MA1102R CALCULUS

Wang Fei
matwf@nus.edu.sg

Department of Mathematics
Office: S17-06-16
Tel: 6516-2937

Introduction
2
Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 0: Functions
6
Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
What is a Function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Graph of Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Algebra of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Examples of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Special Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Introduction

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What will we learn in MA1102R?



Functions:


x2 + 1, h(x) = xx .

x2 1
,
x1 x 1
lim

sin x
,
x0 x
lim

lim xx .

x0+

Derivatives:


g(x) =

Limits: (Intuitive Definition & Precise Definition)



f (x) = sin x,

d
sin x,
dx

d x
e ,
dx

Application of Derivatives:





dp
x + x.
dx

Mean Value Theorem,

Increasing/Decreasing Test & Concavity Test,
Optimization Problem,

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What will we learn in MA1102R?



Integrals:


2
1

1
dx,
1 + x + x2

xex dx.
0

Application of Integrals:






Techniques of integration,
Logarithmic function ln x, exponential function ex ,
The inverse functions,
Computation of arc length, surface area & volume,

Ordinary Differential Equations:





f (x) = f (x) and f (0) = 1,

y + P (x)y + Q(x) = 0,
Applications of ordinary differential equations.
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Workload and Assessment



Workload:


Lecture: 1.5 2 hours per week (week 1 to 13);

Tuesday & Friday 10:00 11:35am, LT 26





Notes and Textbook:




Tutorial: 1 hour per week (week 3 to 13);

Lab Session (M APLE): 1 hour in week 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.
Lecture materials: Available in IVLE,
Textbook: Thomas Calculus 12th ed.

Assessment:





Homework: 3% 5 = 15%
Lab assignment: 5% 1 = 5%
Mid-Term Test: 20% Evening in MPSH, to be confirmed,
Final Exam: 60% (25 November, morning)
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Chapter 0: Functions

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What is a Set?



A set is a collection of objects.

A set is usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, . . . . The objects a, b, c, . . . contained in A are
called the elements of the set A. We can write

A = {a, b, c, . . .}.



For example, {1, 1}, {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, . . .}

We can also write a set using description:

A = {x | properties of x}


For example, {x | x2 = 1}, {x | x is a prime number}.

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What is a Set?


If a is an element of A, we write a A.
If a is not an element of A, we write a
/ A.


1 {1, 2}, 0
/ {1, 2}.

If every element of A is also an element of B , we say A is a subset of B , denoted by A B .

We write A * B if A is not a subset of B .


Example:

Example:

{1, 2} {1, 2, 3}, {0, 1} * {1, 2, 3}.

Two sets are equal if they have the same collection of elements, regardless of order.
In order words, A = B if A B and B A.


Example:



{1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1},

{x | x2 = 1} = {1, 1}.
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Operations on Sets


Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations.

Union:

A B = {x | x A or x B};

Example. If A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}, then



A B = {1, 2, 3}, B A = {1, 2, 3}.

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Operations on Sets


Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations.

A B = {x | x A and x B};

Intersection:

Example. If A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}, then



A B = {2}, B A = {2}.

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Operations on Sets


Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations.

Difference:

A \ B = {x | x A but x
/ B};

Example. If A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}, then



A \ B = {1}, B \ A = {3}.

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Some Notations of Sets



We use the following notations for some special sets:

Z = {0, 1, 2, 3 . . .}: the set of integers.

Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .}: the set of positive integers.
N = Z+ , the set of natural numbers.
 Q = {m/n | m, n Z, n 6= 0}:



the set of rational numbers.






R: the set of real numbers.

: the empty set, the set containing no element.
Similarly we can use Z , Q+ , Q , R+ , R , . . .
Intervals:

Closed interval: [a, b] = {x | a x b}, (a b);

Open intervals: (a, b) = {x | a < x < b}, (a < b);

(a, b] = {x | a < x b}; [a, b) = {x | a x < b};

(a, ) = {x | a < x}; (, b] = {x | x b}.
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What is a Function?


Let A and B be two sets.





b
c

x
y
z

..
.

..
.

A function is a rule which assigns each element in A to a unique element in B .

Such a function is denoted by f : A B , or simply f .
The unique element in B that a A is assigned by f is called the image of a, denoted by f (a).
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What is a Function?


Two key points for a function f : A B :




Existence: for each a A, f (a) is an element of B .

Uniqueness: each a A has only one image in B .

Example. Let A be the set of students participating a competition. For each student a A,
consider the rule

gold medal,
if a scores 80,

silver medal,
if a scores 70 but < 80,
f (a) =
bronze
medal
,
if a scores 60 but < 70,

certificate,
if a scores < 60.

Each student will get exactly one from gold medal, silver medal, bronze medal or certificate
according to ones score.
Therefore, the rule f defined above is a function.
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Domain and Range



Let f : A B be a function. Then we say




A is the domain of f ,
B is the codomain (correlation-domain) of f .

In MA1102R, A and B are always taken to be subsets of the set of real numbers R.


We make the following convention:

If A is not stated, the domain of f is taken to be the largest possible set ( R) on which f is
defined.
 If B is not stated, take B = R.


the range is the set of all f (x) as x taken from the domain:
range of f : A B = {f (x) | x A}.
By definition, the range is a subset of the codomain.

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Example


Find the domain and range of g(x) =



As a fraction, the function is defined at every real x except when 3x 1 = 0, i.e., except when
x = 13 .


