixed asphalt which can be either continuous mix or batch
type. In batch type, proportioning of materials is by the use of seals and aggregates are
batched by weight. For continuous mix plants, the aggregate are proportioned by
volume. Asphaltic materials are also proportioned accordingly. The sequential
procedures involved in central plant mixing method of construction are:

i.

Aggregate preparation: This include regulation of moisture content and screening to

provide uniformity in gradation.

ii.

Proportioning: Estimation of the quantity of each class of aggregate required to

produce required gradation. Bitumen is regulated by weight or volume an automated
plant have sensors to determine the quantity is within tolerable limits.

iii.

Mixing: The proportioned materials are properly blended (asphalt and aggregate) in
specified cycle (mixing time). Mixing produces adequate coating workabilityand
compaction.

iv.

Hauling: The mixed materials are transported from plant to the paving site by the use of
end dump trucks and bottom dump trucks.

v.

Laydown-self propelled pavers are used to place the hot-mix asphalt. Pre levelling
courses and base courses are placed by the use of motor graders and tractor spreaders.

vi.

Rolling: The final process of producing a dense mat with a smooth surface. This is done
by using three-wheeled or tandem steel rollers. This procedure is carried out properly to
have a smooth and dense surface.

44

WEEK ELEVEN
7.0

EQUIPMENT IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION

The major equipment used in constructing a typical road stretch are diverse

and

fall under the following major categories:

a.

Tractors

b.

Bulldozers

c.

Rippers

d.

Scrapers

e.

Excavators

f.

Tractor loaders

g.

Trenchers

h.

Hauling unit
(Belt conveyor) (i) Soil surfacing equipment (compaction equipment)
Tractors: Prime movers which serve as the tractive-units for power shovel,
cranes, rear dump, bottom dumps and mobile drills hich are on their own varied type of

road making equipment.

Bulldozer: These are framed mounted units with blades usually curved in its
vertical section and extend in front of the tractor unit to which is attached; blades
45

are

usually 162.5mm to 600mm in width, 75mm 625mm in height.

clearing, usually the first job on most sites which might
It is also used for stripping ie removal of
spreading. They may be

They are used for land

entail removal of trees and shrubs.

unsuitable topsoil, side hill cutting, backfilling and

used from start for the finish of the project.

Striping: Removal of unsuitable topsoil side hill cuts, backfilling and

spreading.

They may be used from the start to the finish of the project.

Bulldozer

Rippers: Used to rip material (usually rocky) that would have been blasted or
drilled. They are usually mounted on tractors and can also be used for other
construction work, mining and or quarrying.

46

Ripper

Scrappers: Extensively used in earth moving for highway work. In one

operation,

they dig, grade and haul the earth using the bowl of the scrapers.

Loaders: Equipment used in digging, crapping, lifting, carrying and dumping

earth

materials into hauling unit; bins, hoppers conveyor and stock piles.

Trenchers: Machines used for excavating trenches or ditches of considerable

and variable width, depth and contour.

47

length

Hauling unit: For hauling materials to and from a typical highway

construction

site.

Soil surfacing equipment: They are equipment used in spreading, stabilization,

compaction and trimming of soil materials.
Stabilization equipment: These might be mechanical stabilizer equipment
simply mixes the soil by adequately blending the sand and aggregate to
mix by the use of special rotors. The stabilization

which

obtain a homogenous

equipment might also blend on additive

with the soil to complement the soil support characteristics. The two basic types of equipment
used for stabilizing

soil include in-situ mobile mixing and the central mixing plant. The in
48

place mobile mixer includes the multiple pass-unit, the single pass units and the road

mix

units.
Trimming equipment: These are used to finish the surface profile of the roadway

to

precise specification.

7.1

Adaptability and Versatility

Versatile equipment is said to serve many functions in a variety of operation.

example of versatile equipment is the tractor. It serves the purpose of a

An

prime mover, a dozer

or dipper, a pusher, etc. This equipment can also be adapted to do other operation. Another way
or example of versatile

equipment

is the power shovel, scraper, changing from one

function to another.

