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NotedPsychoanalysts
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Thebiographiesofthenotedanalystsincludedonthiswebpagearearingingendorsementof
thevitalityandcreativitythatmarksthehistoryofpsychoanalysis.Thetheoriesandideasthey
advanced, as well as their personalities, range over a wide spectrum. While the early
contributors were an extraordinary cast of characters, whose energy and commitment were
inspired by Freuds new discovery of psychoanalysis, this should in no way diminish the
enthusiasmandexcitementofmorerecentcontributorsandoftheintellectualexcitementthat
markspsychoanalysistoday.
What follows are biographies of psychoanalytic pioneers and contemporary psychoanalysts.
Members of the Public Information Committee of the American Psychoanalytic Association
selectedthelist.Itisaworkinprogressandbiographiesofotherdistinguishedanalystswho
contributedtotheextraordinaryhistoryofpsychoanalysiswillbeaddedovertime.
KarlAbraham
AlfredAdler
AugustAichhorn
FranzAlexander
LouAndreasSalom
MichaelBalint
LudwigBinswanger
W.R.Bion
MarieBonaparte
JohnBowlby
AbrahamArdenBrill
HelenDeutsch
KurtEissler
ErikErikson

W.RonaldD.Fairbairn
OttoFenichel
SandorFerenczi
AnnaFreud
SigmundFreud
ErichFromm
EdwardGlover
HarryGuntrip
HeinzHartmann
KarenHorney
ErnestJones
CarlGustavJung
MelanieKlein
HeinzKohut
ErnstKris
JacquesLacan
StephenA.Mitchell
OttoRank
DavidRapaport
WilhelmReich
TheodorReik
GezaRoheim
HansSachs
JosephJ.Sandler
HarryStackSullivan
DonaldW.Winnicott

TheFirstGermanPsychoanalystKarlAbraham
18771925
Karl Abraham, the brilliant founder of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute which is a model for
institutestofollow,fluentinmanylanguages,belovedofhiscolleagues,andamanofpersonal
charm, died far too young. Abraham was a member of Freuds Secret Committee and a
favoriteofFreud.HewastheanalystofMelanieKlein,KarenHorney,SandorRado,Theodor
Reik,EdwardandJamesGlover,andHeleneDeutsch.
Abrahamcompletedhismedicaltrainingin1901,thenworkedinBleulersclinicinZurichand,
later, with Carl Jung. He first met Freud in 1907 and their correspondence, first published in
1965asAPsychoAnalyticDialogue:TheLettersofSigmundFreudandKarlAbraham1907
1926,willbepublishedsooninamorecompleteandlesssanitizededition.
Abrahams contributions during the early years of the psychoanalytic movement are
outstanding:inadditiontotheBerlinInstitute,heeditedtheZeitschrift,andwasbothsecretary
andpresidentoftheInternationalPsychoanalyticalAssociation.

Abrahams many papers, which are a delight to read, are collected in two volumes,Selected
Papers of Karl Abraham(1949), andClinical Papers and Essays on PsychoAnalysis(1955).
Theycoverawiderangethatincludesworkonpregenitalstagesofdevelopment,depression,
mania,autoerotism,repressedhate,thefemalecastrationcomplex,analcharacter,aswellas
othersonappliedpsychoanalysisthatincludepapersonmythandtheDayofAtonement.His
work influenced Melanie Klein on infantile relationships as well as Rene Spitzs research on
hospitalism.WritingtoAbrahamswidow,FreudsaidIhavenosubstituteforhim....
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IndividualPsychologyandtheInferiority
ComplexAlfredAdler18701937
Alfred Adler, a member of the original Wednesday evening group that became the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society, broke with Freud over his work on inferiority complex and the
predominance of external factors in emotional disturbance. Adler relegated the role of
instinctual strivings to feelings of inferiority and the crucial reaction to these feelings as a
masculineprotest.
Adlerssuccessfulstruggleasachildagainstricketsledhimtobelievethatfailuretoadaptto
organicweaknessmayleadtolaterdisturbance.Heviewedsexualityassymbolicandrejected
thenotionofpenisenvy.
BorninVienna,AdlergraduatedfromtheUniversityofViennaMedicalSchoolin1895,wasa
coeditor of theZentralblatt fur Psychoanalyseand president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic
Society.In1911,AdlerfoundedtheSocietyforFreePsychoanalysis.Hisindividualpsychology
emphasizes the blending of social interest with striving for personal superiority. Adler is a
forerunnerofcontemporarypsychoanalytictheory(althoughgenerallynotacknowledged)and
hisworkremainsunappreciated.
There is a biography by Phyllis Bottome,Alfred Adler: A Portrait from Life(1957), another by
Edward Hoffman,The Drive for Self: Alfred Adler and the Founding of Individual
Psychology(1994),andastudybyHeinzandRowenaAnsbacher,TheIndividualPsychologyof
Alfred Adler(1964). There are Alfred Adler Institutes and a journal The Journal of Individual
Psychology.AdlersworkincludesAStudyofOrganInferiority(1917),The Practice and Theory
of Individual Psychology(1927),Problems of Neurosis: Case Histories(1929),What Life Should
BetoYou(1931).
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WaywardYouthAugustAichhorn18781949
August Aichhorn opened an entirely new field of study for psychoanalysis, the application of
psychoanalytic principles to the study of delinquency. His magnum opusVerwahrloste
Jungend(1925)(WaywardYouth(1925))isstillconsideredanimportantresource.Itintroduces

