Effect of Slag Cover on Heat Loss and

Liquid Steel Flow in Ladles before and

during Teeming to a Continuous Casting Tundish
SANJIB CHAKRABORTY and YOGESHWAR SAHAI
Mathematical modeling of transient fluid flow and heat transfer of melt in the ladle has been
carried out, both before and during teeming of the melt to a tundish. The model involves solution
of the transient, two-dimensional form of the turbulent Navier-Stokes' equation along with the
equations of turbulence energy, energy dissipation rate of turbulence energy, and thermal energy
conservation in the cylindrical coordinate system. Two different heat loss conditions have been
assumed to occur from the top free surface of the melt in the ladle. When the ladle has an
insulating layer of slag, temperature stratification occurs within the melt with the coolest melt
in contact with the ladle bottom. The degree of temperature stratification increases with the
increase in holding time. Pouring of the melt from such a ladle to the tundish, however, results
in near uniform ladle stream temperature during the 47 minutes of pouring period considered
in the present study. This is especially true if the melt in the ladle is held for a period of
20 minutes prior to teeming. When the melt in the ladle loses an appreciable amount of heat
from the top due to a thin layer of slag, the average temperature of the melt drops considerably
during the holding period although there is no temperature stratification. Pouring from such a
ladle results in a continuous decline of the ladle stream temperature, even though the pouring
starts after a holding period of 5 minutes.

I.

INTRODUCTION

THE continuous casting process is increasingly becoming the preferred route for the manufacture of semifinished steel products, gradually replacing the
conventional ingot casting route. The reasons for the gain
in popularity of the continuous casting process are the
inherent advantages of energy savings and increased
flexibility and productivity of the casting operation. A
continuous casting setup essentially consists of three
metallurgical reactors, the ladle, the tundish and the continuous casting mold (Figure 1). Steel which has been
tapped from the primary steelmaking furnace to the ladle
is poured, via the tundish, into the water-cooled molds,
where solidification of the molten metal takes place.
Concurrent with the development of the continuous casting technology, 'the quality requirements of the final steel
product have also become quite stringent.
One of the important process parameters determining
the quality of the final steel product is the degree of
superheat of the melt in the tundish and in the mold.
Increased superheat of the melt results in a greater proportion of the columnar grains instead of the preferred
fine equiaxed grain structure in the solidified product.
The columnar region is associated with the increased
segregation of the various dissolved elements in steel,
such as carbon, formation of centerline porosity, and
cracks in the semifinished product. Increased degree of
superheat of the melt in the mold may also result in
SANJIB CHAKRABORTY, formerly Graduate Student, Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Ohio State University, is
Research Engineer, Technical Center, National Steel Corporation,
Trenton, MI 48183. YOGESHWAR SAHAI, ISS Professor, is with
the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ohio State
University, Columbus, OH 43210.
Manuscript submitted June 26, 1991.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

breakouts, since sufficient time may not be available for

the required faster rate of heat extraction from the mold
to result in the formation of a solidified shell of sufficient thickness. Low casting temperature, on the other
hand, is detrimental from the point of view of efficient
inclusion removal and may result in nozzle blockages
due to premature solidification in the tundish. A low degree of superheat also increases the formation of sculls
in the tundish during draining the last heat of a sequence
casting operation.
Thus, it can be seen that the degree of superheat of
the melt needs to be carefully controlled in order to obtain the finished product of the desired quality. The temperature of the melt flowing through the tundish into the
mold should be maintained within a narrow band of the
superheat targeted. Since the continuous casting process
consists of the three metallurgical reactors in tandem
(Figure 1), ideally the temperature of the melt being
poured from the ladle to the tundish should remain more
or less constant over the entire casting period. However,
it has been found in actual industrial practices that the
temperature of the ladle melt stream usually shows a
continuous decline from the start of pouring to the end
of casting. This has been attributed by various
authors tl-41 to be due to the temperature stratification of
the melt being held in the ladle prior to casting for various ladle metallurgical operations. Temperature stratification of the melt occurs due to continuous heat loss
of the melt through the top slag layer, the ladle walls,
and the bottom. This results in a pool of colder, heavier
melt collecting at the bottom of the ladle. Stirring of the
melt by the injection of an inert gas, such as argon, apart
from promoting the various ladle refining reactions, is
also considered beneficial from the point of view of thermal homogenization of the melt prior to pouring. In industry, there is usually a time lag between the end of
VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992-- 135

tual plant scale studies, tS,61The present study has focussed

on the mathematical modeling of fluid flow and heat
transfer of the melt in a ladle during the holding period
after inert gas stirring has been carried out and the subsequent teeming period to clarify the role of thermal
stratification of the melt on the variation of the teem stream
temperature. The effect of the varying thicknesses of slag
on the stratification phenomenon has been modeled by
considering different heat loss conditions through the top
surface. Various holding times have been considered to
monitor the evolution of the stratification phenomenon.
The effect of the varying ladle stream temperature on the
coupled fluid flow and heat transfer of the melt in the
tundish has been examined in another article.

II.

LADLE

HOLDING

PERIOD

A. Model Formulation f o r Ladle Holding Period

I y
Fig. 1 - - A schematic representation of a continuous casting process.

inert gas stirring and the pouring of the melt from the
ladle. The temperature stratification phenomenon is expected to reappear in the melt if the waiting period is
long enough. Thus, one of the objectives of an efficient
casting operation is to allow as little time as possible
between the termination of inert gas stirring and the beginning of casting.
Interestingly, the phenomenon of thermal stratification
of the melt being held in a ladle has been shown by Miller
and Hlinka tSl to be essential for the maintenance of a
constant ladle stream temperature during casting in an
elegant water modeling and pilot plant study of a ladleto-tundish system. Temperature stratification of the melt
was found to occur if the top slag layer in the ladle was
thick enough to be practically insulating. During pouring
of the melt from such a ladle, the temperature of the
teeming stream was found to remain more or less constant throughout the casting period. If a thin layer of slag
was used, allowing appreciable heat loss from the top,
the temperature of the teem stream exhibited a continuous decrease during the casting period. The same conclusions had been reached by den Hartog et al. [61 based
on actual plant trials at their Hoogovens works.
Thus, it can be seen that considerable confusion exists
in the metallurgical literature as well as in the industry
regarding the effect of temperature stratification of the
melt in the ladle prior to teeming on the temperature
variation of the melt stream during teeming. It is generally thought that the temperature stratification of the
melt is responsible for the variation of the teem stream
temperature during casting. Precisely the opposite conclusions have been reached from water modeling and ac136--VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992