7.2

Soil Stabilization
Soil stabilization is any treatment (including technically compaction) applied

soil to improve its strength and reduce its vulnerability to water.

to

Stabilization may consist of

any of the following:

1.

Increasing the soil density

2.

Adding materials to effect a chemical or physical change in the soil.

3.

Lowering the water table (soil drainage)

4.

Removal and or replacement of the poor soils.

Stabilization is usually mechanical or chemical.

Mechanical stabilization is the improvement on the gradation of a raw soil by

admixing a coarse and/or fine material usually 10 to 50% with the aim of achieving
dense homogeneous mass when compacted.
Chemical stabilization includes the mixing or injecting of chemical substance

into

the soil. Typical chemical agents include:

Portland cement
Asphalt
Sodium chloride
Lime
Calcium chloride
Paper mill wastes
Portland cement, lime and lime-flyash mixtures are widely used in soil
either to alter the plasticity of a soil to control volume change or
49

stabilization

to improve its strength.

WEEK TWELVE

8.0 MATERIALS FOR PAVEM ENT CONSTRUCTION

8.1 Aggregate and Binding Materials
Materials used for pavement construction are broadly classified into two namely (i)
Aggregate and (ii) Binding materials.
About 75% - 90% of the volume of a pavement structure is normally composed of
aggregates, thus, the type, size distribution and quality of aggregate influences the performance
and durability of the structure.
Aggregate are defined as granular materials or mineral composition used either in
combination with a binding medium (bitumen or cement) to form bitumi8nious/portland cement
concrete. Aggregate are classified as either natural or artificial aggregate. The natural
aggregates are again classified as coarse aggregate consisting of:
i.

Crushed rock aggregate

ii.

Gravel

Fine aggregates or sand.

Artificial aggregates comprises of:
i.

Crushed blast furnace slag

ii.

Granulated slag

iii.

Manufactured aggregate (expended clay/shale)

The pavement structure, surface, base and subbase layers, consist of a mixture of
aggregates with cement and water or bituminous material, thus, the strength characteristics of
the entire structure is dependent on the quality of the component materials and the proportions
of the materials.

Crushed Rock Aggregates:

50

This is obtained by crushing rock pieces into smaller size suitable for road construction.
The process entails blasting rocks large size stone blocks which are further reduced and fed
directly into various crushers which are used to break the rock pieces into desired various sizes
of aggregates from 8cm to stone dust size.
All the major classes of rocks, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic are sources of
crushed rock aggregates. But specific kinds of igneous and sedimentary rocks are preferable due
to their grain size, texture and adhesion to bituminous binder. These aggregates can be used to
construct the different layers of highway pavement.

8.1.1

Gravels
The coarse material resulting from the disintegration of natural rock due to weathering is

carried away by water and subsequently deposited on the banks or bed is termed as gravel. The
properties of gravel depend upon the properties of the basic rock constituents (parent rock).
They are often round in shape and smooth to touch and are particularly suited for the uses
specified for crushed rock aggregates. Larger varieties of gravels (boulders) canbe used as base
course.

8.1.2

Sand
This is the final residue of resistant mineral grains resulting from the weathering action

upon the rocks. The final form is sometimes reached after many cycles of deposition and
weathering most important mineral in sand is quartz which is not affected by weathering agents
and hence prevents further fragmentation of the particle.

In road construction sand is used as a cushion between the subgrade and subbase or base
and interspersed between boulders for proper interlocking. It is also used as blotter over
bituminous surfacing, coat, tack coat and prime coat. It is used as fine aggregate for Portland
cement concrete pavement.

8.1.3

Slag
Artificially prepared road building materials and is obtained as a by-product in the

manufacture of steel used in pavement construction as aggregate. Due to its mode of production,
its properties are far more variable than that of rock especially in respect of the grain size and
porosity, and are normally used as back fill because of the possible presence of free lime.