students and workers in delinquency to the basic principles of psychoanalysis as well as

psychoanalyststotheproblemsofworkingwithdelinquents.Aichhornadvancedtheideaofthe
distinction between manifest and latent delinquency and believed that an arrest in
developmentpredisposestoantisocialbehavior,whicharisesfromdisturbancesinearlychild
parentrelationships.
After a career as a schoolteacher in Vienna, and later at reformatory schools in Austria, he
developedanintuitivecapacitytodealwithdelinquents.Hissuccessledhimtobeencouraged
byAnnaFreudtoenterpsychoanalytictrainingattheViennaPsychoanalyticInstitutein1922
atage44.HelaterorganizedachildguidanceservicefortheViennaPsychoanalyticSociety.
WiththeAnschlussin1938,AichhornremainedinAustriaasanonJewHewasanoldhand
at dealing with gangsters and was on familiar ground with the Nazis. He quietly analyzed a
numberofyoungpsychiatristsinreadinessforafutureforpsychoanalysisafterthewar.With
the end of the war, he took steps to reopen the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, which was
renamed the August Aichhorn Gesellschaft. Kurt Eissler edited a volume in his
honor,SearchlightsonDelinquency(1949).
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BerlinsFirstStudentFranzAlexander1891
1964
FranzAlexander,abrilliantcreativeteacherandorganizer,directorfor25yearsoftheChicago
Institute, the first Professor of Psychoanalysis at the University of Chicago, was an enemy of
dogmatism and a defender of analytic innovation. His concept of a corrective emotional
experience, although criticized, suggested that early experiences can be corrected by new
experiences in the therapeutic situation. Alexander never suggested manipulation or role
playingbutwasaforwardthinkinginnovator.MartinGrotjahnwrotethatAlexandermayhave
disturbedthesleepofpsychoanalysis,whichisnoteasilyforgiven.
Born in Budapest, the son of a distinguished philosophy professor, Alexander graduated in
1912.AttheBerlinInstitute,histalentswereimmediatelyrecognized.Herejectedanofferby
Freud to become his assistant, instead he left for the Chicago Institute, which became
modeled after Berlin. Freud later referred to him as my most brilliant student in the United
States. After a year at the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Science, he spent the
remainderofhislifeinLosAngeleswhere,asProfessorofPsychoanalysisattheUniversityof
SouthernCalifornia,heworkedtointegratepsychoanalysisandpsychiatry.
Alexander cofounded the journal Psychosomatic Medicine in 1939. A prolific writer, his
published works include:The History of Psychiatry(1966),Psychoanalysis of the Total
Personality(1930),The Medical Value of Psychoanalysis(1936),Psychoanalytic Therapy:
Principles and Applications(1946),Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy(1957), a semi
autobiographical studyThe Western Mind in Transition(1960), andThe Scope of
Psychoanalysis19211961:SelectedPapersofFranzAlexander(1961).