The cylindrical ladle considered for the present study

is 3.35 m in diameter, and the melt depth is considered
to be 4.0 m, being held for a maximum of 20 minutes
after the end of inert gas stirring. The turbulent fluid
flow and temperature fields should be computed in the
vertical (z), the radial (r), and the angular (0) directions. However, the variation in the fluid flow and temperature fields in the angular direction has been assumed
to be negligible, so that the relevant equations need to
be solved in two dimensions only (z and r) (Figure 2).
The governing equations are listed as follows.
Equation of Continuity
Op

~(pu~)

--

Ot

Oz

10(prur)
+

Or

- 0

[1]

Free surface

I
0

Wall
L)
Z

Fig. 2 - - A schematic representation of the finite difference grid used

in the mathematical modeling of fluid flow and heat transfer in ladles.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

Momentum Conservation in z Direction

-O(pUz)
- + -O(pu~u~)
- +
Ot
Oz
_

B. Boundary Conditions for Ladle HoMing Period

1 O(pruzUr)
r

Or

rO2Uz+ -l - O (rOUz]

Op +
Oz

r Or \

Or/

+--r
+(P-Po)g
rOr\
Oz/J

[2]
Momentum Conservation in r Direction

O(pUr)
- - + - O(pUzUr)
+ 1 O(pruru~)
Ot

Oz

Op
--

Or

02Uz

~02Ur
'+ ~/'eff

At- - -

L~

Or

OzOr

--

--

Or

Or/

-~

[31

Conservation of Turbulent Kinetic Energy

O(pK)
O(puzK)
- - + - - +
Ot
Oz
O

1 O(prurK)
r

txaf OK

OZ ', O'X

Or

1 O

Js

r Or

o3:

-~- S K

[4]

where
SK =

pe

[5]

+ \Or + Oz/

[6]

and
G=tz,

2 \az/

+ \Or/

Equation for Rate of Turbulent Kinetic Energy Dissipation

O(pe)
O(pu~e)
- - + ~ +
Ot
Oz

10(prure)
r

Or

=-+--Oz \ o'k Oz/

r Or

cr~

+S~

[7]
C. Numerical Solution Procedure for Ladle
Holding Period

where
CleG

S~ -

C2pe 2

[8]

Thermal Energy Conservation

O(pT)
O
I O
- + - - (puzT) + - - - (pu~T)
Ot
Oz
r Or

o'T

]----Z + - - r Or

[9]

The values of the various constants in the turbulence model

follow the recommendations of Launder and SpaldingY ]
METALLURGICAL

TRANSACTIONS

Close to the ladle walls, the variations in the flow

properties are much steeper than within the melt. The
velocities parallel to the walls and the turbulence quantities at the near-wall nodes were calculated using the
standard logarithmic wall functions. I81 At the free surface, which was assumed to be flat, and at the central
symmetry axis, the normal velocity components and the
normal gradients of the paralle! velocity components,
turbulence energy, and energy dissipation rate were set
at zero. In addition, no slip boundary conditions were
imposed at the solid walls.
To model the effect of the thickness of slag cover on
the temperature stratification phenomenon, two different
heat loss conditions were imposed at the top free surface
of the melt. In one case, it was assumed that the top free
surface was insulated, simulating the effect of a thick
layer of slag. In the second case, a heat loss rate of
100 k W / m 2' was imposed at the top free surface to represent significant heat loss rate through a thin layer of
slag. The value of the rate of heat loss chosen is close
to the average value of radiation heat loss through the
top measured in an industrial ladle, tgl In both cases, a
constant conduction heat loss rate of 12.5 k W / m 2 through
the ladle walls was considered, v~ In addition, the normal gradients of temperature at the central symmetry axis
were considered to be zero.
The present modeling of the phenomenon of temperature stratification within the melt considered the period
between the end of the inert gas stirring and the commencement of pouring of the melt into the tundish. Hence,
the initial temperature field to be considered for solving
of the relevant transient thermal energy equation should
be homogeneous, reflecting the destratification brought
about by an efficient gas stirring procedure. It was assumed that the melt was initially at a uniform temperature of 1853 K. In addition, the initial velocities were
assumed to be zero throughout the melt. It has to be kept
in mind that the flow field induced by the injection of
the inert gas into the melt will persist for the first few
minutes after the gas injection has been stopped. However, in the present calculations, it was assumed that the
effect of these residual melt flow velocities on the natural convective flow arising due to the heat loss of the
melt through the ladle surfaces was negligible.

Finite difference equations were derived from Eqs. [ ! ]

through [4], [7], and [9] using an implicit finite difference procedure referred to as SIMPLE (Semi-implicit
method for pressure linked equations)J l~l A 25
(radial) 30 (vertical) grid was set up over the twodimensional calculation domain. The grid was nonuniform in the radial direction and uniform in the vertical
direction; a schematic representation of the grid is shown
in Figure 2. For both the heat loss conditions, a maxim u m holding time of 20 minutes was considered from
the end of inert gas stirring. Thus, the governing equations were solved to simulate the flow and temperature
fields within the ladle over 20 minutes of holding period.
VOLUME

231~, A P R I L

1992--137

III.