8.1.4

Bituminous/Asphaltic Materials
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Bituminous materials or bitumen in the form of asphalt or tar products is a major

highway construction material. It is a binding material for road surfacing course of pavements.
Bitumen maybe derived from the residue left by the refinery from naturally occurring asphalt.
They range inconsistency from semi solid to liquids and are processed to meet with specific
requirements for various types and grades.
Bitumen can be either natural or artificial. Bitumen found in natural state are known as
rock asphalt and contains large quantities of solid mineral matter such as lime stones and sand
stones.
Artificial bitumen are asphaltic minerals from the refining of crude petroleum products
through fractional distillation. On distillation of the residual bituminous residue, straight run
bitumen is obtained since bitumen is used in a number of ways the functional properties of the
basic bitumen are altered to suit the particular requirement. The grade of basic bitumen is
altered by controlled refining or by mixing with diesel oil or other oils.
The following terms are applied to bituminous products:
Asphalt: Dark brown to black binder material which the predominant constituents are natural
bitumen or bitumen obtained in processing of petroleum.
Asphalt cement: Fluxed or unfluxed asphalt this is specifically prepared in quality and
stiffness to be used in building of bituminous pavement.
Asphalt rock: Natural rock structures usually limestones or sandstones impregnated throughout
its mass with minor amount of bitumen.
Cut back bitumen: The asphaltic bitumen mixed with comparatively volatile solvents to
improve the workability of the material. This cutback bitumen is further classified into (i) slow
curing (ii) medium curing and (iii) rapid curing.
Asphalt emulsion: This is a mixture of normally two immiscible liquids. An emulsifying agent
such as soap is used in mixing the two liquids. Asphalt gets broken up into minute globules in
water in the presence of the emulsifiers. This is also classified into slow setting, medium setting
and rapid setting depending on the emulsifiers used.
Road tar: It is obtained by the destructive distillation of organic matters such as wood, coal,
shale, etc. The material is subjected to heat in the absence of air. In this process the
carbonization result in the production of crude tar. This crude tar is further refined by
distillation process.

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WEEK THIRTEEN
8.2

Preparation of Material
Materials to be used for road construction should posses properties suited for their

respective function. These are based on standard requirement of material properties using
specified test procedures.

8.2.1

Requirement and tests for aggregate

Aggregate is one of the prime ingredient of pavement construction, hence the properties

of the aggregates are of considerable significance. The following properties are desirable for
aggregate used for roadwork.
i.

Hardness: Aggregate used in the surface coarse are subjected to constant abrasion due
to moving vehicles. The Toughness: Aggregates mutual rubbing of stones also causes
wear in aggregate.

ii.

are also subjected to impact due to

moving wheel loads.

iii.

Durability

iv.

Cementing property

v.

Bitumen adhesion should have more affinity

vi.

Resistance to volume change

The following tests are specified in preparing aggregates to ensure conformity to stated

requirement.
a.

Abrasion test: This is used to determine the hardness of aggregate using LOS
Angeles abrasion machine.

8.2.2

b.

Impact test: This is used to determine the toughness of an aggregate

c.

Attrition test is used for combined toughness and hardness of aggregate.

d.

Crushing strength test: This is used to determine the compressive strength

e.

Water absorption test

f.

Specific gravity test

g.

Shape of aggregate

Sand
Sand for roadwork should have the following properties:
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8.2.3

i.

Sharpness

ii.

Well-graded

iii.

Clean of all silts, clay and organic material

iv.

Hard, tough and durable.

Tests for Preparing Bituminous Material

The preparation of bituminous material is done such that the optimum functional

properties are obtained. The following standard tests are prescribed to ensure that these
properties are imparted in:
i.

Specific gravity test

ii.

Water content test

iii.

Flash point test

iv.

Softening

v.

Penetration test

vi.

Durability test

These tests ensure that the prepared bitumen is of right volatility, workability,
consistency, durability and weight.

Characteristics of Bitumen Mixtures

The required characteristics of designed bituminous mixtures are: Stability, durability,
flexibility, fatigue resistance and skid resistance. It also include permeability/imperviousness,
fracture (tensile) strength, workability characteristic during construction as well as stress-strain
characteristics. The bitumen mix should be designed to obtain a balance of these properties.
8.2.3

Cement
Cement that is used for construction of rigid pavement serves as a binding medium of

the concrete produced. It should be prepared such that the requisite properties of strength,
consistency, workability ease of placement are imparted on the resultant concrete. This is
achieved by ensuring that the cement is of right chemical composition, fines, sound and strong
by carrying out stipulated tests. Tests for setting time, soundness, etc. are used.

