Fluid Flow and Bath Temperature

Destratification in Gas-Stirred Ladles

A.H. CASTILLEJOS E., M.E. SALCUDEAN, and J.K. BRIMACOMBE
The transient fluid flow and temperature distributions in argon-stirred ladles have been
investigated. The governing equations of unsteady fluid flow and energy were solved numerically with a control-volume technique, while the turbulence was modeled by the two-equation
k - e model. The two-phase zone was described by novel experimental equations, which characterize the gas-fraction distribution in the bath for a wide range of variables in both aqueous
and liquid metal systems. Fully transient computational results are presented and compared
against transient temperature computations based on a steady-state velocity field. The resulting
mixing times compare closely with industrial experience.

I.

INTRODUCTION

P R I O R to continuous casting a heat of steel, it is standard practice to inject an inert gas into the bath through
a bottom-mounted porous element or through a lance.
The purpose of this operation is to control the steel temperature by mixing the cold metal at the bottom of the
ladle with the hotter metal at the top. Temperature control is vital both for product quality and the smoothness
of the operation. The superheat profoundly influences
cast structure (columnar v s equiaxed) and, thereby,
macrosegregation, centerline porosity, and crack formation in the as-cast, semifinished shape. Excessive
superheat also exacerbates breakouts, although inadequate superheat may cause nozzle freeze-off and large
skulls remaining in the tundish. Temperature control obviously depends as well on other practices from tapping
to casting, e . g . , tapping stream characteristics, ladle preheat, ladle additions, use of ladle lids, slag thickness,
ladle refractories, hold time prior to casting, and use of
ladle furnace, t~-Sl
Ladle stirring with an inert gas has the additional beneficial effect of facilitating inclusion removal and thereby
improving steel cleanness. However, excessive gas flow
rates or long stirring times can lead to dirtier steel due
to the reoxidation of the metal exposed to air by the discharging gas. [~,2,31
This paper addresses the question of the minimum stirring time necessary at typical gas flow rates to achieve
temperature homogenization in a ladle equipped with a
porous element mounted at the bottom centerline. The
approach combines a turbulent recirculating fluid f l o w
model and recently determined gas-fraction correlations
for a submerged jet.

A.H. CASTILLEJOS E., formerly Postdoctoral Fellow, The

University of British Columbia, is with the Centro de Investigacion
y de Estudios Avanzados del IPA, Carr. SaltillomMonterrey Km,
25000 Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico. M.E. SALCUDEAN, Professor and
Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, and J.K.
BRIMACOMBE, Stelco/NSERC Professor and Director of the Centre
for Metallurgical Process Engineering, are with The University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T lW5, Canada.
Manuscript submitted August 18, 1988.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

II.

PREVIOUS W O R K

Recently, mathematical treatments of the destratification due to mixing induced by electromagnetic and gas
stirring have been published. The mathematical analysis
involves solution of the fluid flow and temperature field,
including modeling of the turbulence and the two-phase
zone with the appropriate boundary conditions, t6,71
The effects o f different algebraic and differential turbulence models on the calculated flow field have been
discussed in the literature, t7'81 The effective viscosities
predicted close to the symmetry axis and the top surface
are considerably larger when applying differential models
compared to algebraic models. This results in a comparatively higher entrainment of the liquid in the plume and,
consequently, higher velocities in the.low-velocity region of the ladle (outer bottom region). Algebraic models
are simpler and entail lower computational costs; however, due to the recirculatory nature of the flow, transport of the turbulence properties occurs so that the use
of differential models is desirable.
The characterization of the two-phase zone (size, phase
distribution, bubble size, and liquid and gas velocities)
has been approached in an increasingly sophisticated way.
In earlier studies, the two-phase region was treated as a
solid body moving with a defined velocity, which then
induced the fluid motion through friction on the surrounding liquid.t9] In later treatments, it was recognized
that fluid motion was induced mainly by density differences between the two-phase plume and the surrounding
liquid. [7,8,1~ Subsequently, the two-phase region has
been treated as a single phase with a variable density.
The gas concentration within the plume has been calculated theoretically with nonslip models tx~] and drift-flux
models, tT,s,~~ The gas concentration variation with radius
has been prescribed as uniform or as an arbitrary function. Other authors have considered a simple assumption
of uniform gas fraction over the entire plume, t~3] The
size of the plume has been defined based on visual observation of the breakthrough eye, and its geometry has
been generally considered cylindrical or at an imposed
angle.
In general, the investigations have reported good
agreement between the computed and experimental
VOLUME 20B, OCTOBER 1989--603