LADLE TEEMING PERIOD

A. Model Formulation for Ladle Teeming Period

During pouring of the melt from a ladle, the depth of
the melt decreases continuously, so that the situation is
similar to a moving free surface problem. Analysis of a
moving free surface problem should involve a Lagrangian
description, where the control volume moves with the
local fluid velocity, especially on or near the free surface. The conservation equations that have been detailed
previously are strictly valid in an Eulerian frame, where
the control surface is stationary. Such an Eulerian description is more easily applicable to the part of the melt
away from the free surface, such as near the outlet of
the ladle. Thus, the teeming of melt from a ladle cannot
be described in a purely Lagrangian or Eulerian frame,
and the conservation equations have to be modified to
take into account the continuous deformation of the calculation domain enveloping the ladle.
The modifications to the conservation equations have
been carried based on a similar analysis of a moving free
surface problem by Kim et al., E121 who analyzed the
problem of filling an initially empty channel by a hot
fluid. The Eulerian conservation equations are modified
for the deforming control volume by subtracting the rate
of deformation of the control volume from the velocity
of the fluid appearing in the conservation equations. Thus,

u(r,z,t)af = u ( r , z , t ) e f - u * ( r , z , t )

[10]

where the subscripts df and ef refer to the deforming

frame and Eulerian frame of reference, respectively, and
u* is the rate of deformation of the various grid points
in the control volume and can be determined a priori.
In the present case of the modeling of pouring from
the ladle, the control volume deforms in the axial (z)
direction only, so that u* is a function of z and t (time)
only. Thus, the uz terms appearing in the conservation
equations detailed above have to be modified according
to Eq. [10]. The local velocities of the various grid points
u* can be determined from the rate of change in the melt
level in the ladle, which is, in turn, determined from the
velocity of the pouring stream at any instant.
During pouring of the melt from the ladle, the velocity
of the melt coming out of the nozzle changes continuously according to the following relation:
Uoutlet : Co(2gz) u2

[11]

where z is the depth of the melt at any instant. It has

been assumed that the discharge coefficient Co is unity.
In a sequence casting operation, the tundish continues
to drain on its own during the ladle change-over period,
when the old ladle which has poured its contents is taken
away and before the new ladle starts pouring. The initial
pouring rate from the ladle is higher than the subsequent
steady state casting rate in order to bring the melt level
in the tundish back to the normal level within a short
time. This is termed the "tundish filling period." In the
present study, a tundish filling period of 1 minute has
been considered. During this period, the pouring rate has
been assumed to be double the steady state casting rate,
which has, in turn, been calculated by considering a
casting period of 46 minutes for a 250 ton ladle. In an
1 3 8 - - V O L U M E 23B, APRIL 1992

actual industrial operation, the ladle outlet area is continuously enlarged so that the throughput of the melt remains at the desired level even though the velocity of
the ladle stream decreases with the decrease in the melt
depth (Eq. [11]). Provision has been made in the present
model to simulate the continuous change in the area of
the ladle nozzle.

B. Boundary Conditions for Ladle Teeming Period

The boundary conditions at the solid walls, the free
surface, and the axis of symmetry for the relevant variables are identical to those employed to model the ladle
holding period. At the ladle outlet, the velocity was
specified at any given time by Eq. [11]. The initial fields
considered for the modeling of the teeming period were
established by considering holding periods of 5 and
20 minutes, both when the top free surface was assumed
to be insulated and when appreciable heat loss was assumed to occur through the top slag layer.

C. Numerical Solution Procedure for Ladle

Teeming Period
Finite difference equations were derived for each of
the modified forms of the conservation equations using
the SIMPLE procedure. The same grid distribution of 25
(radial) 30 (vertical) was maintained to model the entire casting period. The spacings between the grids in
the vertical direction were adjusted continuously, corresponding to the calculated depth of the melt at any instant. The spacings between the grids in the radial
direction, enveloping the outlet region, were also adjusted continuously to reflect the change in the outlet
area necessary to maintain a constant casting rate.
IV.

R E S U L T S AND DISCUSSION

A. FluM Flow and Heat Transfer of Melt in Ladle

during Holding--Insulated Top
Figures 3(a) through (d) represent the predicted velocity profiles of the melt in the ladle, 5, 10, 15, and
20 minutes from the termination of inert gas stirring. The
magnitudes of the plotted velocity vectors are proportional to their lengths. The length of the vector shown
at the top of the figure represents a velocity of 0.01 m / s .
It can be seen from Figure 3 that the melt flow exhibits
an overall recirculatory pattern in which the melt flows
up toward the top free surface over the major part of the
ladle and then downward along the walls of the ladle.
There is a secondary recirculation pattern evident near
the bottom of the ladle 5 minutes from the end of inert
gas stirring (Figure 3(a)). The overall melt flow velocities in the central region of the ladle can be seen to
decrease as the holding period of the melt in the ladle
prior to teeming is increased (compare, e.g.,
Figures 3(a) and (d)). The region adjacent to the bottom
of the ladle represents a near-stagnant region 20 minutes
after the end of stirring (Figure 3(d)). It has to be kept
in mind that the melt loses heat only through the walls
and the bottom of the ladle. Thus, the melt near the top
surface is expected to be at the highest temperature. This
hotter, lower density fluid cools in contact with the walls
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

0.01

0.01

m/s

m/s
'?

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r~'~'ltttttttttftftt#ttttttlttlftftttt~
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(b)

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m/s

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. . . . . . . . . . .

, ,,, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

\\~

(c)

(d)

Fig. 3 - - P r e d i c t e d flow field in the ladle with insulated top: (a) 5 min, (b) 10 min, (c) 15 min, and (d) 20 min from the end of inert gas stirring.

of the ladle. As the temperature of the melt fails, it gets

heavier and flows downward along the walls. The cooling of the melt continues as it flows downward and along
the bottom of the ladle. Thus, as time progresses, the
melt in contact with the bottom of the ladle becomes
cooler and heavier and settles as a stagnant pool.
Figure 4 represents the temperature fields in the melt
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

at corresponding times prior to teeming. Figure 4(a) shows

the temperature contours 5 minutes from the end of stirring, while Figures 4(b) through (d) represent the same
10, 15, and 20 minutes from the end of stirring. It has
to be kept in mind that the temperature of the melt was
assumed to be at a uniform temperature of 1853 K after
inert gas stirring. From Figure 4, it can be seen that the
VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992--139

1853 K

.g

Ig53 K
1852 K

1851K
1852 K

1850 K
1851K

(a)

(b)

1851 K

1852 K
18.~) K

j-.