54

WEEK FOURTEEN
9.0

MAINTENANCE OF PAVEMENT
It is a well known fact that as soon as the construction is completed and the highway
opened to traffic, it begins to deteriorate. Deterioration may initially be unnoticeable but
it later begins to manifest in the form of various types of pavement distress, e.g. cracks,
etc.
The object of pavement maintenance is to preserve the roadway for continuous provision
of comfortable, economic and safe surface for movement of vehicles. Highways are
maintained and required so that its use does not become dangerous.

9.1

Pavement Defect Types and Their Causes

Pavements are considered defective due to the following reasons:
i.

Structural deterioration of the pavement which threatens to impair its load

carrying capability.

ii.

Poor riding quality

iii.

Slipperiness: Inadequate surface resistance to skidding.

iv.

Surface deterioration

The main forms of defects in pavements are:

1.

a.

Cracking

b.

Disintegration and

c.

Permanent deformation

Cracking:
This is caused by movement of the underlying layers and fatigue of the surface coarse
due, principally to repeated heavy loading. It is technically defined as the length of
substantial cracking whether sealed or not expressed in linear unit of length of crack per
standard square unit of pavement area (m/m2). The various types of cracks are
alligator/crocodile, longitudinal, transverse, irregular mer and block cracking.

55

Pumping: Is a form of defects due to cracking and is the displacement or ejection of

water and or subbase material along pavement cracks.

Faulting: Is a vertical displacement of the pavement slab adjacent to a crack or a joint.

It causes settlement of the slab at the lane receiving the heaviest traffic flow.

56

Bleeding: Which is the flushing of bitumen to pavement surface can occur due to
prevalence of cracks.

b.

Disintegration
These include potholes patching, raveling and edge breaks.
Potholes: Are round, bowl shaped holes in the pavement surface that penetrate
all the way through the surfacing layer down to the base course. They generally
have sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole. This is generally end
results of alligator cracking which starts to develop during the rainy season.
Potholes also occur as a result of fragile wearing course, premature aging of the
binder, clayey foundation that prevents proper drainage.

57

Raveling: This is progressive disintegration of asphaltic concrete layer from the

surface downwards due to dislodgment or loosening of aggregate particles.
Possible causes could be due to loss of bond between aggregates and bitumen
due to dust coating the aggregates, aggregate segregation and inadequate
compaction during construction. Mechanical dislodgment by certain types of
vehicles could also cause this type of crack.

Patching: Is defined as the area of existing pavement that required patching

expressed as square unit of length per standard square unit of pavement area.
Edge breaks: Is the loss of aggregate at the edge of the roadway while spalling
is the breaking away of aggregates or clipping of joints.

c.

Permanent Deformation:
Deterioration of materials throughout the depth of the pavement and can be due
to excessive consolidation of paving layers. This is attributable to heavy axle
loading on roads not designed to carry such.

58

Ruts, depression, mounds, ridge, corrugations, undulations and roughness are all
forms of permanent pavement defects.
Rutting: Is the surface depression in the wheel path usually accompanied by
pavement uplifts (shearing) along the sides causes of rutting may be due to
consolidation or lateral movement of the materials due to traffic loading,
insufficient compaction of the asphaltic concrete, inadequate pavement structure
or improper aggregate/cement mix design.

Corrugation: A form of plastic movement typified by ripples or an abrupt wave

(shoving) across the pavement surface i.e. they are wave-like surface irregularities in
softened bituminous pavement. Causes of this defect are due to traffic action (statutory
and stopping) combined with unstable hox mix asphalt layer or excessive moisture in the
subgrade.

Pop outs: Are forms of permanent deformation which are small cup sized spalls
(circular in shape) in surface caused by expanding aggregates the causes of this could
be attributed to localized settlement of one or more layers, lack of cohesion or internal
59

friction of the base or subgrade, poor surface and lateral drainage. Generally, all forms
of flexible pavement effects are due to excessive movement of layers.