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AnExtraordinaryWomanLouAndreas
Salom18611937
LouAndreasSalomisknownasmuchforhercontributionstopsychoanalysisashernovels,
her friendship with Anna and Sigmund Freud, and her personal involvement with Friedrich
NietzscheandthepoetRanierMariaRilke.Brilliant,charming,andcreative,hergiftsallowed
her to have contacts with some of the most noteworthy figures of her time. Her best known
novels areRuth(1895),Das Haus(1919), andRodinka(1923), which was dedicated to Anna
Freud,andabookaboutNietzsche,NietzscheinSeinenWerhen(1894).Heressaysandother
writingswerewidelyreadandherfamewaswidespread.HeraffairwithViktorTauskandhis
subsequentsuicidearedocumentedinPaulRoazensBrotherAnimal(1969).Thereareseveral
biographiesincludingBinionsFrauLou:NietzschesWaywardDisciple(1968).
Lou AndreasSalom met Freud in 1912, which she described as a turning point in her life.
She published papers inImagoon narcissism and anality, and practiced psychoanalysis in
Gttingenuntilshortlybeforeherdeath.ShebecameamemberoftheViennaPsychoanalytic
Society along with Anna Freud in 1922 on the basis of a project that became Anna Freuds
famous paper on beating fantasies. Her correspondence with Anna Freud has yet to be
publishedbutwillrevealthatsheplayedaprominentroleinhelpingAnnaFreudduringcritical
periodsinherlife.LettersbetweenAndreasSalomandFreudwerepublishedin1977,anda
diaryofFreudslecturesduringherstayinVienna,TheFreudJournalofLouAndreasSalom,
waspublishedin1964.Herswasanextraordinarylifeforawomanatthattime.
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FerenczisStudentMichaelBalint18961970
Michael Balint was a student and loyal supporter of Sndor Ferenczi and translator of
FerenczisClinicalDiary,whouponFerenczisdeathin1933,becamedirectoroftheBudapest
Psychoanalytic Clinic. Balint received his MD from Budapest University and a PhD in
biochemistry in Berlin where he had fled to escape antiSemitism in Hungary. In 1939, he
movedtoManchesterandthentoLondonwherehewasavaluablememberofboththeBritish
PsychoanalyticalSocietyandtheTavistockInstitute.
Balint is to be remembered for many achievements. He introduced the concept of the basic
fault that illness is the result of early environmental factors which result in helplessness. He
highlighted the importance of primary love and the importance of regression in treatment.
Balintfeltthatanewtypeofpatienthademerged,onewhocouldnotfindhisorherplacein
life and is afraid of pleasure and excitation. He felt that all analyses represent a new
beginninginthelifeofapatient.
Michael Balint has been immortalized by his founding of Balint Groups in which physician
membersdiscusscareofpatientsandthedoctorpatientrelationship.Inspiredbyapaperhe

wrote in 1955, The doctor, his patient and the illness, group leaders are generally
psychoanalysts. There are Balint Societies and Groups worldwide as well as an International
BalintFederation.
Among his books which generally collect his papers areProblems of Human Nature and
Behavior(1957),Thrills

and

Technique(1965),The

Basic

Regressions(1959),Primary
Fault:

Therapeutic

Love

Aspects

and
of

Psychoanalytic

Regression(1968),

andPsychotherapeuticTechniquesinMedicine(1961).
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ExistentialAnalysisLudwigBinswanger1881
1966
Ludwig Binswanger was introduced to Freud in 1907 and they remained close until Freuds
death despite significant differences in their ages and theoretical perspectives a friendship
thatisatributetoBinswangersgenerousandwarmpersonality.Indeed,MarthaFreud,after
Freudsdeath,confessedtohimthatItissmallcomfortformetoknowthatinthefiftythree
years of our married life not one angry word fell between us. This friendship is recorded in
BinswangersSigmund Freud: Reminiscences of a Friendship(1957). The FreudBinswanger
Correspondencewillbepublishedin2002.
Binswanger,aSwisswhocamefromadistinguishedfamilyofpsychiatristsandphysicianswas
influencednotonlybyJungbutalsobyHusserl,Heidegger,andBuber.AfterreceivinghisMD
from the University of Zurich, he became the medical director at the Bellevue Sanitarium in
Kreuzlungenwhereheremainedfor45years.
With Medard Boss, he is the major figure in existential analysis and phenomenological
psychiatry.HistwofamouscasesareTheCaseofLolaVossreprintedinBeingintheWorld:
Selected Papers of Ludwig Binswanger(1963) and The Case of Ellen West inExistence: A
NewDimensioninPsychiatryandPsychologyeditedbyRolloMay,etal.(1958).Althoughnot
aspopularasitwasinthe50sand60s,thosewhopracticeexistentialpsychologystickclose
to the lived world of the patient with an emphasis on being, developing autonomy, and
authenticity.
BinswangersotherworkshavenotbeentranslatedfromtheGermanbutincludesuchtitlesas
(English translations)On the Flight of Ideas(1933),Basic Forms and Cognition of Human
Existence(1953),andSchizophrenia(1957).
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MemoryandDesireW.R.Bion18971979
Bionsisanextraordinarylife,uniqueforapsychoanalyst.WiththeoutbreakofWorldWarI,he
sawactionasayouthfultankcommanderontheWesternFrontforwhichhewasawardeda