velocity fields. The turbulence characteristics of the flow

have been less well predicted. This apparent contradiction can be explained by the dominance of the body forces
over a wide range of the flow field; however, the turbulence characteristics are extremely important in the
prediction of mixing, i.e., thermal and chemical homogenization. More recently, calculations based on experimental correlations for plume geometry and phase
distribution obtained in air-water models have produced
good agreement for both velocity and kinetic energy
fields. [14,151 In a new approach, the conservation equations have been solved separately for the liquid and gas
phases and coupled through interface drag.[16.17] The predictions of the gas distribution obtained with the model
were not fully adequate because of difficulties in the representation of the gas-liquid interaction. Recently, an experimental correlation of the gas distribution in gas-liquid
metal plumes has been determined, covering a wide range
of experimental conditions. I181The objective of this paper
is to investigate the flow field and the temperature distribution during argon bubbling using the derived correlation in a transient way and, subsequently, to predict
homogenization times.

III.

FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM

A. System Considered and Assumptions

A 250-ton ladle agitated by argon injected vertically

upward through a nozzle located centrally at the bottom
of the vessel has been investigated. The liquid steel has
been assumed initially to be quiescent and thermally
stratified with a linear temperature distribution from the
bottom to the top. The initial temperature was assumed
uniform in the radial direction. In the present case, a
40 ~ temperature difference between the top and the
bottom of the steel bath was considered. The system parameters considered in this work are given in Table I.
The following assumptions were made:
(1) The domain is occupied by a single-phase fluid with
spatially variable density. This assumption allows for good
prediction of the velocity field, if the gas void fraction
is accurately prescribed, because the flow is essentially
buoyancy-dominated.
(2) The top surface is flat, and no tangential stresses are

present. This assumption requires further attention, as it

does not reflect the physical reality of the spout. This
assumption is one of the causes of discrepancy observed
between computed surface velocities and turbulent kinetic energies and measured values, especially at high
gas flow. Incorporation of the spout into the model is
the subject of future work.
(3) Density differences arising from the gas fraction and
temperature gradients are considered. The ratio of the
gas buoyancy to thermal buoyancy is large in the twophase region. Thermal buoyancy becomes more significant in regions outside the plume, t15,18-2~
(4) The injected gas does not act as a heat sink. This
assumption is acceptable, because the heat content of the
gas is small, as compared with the heat content of steel.
(5) A constant heat flux through the ladle walls is assumed. This holds if sufficient contact time has occurred
between the steel and the ladle to establish a steady-state
temperature distribution in the vessel walls. The heat flux
value of 1.25 x l 0 4 W / m 2 was used based on Alberny
and Leclercq [2[ and Irving [21J for refractory bricks and
steady-state conditions.
(6) The top surface is thermally insulated. This assumption implies that the insulating slag layer does not
suffer appreciable breakage by the discharging gas. This
is likely to be valid for the gas flow rate assumed in
the present work.
(7) The time to develop the plume was neglected in the
computation. This assumption can be made because the
gas velocity in the central region is high, so that the mixing time is largely unaffected by plume development.
B. Mathematical Formulation
1. Governing equations

The governing differential equations are written, respectively, for mass, momentum, and energy in the following manner:
0
0
Oz (rpu) + ~r (rpv) = 0

O(pu)
--+
Ot

O(puu)
Oz
OZ

Table I. Geometric Data, Injection

Parameters, and System (Steel-Argon) Properties
-l-

R (m)
do (m)

3.57
1.79
0.013

Qo (m3/S)

7 . 9 6 x 10 -3

T stratification (~
Pgo (kg/m 3)
Pt (kg/m 3)
/z (kg/m s)
fit (~ -t)
kt (W/m ~
Cp~ (J/kg ~
Cpg (J/kg ~
trr
Fr

40 (1540 to 1580)
0.933
7500
6.2 >( 10 -3
4.4 10 -6
41
755
520
0.11
17,379

h b (m)