-.,j

1851K
11149K

j11148K

1850 K

lZr K
11,~44K

"~"

(c)

lit41K

(d)

Fig. 4 - - T e m p e r a t u r e distributions in the ladle with insulated top: (a) 5 min, (b) 10 min, (c) 15 rain, and (d) 20 min from the end of inert gas
stirring.

degree of vertical temperature stratification increases with

time. The melt at the bottom of the ladle is cooler by
about 2 ~ compared to the melt near the top surface
5 minutes from the termination of gas stirring
(Figure 4(a)). The temperature stratification has increased to about 10 ~ 20 minutes from the end of stirring (Figure 4(d)), with the melt near the top at a
temperature of 1851 K while the melt adjacent to the
bottom of the ladle is at a temperature of 1841 K.

140--VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992

The rate of temperature drop of the melt is highest near

the bottom of the ladle, where the near-stagnant melt
pool precludes any mixing and results in a steep temperature gradient. Thus, it can be seen that extensive
temperature stratification of the melt has reappeared
20 minutes from the termination of gas stirring.
The predicted flow patterns of the melt in the ladle
prior to teeming can provide some insight into the inclusion flotation characteristics in the melt during this

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

period. Apart from the functions of thermal and chemical homogenization, the bubbling of inert gas in the melt
should help in the flotation and removal of the nonmetallic inclusions. As the swarm of gas bubbles move upward from the bottom of the ladle toward the top surface,
the inclusions are also carried upward by the convection
of the melt pool and attachment to the bubbles. Once
they reach the top surface, they are absorbed by the slag
layer and removed from the system. Most of the larger
nonmetallic inclusions can be removed during inert gas
stirring. However, the smaller inclusions remaining in
the melt will take much longer in the present case to
reach the top slag layer after inert gas stirring is ended,
as the upward directed melt flow velocities in most parts
of the ladle are quite low (Figure 3). The low degree of
turbulence in the system is also not conducive to coalescence and, hence, faster floatout rates of the nonmetallic inclusions. The low melt flow velocities also
imply poor mixing of the melt, so that any additional
chemical homogenization after inert gas stirring has been
carried out is not feasible. Figure 4 also shows that the
thermal homogenization brought about by inert gas stirring has also been negated by the reappearance of temperature stratification in the melt.

B. Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer of Melt in Ladle

during Teeming--Insulated Top
It can be seen from Figures 4(a) and (d) that while the
melt is almost homogeneous in temperature 5 minutes
from the termination of inert gas stirring, a 20 minute
wait prior to teeming from the ladle results in the reappearance of extensive temperature stratification of the melt
in the ladle. It is generally felt that temperature stratification of the melt in the ladle will adversely affect the
temperature of the teeming stream and, hence, the fluid
flow and heat-transfer characteristics of the melt in the
tundish. Thus, teeming from a ladle 20 minutes from the
end of inert gas stirring represents the worst case scenario. In the present section, the fluid flow and temperature fields of the melt in the ladle during teeming from
such a ladle have been discussed in detail.
Figure 5 represents the predicted velocity fields in the
ladle during various stages of teeming. Figure 5(a) shows
the predicted velocity profiles 5 minutes from the start
of teeming, while Figures 5(b) and (c) represent the same
20 and 30 minutes, respectively, from the start of teeming. It can be seen from Figure 5 that the overall flow
field does not change significantly from that established
in the ladle 20 minutes from the end of inert gas stirring
(Figure 3(d)). The melt near the walls, being cooler and
heavier, flows down with an appreciable velocity along
the walls of the ladle toward the ladle outlet. The most
dramatic change compared to the initial flow field (compare Figures 3(d) and 5(a)) has occurred near the bottom
of the ladle, where the high velocity of the teeming stream
has resulted in the increase of the melt velocities in the
adjacent regions. The melt in the remainder of the ladle
flows from near the bottom of the ladle up toward the
top surface. These upward directed melt flow velocities
are appreciably lower compared to the wall and bottom
adjacent melt flow. This overall melt flow pattern re-

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

mains unaltered over most of the teeming period

(Figures 5(b) and (c)).
Figure 6 represents the variation of the temperature of
the teeming stream over the 47 minutes of the casting
period, including the initial 1 minute of the tundish filling period. It is interesting to note that the temperature
stratification of the melt in the ladle prior to teeming has
no adverse effect on the temperature history of the teeming stream. The temperature of the ladle melt stream remains more or less constant at 1844 K for an appreciable
part of the casting period. The rate of temperature drop
increases over the last 3 to 4 minutes of teeming, so that
the end temperature of the melt stream is about 1840 K.
Figure 7 represents the temperature fields existing in the
melt at various stages of teeming. Figure 7(a) shows the
temperature contours 5 minutes from the start of teeming, while Figures 7(b) and (c) represent the same 20
and 30 minutes, respectively, from the start of teeming.
Comparison of Figures 4(d) and 7(a) shows that the high
velocities existent in the near-wall region and adjacent
to the bottom of the ladle close to the teeming stream
have resulted in mixing of the melt and consequent homogenization of the melt temperature in that region. The
region of steep temperature stratification (1841 to
1846 K) evident just before the start of teeming
(Figure 4(d)) has been replaced by a uniform temperature region of 1845 K, which reflects the temperature of
the ladle outlet stream. The temperature of the ladle melt
stream declines by only 2 ~ to 3 ~ 30 minutes from
the start of pouring, as does the temperature of the melt
in the bulk of the ladle.
Figure 8 represents the temperature variation of the
ladle melt stream over the full 47 minutes of the casting
period for the case when the teeming has commenced
5 minutes after the end of inert gas stirring. The temperature of the melt stream changes from 1850 K at the
beginning of teeming to about 1842 K at the end of the
casting period, representing an overall melt temperature
drop of 8 ~ This is slightly greater than the temperature
drop exhibited by the ladle melt stream when the teeming starts 20 minutes after the end of stirring (Figure 6).
Thus, allowing the ladle to sit for a longer time prior to
teeming has resulted ultimately in a more uniform ladle
stream temperature over the duration of the casting period.

C. Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer of Melt in Ladle

during Holding--Heat Loss from the Top
Figure 9 represents the predicted velocity profiles of
the melt in the ladle losing heat from the top at various
times after the inert gas stirring has been carried out.
Figure 9(a) shows the predicted velocity profiles in the
ladle 5 minutes after the end of inert gas stirring, while
Figures 9(b) through (d) show the same 10, 15, and
20 minutes from the termination of inert gas stirring. It
can be seen from Figure 9 that the extensive heat loss
from the top has resulted in the development of a strong
recirculatory flow pattern throughout the ladle. The melt
in contact with the top surface of the ladle cools and
flows along the walls of the ladle toward the bottom.
The melt then flows toward the top surface over the
remainder of the ladle, thus setting up an overall

VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1 9 9 2 - - 1 4 1

m/s

0.005

m/s

0.005

~ , , ; ' ~ ' , , ~ ; , " Z271

I ~II ( ~u ~\ \

/~.%.~.%,%,~".~,% N \ \ X ~, ~ "i I | l i t t I f ! I / I / / / / / / / , / A ~ 4

r~ ~ \ ' ~ 1 1 1 t t t t f l l t

llltlttltttlttrtff//

,~ I'i~'~'~l~'~lttllttttlttttttttttttttttt~
,! |]~11'~111tttltllttttttttfttftt~'~t[~']

i
.....

[i t t t t t t t t t t t t t l l t f t l t t t 1 1 ~ ! ~ X % ~ .

3~/]

'

I I I
1 ~
| ~ |
1 I

?,,,::,,
t I I 11
1
I|
I | I | I
I II I I

I | I I I I|

.....

I
I
|
t

I
I
I
I
I
I |11

t
I
I
I
I

I
f
|
t
I
I

2/.,

: .............

I ttlNI/11l I
Illllllll
I $11qlll
|
|Ill'Ill
|1
I |lll~ll
I t
Ill|Ill
I

I I I
I I
I t |
I I
I I I
I |1~

:|l[~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,~,,,,,,,,,,,,

I
I
I
If
I

I t I t t I ~
I t IIl|l
I I I I | | ~
I fflfl
| I | I | | I
||f
Ill|

'
1
i
i

. . . . tlt,

!
(a)

(b)-

0.005

m/s

..~.;}}C."!i iiii!D S'/~~

II i Aiil-----in

iiii i--iill

(c)
Fig. 5 - - P r e d i c t e d flow field in the ladle with insulated top: (a) 5 min, (b) 20 min, and (c) 30 min of teeming, the teeming having commenced
20 minutes from the end of inert gas stirring.

142--VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

TEMPERATURE

VARIATION

WITH

TIME

recirculation of the melt. This basic flow pattern remains

virtually unchanged with time. Comparison of Figures 9
and 3 shows that the heat loss from the top of the ladle
has resulted in an increase of the melt flow velocities in
the bulk of the ladle. Note that the vector scale shown
on top of Figure 9 represents a velocity of 0.05 m / s
compared to 0.01 m/s in Figure 3. The consequent higher
degrees of turbulence and mixing in the system imply
the continued homogenization of temperature and chemistry of the melt and efficient inclusion flotation and removal, even after inert gas stirring has been stopped.
Thus, the convection currents set up in the melt due to
buoyancy effects duplicate the effect of inert gas stirring,
to some extent, in the melt.
Figures 10(a) through (d) represent the temperature
fields existing in the melt 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes from
the end of inert gas stirring. As expected, there is no
appreciable temperature stratification of the melt in the

. . . . , . . . . i . . . . , . . . . , . . . . ~. . . . , . . . . i . . . . i . . . . J . . . .

~d

M
M m

.,.E . . . . i . . . , i

10

.... i .... i .... i .... i .... i,.

15

20
TIME

25

:30

35

40

,i,, ,
45

50

(MIN)

Fig. 6--Temperature
v a r i a t i o n o f the t e e m i n g stream f r o m the ladle
with insulated top over the full casting period of 47 minutes, the teeming having commenced 20 minutes from the end of inert gas stirring.

1851K

~f

1850 K

IR48 K

1849 K

1847 K

IR46 K

IR48 K

~"

",,4
IR45 K

184"/ K

II~S K

(a)

II

[ iI14~K

(b)

IR47 K

.7
1846 K

X/
IX4S K

1843 K

(c)

Fig. 7--Temperature
d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n t h e l a d l e w i t h i n s u l a t e d t o p : (a) 5 r a i n , (b) 2 0 m i n , a n d (c) 3 0 m i n o f t e e m i n g , t h e t e e m i n g h a v i n g c o m menced 20 minutes from the end of inert gas stirring.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

V O L U M E 23B, A P R I L 1 9 9 2 - - 143

TEMPERATURE
o
co
co

....

i ....

i ....

VARIATION
z ....

~ ....

i ....

WITH
i ....

TIME

r ....

i ....

i ....

~o

co

~o
,~

co

~d
~L
~d co

O
01
....
co
"~ 0

t ....
5

i ....
10

i ....
15

i ....
20

i ....
25

TIME
Fig.

8--Temperature

with insulated
ing having

variation

of the teeming

5 minutes

i ....
35

t ....
40

i ....
45

50

(MIN)

top over the full casting

commenced

t ....
30

period

from

stream

from

of 47 minutes,

the end

the ladle
the teem-

of inert gas stirring.

ladle. The strong convection currents set up due to the

extensive heat loss through the top surface have resulted
in thermal homogenization of the melt. After 5 minutes
from the end of gas stirring (Figure 10(a)), the bulk of
the melt in the middle of the tundish is at a temperature
of 1851 K. Cooler fluid of 1850 K and below exists near
the top surface of the ladle, adjacent to the walls and the
bottom. As time progresses, the melt cools so that after
20 minutes, the bulk temperature of the melt is about
1844 K (Figure 10(d)). Thus, the overall temperature of
the melt decreases continuously due to the high rate of
heat loss through the top of the ladle, although the degree of temperature stratification within the melt is not
appreciable.

D. Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer of Melt in Ladle

during Teeming--Heat Loss from the Top
It is generally considered that the temperature stratification of the liquid steel in ladle gives rise to the stream
temperature variation during teeming from ladle to tundish. In the previous section, with no heat loss from the
free surface, it was observed that the temperature stratification increased with time. The calculation, after
20 minutes of holding, showed that it resulted in homogenization of the melt and the stream temperature
variation was relatively small, contrary to intuitive
thinking. On the other hand, the heat loss from the top
surface resulted in more uniform temperatures in the melt.
As will be shown subsequently, the stream temperature
variation during teeming in this case was found to be
much greater even after 5 minutes of holding. Thus, the
results of the modeling of fluid flow and heat transfer of
melt in ladle during teeming, which starts after 5 minutes
of holding from the end of inert gas stirring, are discussed in the present section. The results are expected
to be representative of the fluid flow and heat-transfer
characteristics of the melt in a ladle which starts teeming
10, 15, and 20 minutes from the end of inert gas stirring.
Figures 11 (a) through (c) show the predicted velocity
profiles of the melt in the ladle after 5, 20, and
144--VOLUME

23B, APRIL

1992

30 minutes of teeming, respectively. Comparison of

Figures 1 l(a) and 9(a) shows that there is no appreciable
change in the overall flow pattern of the melt during
teeming from the ladle, except for melt flow down along
the bottom of the ladle toward the outlet. The melt flow
in the bulk of the ladle is directed toward the top surface.
As the melt reaches the top, it cools, becomes heavier,
and flows down along the walls of the ladle. Thus, the
overall recirculatory flow pattern established in the ladle
prior to teeming is maintained during the first 5 minutes
of teeming. Figures 11 (b) and (c) show that the overall
flow pattern remains virtually unchanged as teeming
progresses.
Figure 12 shows the variation of the temperature of
the ladle melt stream over the entire casting period of
47 minutes, including the initial 1 minute of the tundish
filling period. It can be seen that the high rate of heat
loss from the top has resulted in a progressive temperature drop of the teeming stream. The initial temperature
of the melt stream is 1850 K, while the corresponding
temperature after 47 minutes of teeming is about
1805 K. Thus, the total temperature drop is about 45 ~
The rate of temperature drop remains at about
0.5 ~
over the first 25 minutes of teeming. Thereafter, the rate of temperature drop increases continuously
until the end of the teeming period. The phenomenon of
the increase in the rate of temperature drop of the ladle
melt stream during the later stages of teeming has also
been observed in actual industrial practices, t2'~3]
Figures 13(a) through (c) represent the predicted temperature fields within the melt after 5, 20, and
30 minutes of teeming, respectively. They show the
gradual decrease of the bulk melt temperature as teeming
progresses. After 5 minutes of teeming, the bulk of the
melt is at a temperature between 1848 and 1849 K, while
after 30 minutes of teeming, the temperature of the melt
in the bulk of the ladle has decreased to 1830 K. The
temperature of the ladle outlet stream is seen to be about
1 ~ to 2 ~ lower than that of the melt in the bulk of
the ladle for most of the teeming period.
Figure 14 shows the predicted variation of the ladle
melt stream over a period of 47 minutes when teeming
commences 20 minutes after the end of inert gas stirring.
Comparison of Figures 14 and 12 shows that the overall
drop in temperature is approximately the same in the two
cases. The initial melt stream temperature is obviously
lower at about 1842 K and shows a continuous decline
to a value of about 1798 K after 47 minutes of teeming.
Thus, it represents an overall temperature drop of about
44 ~
The predicted flow patterns of the melt during teeming
from the ladle, as represented by Figures 5 and 11, provide direct confirmation of the water modeling experiments carried out by Miller and Hlinka. [5] A plexiglass
model of a typical ladle-tundish system was utilized, and
boiling water was used to simulate molten steel. The water
modeling experiments were carried out with two different thicknesses of mineral oil on the top of the boiling
water in the model ladle. Dye was used as a tracer to
visualize the convection currents set up in the ladle during teeming. Figure 15(a) shows the observed flow pattern of the water in the ladle when a thick layer of mineral
oil was used, while Figure 15(b) shows the same in the
METALLURGICAL

TRANSACTIONS

0.05

~/S

05

~/S

'

ii

'

|,.,!
'| "~ ", 1
|~,1
|~''1

l",l

~-,!

1~.,i

I*, -","|

1~',1
~"1

1~-,1

~-,1

I,.,l
[~'I~ZIZ~I?IIIllII~I~til~%~X%~-i
%-t

~11[11||11~1||1%%%~

~'I

Igl~"lllll!~'

. . . . ,,m, . . . . . ~ t 1 1 1 ~ ' , ~

IIU,-'lfTlflv,
~'~flttl!"

.............
.............

M|~"llllfft'

,~11111t~-,I~1
'~t11111",ll~
............., ! 1 1 1 1 1 ~ - , U t l

~ ~ . . . . . . ~. . . .w. . . .~. . . .l. l l~%\\\\~.~

l ~

%~-,I

I,-,t

~.,I

|,.,1
L,-,r

~',1
~,.,1

|''~I

%~.,0

,..,I

~,..,

ml~,..,FtlZ2111tll~lflllt1111~x~..,ll~ll
l~l~.-',/UlIPtT~.~n~u~11~%x,",~l~l

IU|~,-.,Pllttt~,,,,~m~%~\\~.-,~|~ I

i~....~.~//ll, . . . . . . . . . . . ,%~\\\~,...---~i~

(a)

0 05

(b)

~/$

0 05

~/S

-----9

......I-.-.~.--~...,.~.~-:-.~;.d..X.s

/'''L !

~*'-~|

l, , t

l,

l,''f

I,-o|

I~-,l

~",i

|~-'!

1~'*1

|'''f
'''''I

%*''1
11'-./

'l

[~[ 1 , . - , ~//~2~2~1 tlflHttt| t 1 I I 1 1 I i ~,--,L l~ll

,,:::,
t~ 9 - * t
||~'*'ltt~'tl

I~ 9

l'----"

! , . . . . . . . . . ~ , , \ \ % \ \ x . . - - . , l~l

............... -----'-'l
(c)

~'-',
|fffflMatt11~

,%~ " - - , ' , ' / l / l l l "

........
A ~'--"~J"P'n'a 2 / l 9 9
L
.I.pps. ........

[]I~'%%~'*'1|

....