DSO.Helaterreceivedamedicaldegree,andwiththeoutbreakofWorldWarII,wasanarmy
psychiatristandisrememberedforhisintroductionofgrouptherapy.
BionwasanalyzedbyMelanieKleinwhogreatlyinfluencedhimandwithwhomheislinked.In
1968,BionwenttoLosAngeleswhereheexertedagreatinfluenceonanalysis,stayingfor11
years.
ItishardtocharacterizeBionswriting,asitisbothheavilyphilosophicalandenigmatic.Heis
known for a short paper in which he suggested that analysts listen to their patients without
memoryordesireexperiencingeachsessionasnewandunique.Bionsstyleisamixtureof
dazzlingilluminations,provocativeaphorismsandtiresomedigression.
Bions posthumously publishedWar Memoirs: 19171919(1997) tells of the horrors of World
War I. Other autobiographical works areThe Long Weekend: 18971919(1982),All My Sins
Remembered(1985), andA Memoir of the Future(1991).Experience in Groups(1961) is an
excellent introduction to group therapy.Seven Servants(1997) collects four major
works:Learning

from

Experience(1962),Elements

of

Psycho

Analysis(1963),Transformations(1965),Attention and Interpretation(1970).New Introduction to

the Work of Bion(1993) is by Len Grinberg, Daro Sor, and Elizabeth Tabak de Bianchedi.
ThereisabiographybyGrardBlandonu,WilfredBion:HisLifeandWorks18971979(1994).
HisposthumouslypublishedCogitations(1991)hasreceivedcriticalpraise.
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SaviorofPsychoanalysisPrincessMarie
Bonaparte18821962
It was to Marie Bonaparte that Freud remarked: The great question that has never been
answeredandwhichIhavenotyetbeenabletoanswer,despitemythirtyyearsofresearch
into the feminine soul is What does a woman want? This comment did not deter Marie
Bonaparte from a lifelong exploration of the feminine soul. InFemale Sexuality(1953) she
advanced a biological theory of bisexuality to explain why a masculinity complex is more
common in women than a femininity complex in men and why women must grieve for and
accept the loss of her penis. Although later writers have challenged her ideas, she is,
nonetheless,apioneerinthestudyoffemaledevelopment.
ShewasagreatgrandnieceofNapoleonBonaparteandthewifeofPrinceGeorgeofGreece.
HernotebookspublishedasFiveCopyBooks(1952)tellofherveryearlyfantasiesbetweenthe
ages71/2and10,whichreflectthelossofhermotherataveryearlyage.Herpsychoanalytic
study of Poe,The Life and Works of E. A. Poe(1949), demonstrated the presence of the
importance of his sexual impotence linked to a fixation on his dying mother.Topsy(1940) is a
charminglovestoryaboutherdog.
RudolphLoewenstein,oneofhermanyloverswhoalsoincludedaprimeministerofFrance,
editedafestschriftforherseventiethbirthdayDrives,AffectsandBehavior:EssaysinHonorof
MarieBonaparte(1952).