604--VOLUME 20B, OCTOBER 1989

O(pruv)
+ - r Or
"-[- - -

~['~eff

rOr

o(

--

Oz

[1]

r/-Leff

) o(

/'/~eff

"l'- - -

r Or

rlff.eff

Oz

+ Pl g a + plg[3t(T -- Tref)

O(pv)

[21

O(puv) O(prvv)

Ot

Oz

r Or

o(~

ql_

~Zeff

OZ

-~- ~

Oz

l,~e ff

- -

r Or

rl.t.eff

Or

o ( O;r) -

+ --r Or rtzoee

2 m . -j

[3]
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

O(pT)
- - +
Ot

O(puT)
- - +
Oz

~-- 5-- 0.26-- --0.13-- -- 0.94~--0.10

Otmax= 81.51(~f ~ (Pl~ ( L ~
[

O(prvT)
-

r Or

0 Far
Oz

o( O_?r
)

rFaf

L \ Qo/

[41

\pgo/ \do/

N < 1.35

[111

r Or

Pl )0.13( ~' )0.94]-1

[(gdo5)~
2. Turbulence modeling
In the present work, the k-e model proposed by Jones
and Launder t22) was employed. The transport equations
for turbulence kinetic energy and turbulence energy dissipation in transient form are given as follows:
O(pk)
--+
Ot

O(puk)
Oz

O(prvk)
+ - r Or

O(pue)
Oz

O(prve)
+ - r Or

0 ~eff
Oz \ ~

+
Oz/

r
r Or

[61
where G, the generation term, is given by

2
G = ix, 2 \ O z /

(on

\Or/

[7]

The effective viscosity is then calculated from

+ Cdok2

[8]

Foff = /x + fi__L

Ofmax

[
= exp

OfT,t

METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONSB

(~oZ)

(~go)

(i)

-rotraax/2

[10]

[14]

C. Boundary Conditions
1. Axis of symmetry
Zero flux conditions are imposed as a result of
axisymmetry:
=

[91

( r ) 24 ]
-0.7

[12]

The correlations were found valid over a wide range of

Froude numbers (1400 to 690,000) and liquid-to-gas
density ratios (805 to 64,900). The present parameters
are within the above specified range. Although it was
observed that the gas plumes behave similarly in mercury and water despite the largely different liquid densities, the effect of gas expansion by heating may change
the gas-fraction distribution. This is a subject for future
work.
The gas distribution obtained from the correlations for
argon injected into the steel bath in this study is shown
in Figure 1. The correlation predicts a conical two-phase
region with an apex angle of 21 deg. The density of the
equivalent "homogenous" fluid is defined as

0;

Or

3. Two-phase zone modeling

The geometry and distribution of gas are very important parameters in the model. The two-phase region was
characterized from the general correlations developed by
the authors in an experimental study involving different
gas-liquid systems (air-water, nitrogen-mercury, and
helium-mercury), gas flow rates, bath heights, and nozzle diameters, t15,1s]

(9/

=0.275

--

The values of the constants recommended in the literature have been used for the turbulence equation t23~
(Table II). One should note, however, that these constants have not been tested adequately for liquid metals
having a low Prandtl number. The model is not corrected
for buoyancy effects and does not account for the presence of two phases.

--

N -> 1.35

Ou

and the effective diffusivity will be

O"T

~go

p = (1 - a)pt + ap e

+ ~r+oz/J

~eff -~ ~t~ "l- ~d~t --

[131
pe

[5]
O(pe)
--+
Ot

am~x = 106.90

r.... 2

0 ( /xeff Ok~ + 0 ( r ~t~eff0k ) + G

Ozktrk OZ/
rOr\
trk Or/

Ok
--=0;
Or
OT
--=
Or

v = 0;

Oe
--=0
Or

[15]

2. Bath f r e e surface
Zero stresses are assumed. Axial velocities and heat
flux are zero.
Ov
--

Ok
=

0;

Oz

--

Oe
=

0;

Oz

u = 0;

--

Oz

qs = 0

[16]

3. Side walls and bottom

The walls are solid and impermeable, so that flow velocities normal to the wall are zero. Nonslip conditions
are assumed, and the tangential velocities are zero. Nearwall treatment, as suggested by Launder and Spalding,
is applied for the momentum and scalar transport equationsY 3j The method assumes that near the wall, onedimensional Couette flow prevails, and the velocity
profile is given by the universal logarithmic law. It also

VOLUME20B, OCTOBER1989--605

1=o
.