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WEEK FIFTEEN
9.2

Defects in Rigid Pavements

Defects are mainly dependent on durability of the pavement structure which is in turn a function
of materials used and climatic conditions. The main forms of defects in rigid pavements are
scaling, shrinkage, warping/blow ups, spalling, faulting/faulted joints and polishing.
Scaling: Is the shallow flaking of surface matrix.

Shrinkage: Results from temperature or moisture movement which cause volume change.

Warping/blow ups: Are compression failure of concrete pavements, usually at joints.

Spalling: Is the braking away or chipping of concrete adjacent to a joint or pavement edge and
may be caused by freeze thaw cycle, impact loadings, and incompressible material in cracks or
joints.

61

Faulting/Faulted joints: Is the vertical displacement of the pavement slab adjacent to a crack.

Polishing: Is the wearing away of surface aggregate which leads to undesirably smooth surface
texture.

9.3 Repair of Defective Pavements

Deterioration of a road due to defects in pavement leads to uneven riding qualities. This
conflicts with the primary objective of pavement design; to ensure adequate provision of
service to users.

62

Appropriate repairs of the various defects restore the desired qualities of service
provided by pavement. For flexible pavements, the major maintenance works for
repairing pavements are outlined below:
1.

Routine maintenance: Repairs restricted to a given length of the roadway

(usually less than 150m). like pothole patching, it also includes repairs carried
out on allied structures to the roadway (drainage, side slopes, culverts, signs,
control devices and vegetation control.

2.

Resurfacing: Repair of damaged surface areas (holes, cracks, raveling and

surface wear). These are forms of preventive or periodic maintenance and entails
full-width resurfacing or treatment of existing pavement or roadway. It is done to
maintain the surface characteristic and structural integrity. The specific surface
repairs are surface treatment, enrichment treatment and then asphalt surfacing.

3.

Rehabilitation: The repair covers the entire length of surface and is done to
strengthen and restabilize the pavement for improved serviceability. Examples
are asphalt concrete overlays, selective deep patching, granular overlays and
surfacing, surface treatment and shape corrections.

4.

Improvement: These are enhancement of the geometric and cross-section

elements with their allied structures for better traffic capacity, speed and safety.

5.

Reconstruction: Complete improvement of a roadway to better geometric and

pavement standards entailing the reconstruction of the full length and width of
roadway pavement. This is usually done on existing alignment.

6.

New construction: Upgrading of an earth or gravel road to pave road standard

on the entire length and width of the existing roads. Additional lanes or carriage
ways can also be provided.

9.4 Maintenance of Rigid Pavements

The major categories of Portland cement concrete pavement maintenance programmes
are:
i.

Protection and restoration of slab supports

ii.

Joint crack and edge maintenance

iii.

Slab and surface repairs and protection.

Patching: This entails full depth break out,removal and replacement of defective section of the
pavement.
Expansion joint repairs: Installation of new expansion joints in existing pavement slab.
63

Mudjacking: Elevation of settled concrete pavement and filling with cement grout or filling of
void beneath a slab with grout.
Full depth patching with precast slab: Full depth cut out, removal and replacement of a
defective slab with a precast unit.
Partial depth patching: Using of percussive concrete cutter to precisely remove damaged or
deteriorated areas of rigid pavement up to 10cm deep and 0.4m2.
Restoring skid resistance: Use of grooving, acid etching, seal coats of hard aggregates applied
to rubberised buders to restore skid qualities.

9.5

Prevention of Defect Development

Pavement defects (mostly cracks and disintegration) develop in stages. Initially most
defects are apparent on the surface of the pavement which is usually immediately after
construction. In the next stage the defects develop progressively until they are of such an extent
and severity as to manifest on the surface. At this stage the defects seriously impair the
performance and serviceability of the pavement. The distress are diagnosed at the initial stage
by the use of standard specified equipment.
The Benkelmans Beam or Dynaflect is used to evaluate structural deterioration of the
road. The PCA meter which is a roughness measuring device is used to evaluate poor riffing
quality, while skid trailers are used to ascertain the prevalence of slipperiness

Benkelmans Apparatus
.
Early detection of defects restricts the development into more serious proportion. This is
facilitated by affecting proper repairs.

64