MarieBonapartesgenerositywasextraordinary.SheloanedFreudthemoneyforhisransom
by the Nazis. She supported Geza Roheims anthropological explorations, and she saved
FreudsletterstoWilhelmFliessinspiteofFreudswishthattheybedestroyed.
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AttachmentTheoryJohnBowlby19071990
JohnBowlby,withMaryAinsworth,isthefounderofattachmenttheorywhichisatheorythat
explainswaysinwhichinfantsestablishtiestomothersorcaregivers.Bowlbysawattachment
ascontinuingintoadultlife.Hewrote:Evidenceisaccumulatingthathumanbeingsofallages
are happiest...when they are confident that standing behind them, there are one or more
trustedpersonswhowillcometotheiraidshoulddifficultiesarise.
His trilogyAttachment and Loss(Attachment1969,Separation: Anxiety and Anger1973,Loss:
SadnessandDepression1980) spells out his views. Additional books includeThe Making and
Breaking of Affectional Bonds(1979) andA Secure Base: Clinical Applications of Attachment
Theory(1988).FollowingWorldWarIIhewroteagroundbreakingreportfortheWorldHealth
Organization,Maternal Care and Mental Health(1951). Bowlby wrote a biography of Charles
Darwin, Charles Darwin: A New Life (1990). There are two studies: Jeremy HolmessJohn
Bowlby and Attachment Theory(1993) and Suzan VanDijkens John Bowlby: His Early Life. A
BiographicalJourneyintotheRootsofAttachmentTheory(1998).
The son of a surgeon, Bowlby completed his medical training at Cambridge but not before
spendingtimeasacounselorinaresidentialtreatmentcenterforchildren,anexperiencethat
hadalastinginfluenceonhislife.BowlbytrainedattheBritishPsychoanalyticInstitutewhere
hedevelopedaninterestintheearlyfamilyenvironmentasopposedtothefantasylifeofthe
child.AlthoughatfirstasupporterofMelanieKleinswork,hegraduallydriftedawayfromher
theories.WithSylviaPayne,heexercisedanimportantmodulatinginfluenceduringtheFreud
Kleincontroversialdiscussions.
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AmericanPsychoanalystAbrahamArdenBrill
18741948
A.A.Brill,thefirsttotranslateFreudswritingsintoEnglish,wasapersonofenormousenergy
andmissionaryzeal.ArrivingpennilessfromAustriaatage15,hesleptonfloorsofsaloonsin
exchange for work and later taught English to foreigners for twentyfive cents a lesson. He
graduated from New York University in 1898 and from Columbias College of Physicians and
Surgeonsin1903.Afterworkinginnumeroushospitals,hemetFreudandhadwhatappears
to be an informal analysis. Freud entrusted him as his translator although the quality of his
translationshasbeencriticized.In1938,hepublishedBasicWritingsofSigmundFreud,which
introducedanentiregenerationtoFreud.

Foratime,BrillwastheonlyanalystinAmerica.Heprodigiouslywrotepapersontopicsthat
ranged from wit and humor, slips of the tongue, to the importance of smell. In spite of his
loyalty and service to Freud, he was viewed with ambivalence by Freud. Among his writings
are:Psychoanalysis:

Its

Theory

and

Application(1912),Fundamental

Concepts

of

Psychoanalysis(1921),Freuds Contribution to Psychiatry (1944),Lectures on Psychoanalytic

Psychiatry(1946).
Brill founded the New York Psychoanalytic Society in 1911 and was active in founding the
American Psychoanalytic Association. He was vehement in his opposition to lay analysis in
spiteofFreudssupportoflayanalysis.
TheAbrahamA.BillLibraryattheNewYorkPsychoanalyticInstituteandSocietyisnamedin
his honor. Although there is no official biography of Brill, material about Brill is available in
Freudslettersandbiographies.
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FemalePsychologyHeleneDeutsch18841982
HeleneDeutsch,thefirstimportantwomananalystintheViennaPsychoanalyticSociety,lived
a long vital life both in Europe and the United States. Analyzed by Freud, her first analytic
patient was Viktor Tausk. Later, she was in analysis with Karl Abraham in Berlin and at the
Salzburg Conference, gave her first paper on women, which became The Psychology of
WomensSexualFunctions.CriticizedbyKarenHorneyforequatingwomenwithmasochism,
herworkhasmorerecentlybeenacceptedbyfeministsbecauseofherattentiontoproblems
posed by womens identification with their mothers. Deutsch formulated a theory of as if
identification and illustrated it with examples from such fictional works as Manns Felix Krull.
ArrivinginBostonfromViennain1935,sheplayedamajorroleintheBostonInstituteasshe
previouslyhadfor10yearsasDirectoroftheViennaPsychoanalyticInstitute.
Her works include the twovolumeThe Psychology of Women(1944, 1945),Psychoanalysis of
Neurosis(1932),Neurosis