. . . . .

; - - .

. . . . . . .

,. . . . . . .

"
;
.........

: ......

. ....

"__.'..u .............

" .........

9 . . . . . . . .

'
~.-~
.................. ;

,~-~-~,4 - . - ' , - : - - ' . ~ ,

9
'',
, ',1
: ', i ~ ' ,
:--,-',-,-',-,~- 4--' -',-~- -r
:

. ......

!_LI

_,.

....

.i,,-!' ".~

._~__;..~__~ ...... : .....

i

',
'1

,,

o i

:
!

i " : !
II

,,,. . . . . .
',

r, . . ~ ,, . - .

,,

,,

......

~, . . . . . . . . . . . . .

'
:
,
....... .....
:....... i-!
'
i
$

'

.~...L

',

',

. . . . . .

i
~. . . . . ~. . . .
'

......

',

'

~ .....
'

. . . . .

i
, ,,',

r _ . . ~ . . ,

.~.L

'l',

,
--r

V.

"

-,-"
g - ;---i---: ............................
~

OI

,:

:::

J . . . . . . . . . . .

E:

"

,>,

,, . . . . ,: . . . ~ -. - ~ ,, . . . . .

ld-!

',

"

~-:~ ....

. . . . . .
:

',

differencing scheme was employed for the transient term.

Time-steps of 3 and 1 seconds were used in the computation, but the difference in the results was less than
5 pct. The system of equations was solved with the
SIMPLE algorithm of Patankar and Spalding. t26] The
program employed was developed from the T E A C H
2-E code of Gosman and Ideriah. t27j
Convergence was based on Znetd 4R, I < 10-SR~.,,f, where
R,~ is the local residual of the discretized 4> equations at
the i-th iteration and R , ~ , r e f is a reference quantity, such
as the mass flow rate or the total inlet momentum of the
gas phase. Two nonuniform grids, (15 17) and (21
26), were used in the computations to assess the grid size
sensitivity. Only minor differences were observed, but,
nonetheless, the results reported were obtained with the
finer grid.

o
; Ii

II

RESULTS

AND

DISCUSSION

Computations were carried out for the following two

conditions:
(1) fully transient computations and
(2) transient temperature computations based on a steadystate velocity field.

........ :...,...-_.

! ......

~ ............

: .... ~...~ ..... !-,,- :-

,,

:. . . . .

',. . . . . . . . .

,._., . . . . . . . . . . . . .

',

~---~ ...................

: : i

: .... ',---4---:-+:: ......

~.....

~--..a-.q---r.~-.-t

'
,
,
~
,
,
,
.
,
,,,
,. . . . . . . . . .
,. . . . . . . ',. . . . .
~ .......................
~ ...... ,
;
, ,
',
',
:
:,:;
,
' ', ,
,
,
,
,
:
~
,: ,~
',. . . . . . - - . , . . .
.........................
9. . . . - , - ~ - , ~ .

'i

...................... .'_.... i__g__,.~'.:"

,...'._1...'

". . ~. . . - .

.........

" : _.

. _.

. ] .,

<

.- .

-'~ i-

"

1.79m

k,'

>

Fig, lSchematic
diagram
of axisymmetric
gas
illustrating the 21 26 grid, the gas isoconcentration
two-phase
region,
and the boundary
conditions.

injection
system,
contours
in the

assumes that the production of the turbulence kinetic energy, k, is equal to the dissipation rate, e.
IV.

SOLUTION PROCEDURE

The differential equations of motion and energy have

been discretized using a control-volume method. A hybrid differencing scheme was applied to approximate the
convection and diffusion terms, t24`25J while an implicit

Table

II.