,,

~ ~ %~ \ \ \ \ x - - *i
9 9 \ \ \\N~.~.',.4~- ,, 1
-%~.%-~'--=~-- ~ : - ~ / l

(d)

Fig. 9--Predicted flow field in the ladle with heat loss from the top of the melt: (a) 5 min, (b) 10 min, (c) 15 min, and (d) 20 rain from the
end of inert gas stirring.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

V O L U M E 23B, A P R I L 1 9 9 2 - - 145

1849K

18sK "~ I

1
(a)

(b)

1846K

1843K
(c)

(d)

Fig. lO--Temperature distributions in the ladle with heat loss from the top of the melt: (a) 5 min, (b) 10 min, (c) 15 min, and (d) 20 min from
the end of inert gas stirring.

pressnce of a thin oil layer. Use of the thick oil layer

effectively suppressed any heat loss through the top surface of the water in the ladle, while the use of the thin
oil layer obviously led to appreciable heat loss from the
top. It is interesting to compare Figure 15(a) with
Figure 3 and Figure 15(b) with Figure 11. Even though
the present mathematical analysis has been done by considering an axisymmetric ladle outlet and the water modeling experiments were carried out with an off-centered
nozzle, the similarity between the predicted and the observed flow profiles is striking. When the mineral oil
146--VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992

layer was of sufficient thickness as to be insulating

(Figure 15(a)), there was a stagnant layer of water in the
central region of the ladle during teeming. Appreciable
flow was observed only along the walls and bottom of
the model ladle. The same flow pattern has been predicted in Figure 3, where it can be seen that the flow
velocities in the bulk of the ladle are much less compared to those along the walls and the bottom.
Figure 15(b) is a schematic representation of the convection currents that were set up in the water model of
the ladle during teeming when the thin layer of mineral
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

0.05

M,/S

0.~

M/~;

!:':P

~x'"~////'//I~"="~\\\NNN\\~""'/I

I~[ t : : : : ; ; 5 ~ ;

(a)

'i!'::!

J ~, : .'".: t ~~ t t t t ~ Z : : : :

:I

(b)

ol

M/S

(c)
Fig. 11 - - P r e d i c t e d flow field in the ladle with heat loss from the top of the melt: (a) 5 min, (b) 20 min, and (c) 30 min of teeming, the teeming
having commenced 5 minutes from the end of inert gas stirring.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992-- 147

TEMPERATURE
o
o
co

, . . i

VARIATION
.

WITH

TIME

greater in the ladle with the insulated top 5 minutes from

the end of inert gas stirring compared to the situation
15 minutes later; hence, the melt being poured from the
ladle after 5 minutes of holding period exhibits a slightly
greater degree of temperature loss.

. . . . . . . . . . .

V.
Mo
M o
o
....

~ o

i . . . .

i ....

I 0

i . . . .

15

i ....

2 0

TIME

i . . . .

2 5

i ....

3 0

t . . . .

3 5

i ....

4 0

i ....

4 5

5 0

(MIN)

Fig. 1 2 - - T e m p e r a t u r e variation of the teeming stream from the ladle

with heat loss from the top of the melt over the full casting period of
47 minutes, the teeming having c o m m e n c e d 5 minutes from the end
of inert gas stirring.

oil was used. It can be seen that the convection currents

led to the formation of a well-mixed region in the bulk
of the ladle, a phenomenon which has been predicted by
the mathematical model and represented in Figure 11.
Miller and Hlinka tS] also monitored the variation of the
fluid temperature during teeming in their water model
study. Figure 16 represents the variation of the temperature of the bulk water during teeming for three different
cases, the times and temperatures having been scaled to
correspond to a 100 ton heat. The temperature monitoring point was just below the oil-water interface; the temperature variation of the teeming stream was expected to
be similar to that of the fluid below the interface.
Case 1 corresponds to the thin layer of oil (normal slag),
where it can be seen that there is a continuous decrease
of the fluid temperature due to continuous heat loss
through the top and the walls as teeming progresses. This
is similar to the predicted temperature variation of the
teeming stream being poured from the ladle losing appreciable heat from the top (Figures 12 and 14). Case 2
corresponds to the situation where the thick oil layer was
used but the bulk fluid was stirred during teeming, while
case 3 corresponds to normal teeming from the ladle with
the thick oil layer. The curve corresponding to case 3
resembles the predicted temperature history of the teeming stream being poured from the ladle with an insulated
top 20 minutes from the end of inert gas stirring
(Figure 6). Comparison of cases 2 and 3 shows that the
existence of a stagnant central bulk of hotter fluid is essential for the constancy of the teem stream temperature
during casting. Artificial mixing of this bulk of fluid led
to a sharper temperature drop of the pouring stream, even
though a thick layer of oil was utilized. This might explain the reason for the teeming stream being poured from
the ladle with an insulated top, 5 minutes after the end
of inert gas stirring, exhibiting a slightly higher degree
of temperature drop (Figure 8) compared to that being
poured from the ladle opened 20 minutes after the end
of inert gas stirring (Figure 6). Comparison of
Figures 3(a) and (d) shows that the degree of mixing is
148--VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992