and

Character

Types(1965),

andSelected

Problems

of

Adolescence(1967). There is a major biography by Paul Roazen,Helene Deutsch: A

Psychoanalysts Life(1985), and an autobiography,Confrontations with Myself(1973). Her
papers are collected by Paul Roazen inThe Therapeutic Process, the Self and Female
Psychology(1992).
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KurtEissler19081999
KurtEisslerwasborninViennain1908,studiedpsychologyattheUniversityandreceiveda
Ph.D.in1934underProfessorKarlBuher.HewasawardedhisM.D.in1937.Heworkedwith
August Aichhorn, a pioneer in treating adolescent delinquency, before narrowly escaping the
NazisaftertheAnschlussandemigratingtoChicago.In1943hevolunteeredfortheU.S.Army

andservedasCaptainintheMedicalCorps.AfterWorldWarIIhemovedtoNewYork,where
heremaineduntilhisdeath,writingandpracticingtotheend.
Asuperbclinicianandascholarofprofounddepthanderudition,Eisslerintroducedtheterm
parametersintoclinicalparlanceandpioneeredanalyticinvestigationsofcreativitywithbooks
on Goethe, Leonardo, Shakespeare and Freud himself. He wrote prolifically, making major
contributions to technique, theory and applied analysis. His rigorously scientific approach led
him to revise and extend many of Freuds ideas without rejecting established principles. The
posthumously published bookFreud and the Seduction Theory(2001) definitively refuted
erroneous claims that Freud had ignored the impact of extrapsychic trauma, while
simultaneouslyprovidingamagnificentpsychologicalexplicationoftheevolutionofgenius.
As a cofounder and later Secretary of the Sigmund Freud Archives, Eissler virtually single
handedly created one of the worlds great biographical collections. He also established the
AnnaFreudFoundation,whichprovidedcrucialassistancetoAnnaFreudsHampsteadChild
TherapyCourseandClinic.
HiswifeRuthS.Eissler,herselfanotedpsychoanalyst,diedin1988.
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ChildhoodandSocietyErikErikson19021994
Erik Erikson, who wrote of Gandhi and Martin Luther, and visited Indian tribes, was a major
figure in educating Americans to the societal influences on childhood as well as expanding
humandevelopmentbeyondtheearliestinfluencesofearlychildhood.
Born in Germany, Erikson wandered through Europe hoping to become an artist. He found
himself in Vienna where he taught school and trained at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute.
HispersonalanalysiswithAnnaFreudendedin1933when,inspiteofMissFreudsassurance
thattheNaziswouldneverinvadeAustria,heleftforAmerica.
In the United States he first taught at Harvard, then Yale, then at the University of California
where he left because of a loyalty oath requirement, then at The Austen Riggs Center and,
finally,backtoHarvard.
Eriksonemphasizedthecreativequalitiesoftheego,developedatheoryofegodevelopment,
and created eight developmental stages from basic trust versus mistrust in infancy, to
parenthood, to integrity versus despair in old age. Libidinal stages and psychosexual
developmentareincorporatedintohisepigeneticschemathroughhisconceptoforganmodes.
Major works include:Childhood and Society(1950),Gandhis Truth(1969), andYoung Man
Luther(1959).Identity and the Life Cycle(1959) inaugurated the journal Psychological Issues
and was followed byInsight and Responsibility(1964) andThe Life Cycle Completed: A
Review(1982). There is an excellent biography by Lawrence J. Friedman,Identitys
Architect(1999), and Robert ColessErik H. Erikson: The Growth of His Work(1970) is worth
reading.