Constants

in the

k-e

Model

Cl

Cz

Ca

tr~

trr.t

1.44

1.92

0.09

1.0

1.3

1.0

606--VOLUME

20B, OCTOBER

1989

A . Predicted Fluid F l o w

The transient velocity patterns corresponding to different time-steps are shown in Figures 2(a) through
(c). The numbers in the figures indicate the ratio of the
velocity at the given time and the corresponding velocity
at 240 seconds. It is seen that the steady-state motion is
established after approximately 180 seconds o f injection
time. As expected, the central and near top surface are
the first to reach steady state. At steady state, the largest
velocities can be found in the central region (1.20 m / s ) ,
the top surface (0.4 m / s ) , and outer regions near the
surface of the bath (0.25 m / s ) . The vortex is located in
the upper half of the melt, and it moves gradually from
the center toward the wall.
Figures 3(a) through (c) show the turbulent kinetic energy distribution within the melt at different times after
the start of injection. It can be seen that high levels of
turbulence are rapidly established in the center and upper
regions of the bath. Turbulence at the inner and lower
regions develops later. The highest zones of turbulence
are located in the center and upper parts of the vessel.
A comparison between the velocity fields at 180 seconds
computed with and without thermal buoyancy showed
no significant differences. This confirms that thermal
buoyancy is appreciably smaller than the buoyancy due
to the gas density differences. No difference was found
between the calculations at 180 and 240 seconds; therefore, the results at 240 seconds are not presented.
Figures 4(a) through (c) show the predicted ratios of
the effective viscosity to the molecular viscosity at different times after the start of the injection. It can be seen
that the highest levels of the turbulent viscosity are found
in the plume at the breakthrough eye. Comparison with
the results of Sahai and Guthrie t~3j reveals that they have
reported slightly higher effective viscosities. This is
probably due to the assumption of a cylindrical plume
METALLURGICAL

TRANSACTIONS

0.75

0.93

UO
1,12

--.%\
I

9...

o~z8

,I

0.34

.,

0.94

0.85

E
o
o

1.0

1.0

LO

1.0

LO

~.

0.18

I.~

[ r

.I
0,16

I,O4

1.03

1.0

,,t

Lo,

,ot

t_o.

' ' 't

t

t1

/
!

o.ao
.

0.04

o.,gs

0.22

0.86 9s

0.94

i.?

9
0..84

(a)

o,91

/~

L,o ,

o.69

Os

(b)

Lp

1.0

LO

180s

(c~

Fig. 2 - - P r e d i c t e d mean velocity fields in a 250-ton steel-containing radle for different times after the start of injection (velocity (m/s)). Numbers
appearing in figures are the ratio of the velocity for the given time to the corresponding velocity at 240 s at (a) 9 s, (b) 60 s, and (c) 180 s.

with a constant gas fraction, so that abrupt changes in

gas-fraction distribution occur at the plume.
B. Predicted Temperature Distribution
1. Partially transient treatment

Figures 5(a) through (e) show the temperature distribution at different times from the start of injection. It
can be seen that the isotherms are rapidly displaced upward in the central region of the bath. The outer regions
at the bottom of the bath remain stratified for a longer
time interval. The convective transport of energy is dominant at the early stages of injection. The temperature
differences are reduced to 9 ~ at 30 seconds, 3 ~ at
60 seconds, and 2 ~ at 90 seconds after the injection
starts. After 90 seconds, the homogenization becomes
slower, and the diffusive mechanism becomes more significant. For all practical purposes, the homogenization
is completed 180 seconds after the injection starts.
2. Fully transient treatment

Figures 6(a) through (e) show the temperature distribution at 9, 30, 60, 90, and 180 seconds from the start
of injection. Comparison of Figure 6 to Figure 5 shows
the large delay in mixing after the start of injection. Fast
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

homogenization occurs from 60 to 90 seconds, and the

maximum temperature difference decreases from 25 ~
to 2 ~ At 180 seconds, the bath can be considered fully
homogenized. This predicted time of homogenization
agrees reasonably well with the 230 seconds obtained
from the correlation of Nakanishi et al. ,[19] which calculates mixing time as a function of the specific mixing
power input. It should be noted that the difference between total temperature homogenization times obtained
from the fully transient computations and the computations based on steady-state velocity are practically the
same. The behavior after the start of the injection, however, is very different. This could have a significant effect on the homogenization of chemical species being
dispersed from the low-velocity region.
VI.