S U M M A R Y AND C O N C L U S I O N S

Mathematical modeling of transient fluid flow and heat

transfer of the melt being held in a ladle, after inert gas
stirring and prior to teeming, has been carried out in the
present study. Two holding times of 5 and 20 minutes
were considered, and two different heat loss conditions
were imposed at the free surface of the melt to simulate
the insulating effect of slags of varying thicknesses. In
one case, the top free surface was assumed to be perfectly insulating, representing the use of an idealized thick
slag layer. An appreciable heat loss through the top was
considered in the second case to simulate the effect of a
slag layer of insufficient thickness. It was found that significant temperature stratification occurs in the melt being
held in the ladle with the insulating slag layer, and the
degree of stratification increases with the holding time.
During pouring of the melt into the tundish from such a
ladle, the temperature of the teem stream declines by
only 5 ~ to 10 ~ over the 47 minutes of casting time
considered in the present study. For a thin layer of slag,
resulting in appreciable heat loss from the top, the bulk
of the melt in the ladle is well mixed due to the strong
buoyancy driven convection currents. This, in turn, results in temperature homogenization of the melt. However, due to appreciable heat loss through the top, the
average temperature of the melt was found to decrease
continuously, and the trend continues during pouring of
the melt from the ladle. Thus, the temperature of the
pouring stream was found to decline by about 45 ~ from
the start of teeming of the melt to the end of the casting
period.
This mathematical modeling study has clarified the role
of heat loss through the top of the ladle in the determination of the overall fluid flow and heat-transfer behavior of the melt in the ladle, both before and during
teeming of the melt. It is generally felt in the industry
that elimination of temperature stratification of the melt
in the ladle will result in a more uniform temperature of
the ladle melt stream during teeming. Thus, one of the
functions of inert gas stirring has been to homogenize
the temperature of the melt in the ladle prior to teeming.
Care is also taken in the industry to allow as little time
as possible between the end of the stirring operation and
the start of teeming, so that the temperature stratification
phenomenon does not reappear to a significant extent in
the interim period. However, the present modeling study
has shown that significant temperature stratification occurs in the melt if the top surface of the melt in the ladle
is assumed to be insulated. A 20 minute time interval
between the termination of the stirring operation and the
start of the teeming operation resulted in an appreciable
degree of temperature stratification of the melt, which
ultimately led to a near-uniform melt stream temperature
during teeming over the casting period considered. The
temperature drop exhibited was less compared to the
situation when only 5 minutes were allowed to elapse
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

1839 K

II

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 1 3 - - T e m p e r a t u r e distributions in the ladle with heat loss from the top of the melt: (a) 5 min, (b) 20 min, and (c) 30 min of teeming, the
teeming having c o m m e n c e d 5 minutes from the end of inert gas stirring.

between the end of stirring and the start of teeming. On

the other hand, when appreciable heat loss occurs through
the top surface of the melt in the ladle, the resulting s~ong
convection currents in the melt result in efficient mixing
and consequent thermal homogenization of the melt.
However, the overall temperature of the melt continues
to decrease during teeming due to the high rate of heat
loss, which is reflected in the sharp decline of the
temperature of the ladle melt stream as teeming
progresses.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

Thus, the amount of heat loss through the top surface

of the melt in the ladle primarily determines the variation
of the melt stream temperature during teeming. A uniform melt stream temperature throughout the casting period is desirable. The amount of heat loss by conduction
through the ladle walls and bottom is fixed by the conductivity of the refractories and the amount of preheat
imparted to the ladle, and hence, little control can be
exerted on the amount of conductive heat losses. However, the amount of combined radiative and conductive
VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992--149

VARIATION

TEMPERATURE
0
kO
cO

' ' ' ,

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

WITH

. . . .

. . . .

TIME

w . . . .

. . . .

m~
~g
~ o

~g
0
,

. . . .

I0

. . . .

15

. . . .

. . . .

20

25

TIME

. . . .

. . . .

30

35

40

45

50

(MIN)

Fig. I 4 - - T e m p e r a t u r e variation of the teeming stream from the ladle

with heat loss from the top of the melt over the full casting period of
47 minutes, the teeming having commenced 20 minutes from the end
of inert gas stirring.

It has to be realized that insulating the top surface of

the melt in the ladle results in a stagnant region of the
melt in the bulk of the ladle, both before and during
teeming. The consequent low degree of mixing may
hamper the efficient flotation and removal of the inclusions remaining in the melt after inert gas stirring and
decrease the degree of additional chemical homogenization otherwise obtainable in the absence of stirring.
Use of a thick slag layer may also accelerate the initiation of vortexing and consequent slag entrainment during the later stages of teeming, which will result in an
increase in the number of inclusions in the tundish. If
the superheat of the melt poured into the ladle is low to
start with, the cooling of the melt in contact with the
bottom of the ladle with an insulated top may result in
localized solidification and the clogging of the ladle outlet. Thus, the amount of heat loss through the top of a
ladle needs to be optimized in order to obtain the correct
balance of mixing in the ladle and a low drop in the
temperature of the ladle outlet stream during teeming.

LIST OF SYMBOLS
Ct, C2

Co
G
g

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1 5 - - S c h e m a t i c of the flow profiles during teeming in a water

model of a ladle (a) with a thick layer of oil on the top and (b) with
a thin layer of oil on top. tSl

K
p
r
T
t
ur, uz

--1

u(r, z, t)dl
u(r, z, t)ey
u*(r, z, t)
W

Uoutlet

18~--

182~--

180cL

I (b)
I
30 20

ms

~
"-.
1

10

10

TEEMING

20
TIME~

30

",,

40

"q

50

60

mm

Fig. 16--Variation of the water temperature below the oil-water

interface during teeming from the water model of a ladle.
TM

heat loss occurring through the top slag layer can be controlled by adjusting the thickness of the slag used. A
ladle cover may be used in conjunction with a thick slag
layer to further decrease the amount of heat loss through
the top and achieve a near-uniform melt stream temperature during teeming.

150--VOLUME 23B, APRIL 1992

constants in the k-e turbulence model

discharge coefficient at the ladle
outlet
generation of turbulence energy,
defined by Eq. [6]
acceleration due to gravity in the z
direction, m s -2
turbulent kinetic energy, m 2 s -t
pressure, kg m -t s -2
radius, m
temperature, K
time, s
mean velocity in the radial and axial
directions, m s
rate of deformation of control volume
in Lagrangian frame, m s -~
rate of deformation of control volume
in Eulerian frame, m s -~
rate of deformation of grid points in
control volume, m s -~
velocity of melt through ladle outlet,

z
e
/z t
tz,
/'~eff
p
P0
ok, o-+
o'r

- t

depth of melt, m
dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic
energy, m 2 s -3
molecular viscosity, kg m - 1 sturbulent viscosity, kg m -~
effective viscosity, kg m -[
density of the fluid, kg m - 3
reference density of the fluid, kg m -3
Schmidt number for k and e
Prandtl number for temperature
S - 1

- 1

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been supported by the National Science
Foundation, Grant No. MSM-8602523, and by the
National Steel Technical Research Center.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

REFERENCES
1. R. Widdowson: Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 1981, no. 5,
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METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

7. B. Launder and D.B. Spalding: Heat Transfer Section Report

No. HTS/73/2, Imperial College, London, 1973.
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