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ObjectRelationsW.RonaldD.Fairbairn1889
1964
Ronald Fairbairn, though somewhat isolated in that he spent his entire career in Edinburgh
Scotland, has had a profound influence on British object relations and the relational schools.
For Fairbairn, libido is object seeking rather than pleasure seeking and the infant is oriented
toward others from the beginning of life. Thus, Fairbairn proposes an alternate theory of
motivation: a search for contact with others. Although Fairbairn never broke with Freud, his
theoryofdevelopmentisnotbasedonstagesbutonamaturationalsequenceofrelationsto
others. Fairbairn wrote that impulses alone could not explain the disparate failures in human
relations. Fairbairns work has had widespread influence on the study of the self, trauma,
multiplepersonality,infantdevelopment,religion,andpastoralcare.
EducatedatEdinburghUniversity,hespentthreeyearsindivinityandHellenicGreekstudies
and, after serving with General Allenby in the Palestinian campaign, he undertook medical
training, taught psychology, practiced analysis and, on the basis of his writings, became a
member of the British Psychoanalytical Society. There is a biography by John
Sutherland,FairbairnsJourneyintotheInterior(1989)astudyofhisworkbyJamesGrotstein
andR.B.Rinsley,FairbairnandtheOriginsofObjectRelations(1994),andaneditedstudyby
Neil J. Skolnik and David E. Scharff,Fairbairn Then and Now(1998). His works
includePsychoanalytical Studies of the Personality(1952) andFrom Instinct to Self: Selected
PapersofW.R.D.Fairbairn(1994).
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TheEncyclopedistOttoFenichel18971946
Otto Fenichel, who wrote a comprehensive textbook of psychoanalysis, was a person of
enormousenergy,politicalawareness,andsocialconscience.BorninVienna,hewasactivein
youth movements as a student. Shortly after graduating from medical school, he began
training at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute where he gave a paper in 1918 at age 21. He
completedhistraininginBerlinandin1933,fearingtheNazis,leftforNorway,thenforPrague
in1936,andfinallytoLosAngelesin1938.
The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis(1945), recently reprinted, is his magnum opus, a
statement about psychoanalysis that endures to this date. A small gem of a book, often
referred to as the red book,Problems of Psychoanalytic Technique, appeared in 1939 and
remains an excellent introduction to technique.The Collected Papers of Otto Fenichelin two
volumes (1953, 1954) contain papers on screen memories, scoptophilia, boredom,
counterphobia,andtransvestismamongmanyothertopics.
Foroveradecade,FenichelsentRundbriefe(circularletters)toagroupofanalystswhoshared
his political views and analytic orientation. Although secret, they have now been collected in

two extraordinary volumes by Elke Muhleitner and Johannes Reichmayr,Otto Fenichel: 119
Rundbriefe (19341945)(1998), and represent an extraordinary resource for historians of
psychoanalysis.Ahistoryofthechangeinthepoliticalclimateofpsychoanalysiscanbereadin
Russell JacobysThe Repression of Psychoanalysis: Otto Fenichel and the Political
Freudians(1983).
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FreudsDearSonSandorFerenczi18731933
Sandor Ferenczi, second only to Freud in contributions to psychoanalysis, established
Budapest as a psychoanalytic center, and has at last received the recognition he surely
deserves. Labeled as mentally ill by Ernest Jones, he was actually suffering from the
deleteriouseffectsofperniciousanemia.TotallydevotedtoFreudwhowashisanalyst,anda
member of the Secret Committee, he once offered Freud the opportunity to be analyzed by
him.
Ferenczicompletedhismedicaltrainingin1894attheUniversityofVienna.HefirstmetFreud
in 1908 and began a friendship that continued until Ferenczis death in 1933. Their
correspondence is now collected in three volumes (The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud
and Sandor Ferenczi1993, 1996, 2000).The FerencziGroddeck Correspondence 1921
1933waspublishedin2002.
FerenczihelpedfoundtheInternationalJournalofPsychoAnalysisandandservedaspresident
of the IPA. He wrote (with Otto Rank) on the problems of therapy inThe Development of
Psychoanalysis(1924), on phylogenesis inThalassa: A Theory of Genitality(193334), and on
mutual therapy inThe Clinical Diary of Sandor Ferenczi(1988). In addition to innovations in
technique,hewroteonthesenseofreality,theimportanceoftheseductiontheory,theneedto
beauthentic,theemphasisoftheroleofcountertransference,thetraumatheoryofneurosis,
andchildtreatment.Hispapers,adelighttoreadandthatincludemanyshortworksthatare
gems, are collected in three volumes:First Contributions to PsychoAnalysis(1952),Further
ContributionstotheTheoryandTechniqueofPsychoAnalysis(1951),FinalContributionstothe
ProblemsandMethodsofPsychoAnalysis(1955).
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TheDutifulDaughterAnnaFreud18951982
Anna Freud, the youngest and the only child of Sigmund Freud to become part of
psychoanalysis, was a founder of child psychoanalysis and the guardian of the Freudian
heritage.BorninVienna,shedidnotreceiveaformaleducationbutdidstudypsychoanalysis
attheViennaPsychoanalyticInstitute.Herpersonalanalysiswithherfatherisdocumentedin
herpaperBeatingFantasiesandDaydreams(1922)andinFreudspaperAChildisBeing
Beaten(1919).InVienna,sheconductedchildanalysis,taught,becameherfathersassistant,
andhelpedJewishanalystsescapeGermany.In1939,sheescapedtoEnglandwithherfamily