CONCLUSIONS

Temperature destratification of liquid steel in a ladle

has been calculated in two different ways: (a) fully transient computations and (b) transient computations based
on a steady-state velocity field. The gas distribution in
the submerged jet has been predicted with new empirical
correlations for the gas fraction. The computations show
VOLUME 20B, OCTOBER 1989--607

ce

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 3 - - P r e d i c t e d turbulent kinetic energy distributions (m2/s 2) in a 250-ton steel-containing ladle for different times after the start of injection
at (a) 9 s, (b) 60 s, and (c) 180 s.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 4 - - P r e d i c t e d distributions of the ratio of effective-to-molecular viscosity in a 250-ton steel-containing ladle for different times after the start
of injection at (a) 9 s, (b) 60 s, and (c) 180 s.
608--VOLUME 20B, OCTOBER 1989

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

30s

(a)

(b)

(c)

f
tO

j/
(d)

180s

90s

(e)

Fig. 5 - - P r e d i c t e d temperature distributions (~ in a 250-ton steel-containing ladle for different times after the "start" of mixing. Calculations
from the partially transient model at (a) 9 s, (b) 30 s, (c) 60 s, (d) 90 s, and (e) 180 s.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

VOLUME 20B, OCTOBER 1989-- 609

j/
I

1541

1541

95

(a)

30s

(b)

(c)

1805

(d)

(e)

Fig_ 6 - - P r e d i c t e d temperature distributions (~ in a 250-ton steel-containing ladle for different times after the start of injection. Calculations
from the fully transient model at (a) 9 s, (b) 30 s, (c) 60 s, (d) 90 s, and (e) 180 s.
610-- VOLUME 20B, OCTOBER 1989

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

that the convective effects are dominant in the temperature destratification. The fully transient calculations,
however, reveal much slower destratification at the early
stages of injection than in the case of the steady-state
velocity assumption. In both cases, complete homogenization occurs approximately 180 seconds after injection. This value compares well with experimentally
reported results. It is likely that the difference in mixing
dynamics predicted can have a significant influence on
the chemical mixing of species located in the lower regions of the vessel where low velocities prevail.
NOMENCLATURE
C1, C2,

constants in the turbulence model

Cd

c~, co, gas specific heat capacity; liquid specific

do
Fr
g
G

hb
k

kl

heat capacity, J / k g ~
diameter of nozzle, m
Froude number = Qo/gdo
2
5
acceleration due to gravity, m / s 2
generation of turbulent energy, k g / m s 3
depth of liquid, m
turbulence kinetic e n e r g y , m2/s 2
thermal conductivity of liquid, W / ( m ~
parameter defined as

[(gdSo/ Q~)~176
P

~, Owb
ao
R
R6
t
T

Trof
U
V
2'
O/, O/max

3,

(z /do) ~

(Eqs. [11] and [12])

pressure, k g / m s 2
heat flux through bath surface; heat flux
through ladle refractory wall, W / m 2
volumetric gas flow rate at orifice
conditions, m3/s
radial position; half-value radius, m
radius of vessel, m
residuals in the discretized ~b equation
time, s
temperature, ~
reference temperature appearing in the
buoyancy term
mean axial velocity component, m / s
mean radial velocity component, m / s
axial position, m
local time-averaged gas volume fraction; gas
volume fraction at plume centerline
coefficient of thermal expansion of
liquid, ~
dissipation rate of turbulence kinetic energy,
m2/s 3

/'/', ~'~eff, molecular, effective, and turbulent viscosity,

kg/m s
P~t
gas density at orifice conditions; liquid
Pgo, PJ,
density; density of two-phase mixture, k g / m 3
P
O'T, O'T,t, laminar and turbulent Prandtl numbers and
o'k, o'~ Schmidt numbers for k and e
effective exchange coefficient (diffusivity),
roff
kg/m s
turbulent kinematic viscosity, mZ/s
Vt

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada for support of
this work.

REFERENCES
1. S. Soeda, H. Nemoto, E. Sakamoto, T. Kawawa, and T. Koyano:
Suppl. Trans. ISIJ, 1971, vol. 11, pp. 248-51.
2. R. Albemy and A. Leclercq: Proc. of Mathematical Process Models
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