2x
.
3x 1

Then domain = R \ { 31 }.

y is in the range of the function g if and only if y is of the form g(x) for some x in the domain.
2x
Solve y =
and see if we can find such an x:
3x 1
y
y(3x 1) = 2x x(3y 2) = y x =
.
3y 2
There is always an x in the domain with y = g(x) except when 3y 2 = 0, i.e., except when
y = 23 .


Then range = R \ { 32 }.
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Graph of Functions


Let f : A B be a function. The graph of f is the set

G(f ) := {(x, f (x)) | x A}.



If A, B R, then G(f ) A B R R.

Each element of G(f ) thus represents a point on the Cartesian plane R2 .



Example.

f (x) = sin x:
y
1
2




domain = R,
range = [1, 1].
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Algebra of Functions


Let f, g be functions with domain A and B respectively.

We can define the operations on functions:


Addition: (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x)



domain of f g : A B

Division: (f /g)(x) := f (x)/g(x)



domain of f g : A B

Multiplication: (f g)(x) := f (x)g(x)



AB

Subtraction: (f g)(x) := f (x) g(x)



domain of f + g :

domain of f /g : {x A B | g(x) 6= 0}

Warning! f g = f g is the product, it is not the composite.

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Algebra of Functions


Let f and g be functions with domain A and B respectively.

We can define the operations on functions:


The composite of f and g is the function

(f g)(x) := f (g(x)).
domain of f g : {x | x B and g(x) A}
f g

g(x)

f (g(x))

Note: In general, f g 6= g f .
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Example


Let f (x) =
domain.

x, g(x) =

2 x and h(x) = 1/x. Find the the following composite and their

domain of f : {x | x 0}
domain of g : {x | 2 x 0} = {x | x 2}
 domain of h: {x | x 6= 0}


f g(x) = p
f (g(x)) = f ( 2 x)

=
2x= 42x


{x | x 2 and 2 x 0} = {x | x 2}
p

 g f (x) = g( x) =
2 x


{x | x 0 and x 2} = {x | 0 x 4}
1
 h h(x) = h(h(x)) = h(1/x) =
= x.
1/x


{x | x 6= 0 and

1
x

6= 0} = {x | x 6= 0}.
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Examples of Functions


The absolute value function f (x) = |x| is defined by

|x| =

x, if x 0,
x, if x < 0.
y

x
O




domain = R
range = {x R | x 0} = R+ {0} = [0, )
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10

Examples of Functions


A polynomial (over R) is a function (ai R) of the form

P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 .



If an 6= 0, we say P (x) has degree n.

A polynomial of degree 1 is a linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2 is a quadratic function.
2x
P (x) = 1 3

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Q(x) = 2x2 + 2x

x
O

Examples of Functions


A polynomial (over R) is a function (ai R) of the form

P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 .

A polynomial of degree 3 is a cubic function.
A polynomial of degree 4 is a quartic function.
A polynomial of degree 5 is a quintic function.
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y
R(x) = x5 + 0.3x4 2.8x3 0.3x2 + 1.8x

P (x) = x3 x + 1

Q(x) = x4 3x2 + x

11

Examples of Functions


A rational function R(x) is a function of the form

R(x) =

P (x)
,
Q(x)

where P, Q are polynomials, Q(x) is not identically zero.

y

O
f (x) =

2x

x
g(x) =

x1

x2
x2 1

Every polynomial is a rational function (set Q(x) = 1).

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Examples of Functions


An algebraic function is a function constructed from polynomials using algebraic operations:



addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,

taking roots, composite

f (x) =

x2 + 1,

g(x) =

x3 + 1
+ (x 2) 5 x3 1
x+2
y

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12

Examples of Function


The trigonometric functions



sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.

are the ratios of the sides of a right angle triangle.

1
tan x

sin x

x
O

cos x

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Examples of Function


The trigonometric functions



sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.

are the ratios of the sides of a right angle triangle.

y
y = tan x

y = sin x

y = cos x
x

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13

Special Classes of Functions



A function f is said to be increasing on a set I if

x1 < x2 f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) for any x1 , x2 I.

A function f is said to be decreasing on a set I if

x1 < x2 f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) for any x1 , x2 I.

y

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f (x) = x3

x
O

f (x) = x3 + 2

Special Classes of Functions



A function f is said to be an even function if

f (x) = f (x) for all x.

y

f (x) = x2 10

g(x) = x2 cos x

The graph is symmetric about the y -axis.

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14

Special Classes of Functions



A function f is said to be an odd function if

f (x) = f (x) for all x.

y

f (x) = x8

g(x) = x2 sin x

The graph is symmetric about the origin O .

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Special Classes of Functions



Let n be a positive integer. Then the power function



x is

an odd function, if n is odd,

an even function, if n is even.
y

11
13
15
17
1
3
5
7
9
yy =
= xx19

x
10
12
14
16
18
2
4
6
8
yy =
= xx20

P (x) = 3x6 + x5 2x4 + 7x3 + 2x2 x 1.





g(x) = 3x6 2x4 + 2x2 1,

h(x) = x5 + 7x3 x.
g(x) is even, h(x) is odd, and P (x) = g(x) + h(x).

In general, any function defined on R can be decomposed into the sum of an even function and an
odd function. Moreover, such a decomposition is unique. (Can you prove it?)
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15