and did much to help English children during the war. Her work with Dorothy Burlingham,
documented inWar and Children(1943) andInfants Without Families(1943), was done at the
HampsteadNursery,aprecursoroftheHampsteadChildTherapyClinic,nowtheAnnaFreud
Centre,atrainingfacilityinLondonforchildanalysis.
AnnaFreudisknownaswellforTheEgoandtheMechanismsofDefense(1937)inwhichshe
emphasized the role of the ego as the seat of observation, discussed the various defense
mechanisms and elaborated on the concept of defense in relation to reality. Her differences
with Melanie Klein are documented inThe FreudKlein Controversies 194145(1991). Her
excellent writing style is revealed inNormality and Pathology in Childhood(1966)
andPsychoanalytic Psychology of Normal Development(1982). Her papers are collected in
eight volumes:The Writings of Anna Freud. A biography,Anna Freud, by Elisabeth Young
Breuhl,appearedin1988.
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TheFounderSigmundFreud18561939
Sigmund Freud, who awakened the slumber of the world to unconscious forces in human
motivation,theroleofdreamsandinfantilesexuality,hasbecomeawholeclimateofopinion
asW.H.Audensoaptlystated.
BorninMoravia,hisfamilymovedtoViennawherehegraduatedfrommedicalschool,trained
as a neurologist and wrote on neurology and aphasia. His great works, Studies on
Hysteria(1896),The Interpretation of Dreams(1900), andThree Essays on Sexuality(1905),
launched a new theory that ranks with Darwins theory of evolution and Einsteins theory of
relativity.TheStandardEditionoftheCompletePsychologicalWorksofSigmundFreud, in 24
volumes, translates all of Freuds work. There are presently two new translations planned as
wellasacollectionofhisneurologicalpapers.
Freuds is an enduring legacy that is alive today and Freudian ideas have been applied to
everyaspectofthehumanenterprise:history,art,literature,andbiography.
Freud founded the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, the International Psychoanalytical
Association,whichnumbersovertenthousandmembers,numerousjournals,andapublishing
house.TherearetwoFreudMuseums,oneinViennaandanotherinLondon.Abiographyin
threevolumesbyErnestJones,SigmundFreud:LifeandWork(1954,1955,1957),anedited
storyofFreudslife,isvaluableasisPeterGaysFreud:ALifeforOurTime(1988).Freud,one
ofthegreatestletterwritersofthe20thcentury,revealedhimselftohismanycorrespondents:
SandorFerenczi,KarlAbraham,CarlJung,ErnestJones,amongothers.
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Marxism,Society,andPsychoanalysisErich
Fromm19001980

Erich Fromm, who synthesized Marxism, Freud, and Weber in his many books on fascism,
authoritarianism, and social character, was a bestselling author and popularizer of
psychoanalysis. Born in Frankfurt and educated by Jewish teachers, he received a Ph.D. in
sociologyfromHeidelberg.HetheneditedaJewishnewspaperandbeganseveralanalyses,
one with Frieda FrommReichmann whom he later married. Fromm trained at the Berlin
Instituteand,withothers,foundedtheFrankfurtPsychoanalyticInstitute.Hewaslatertohelp
foundtheWilliamAlansonWhiteInstitute.
AlthoughseenasacriticofFreud,Frommsworkisnoteasilycategorizedandisbestviewed
asanextensionofFreudintothesocialsphere.Frommdid,however,believethatstrivingsare
not the outcome of instincts but of psychic needs, which society teaches through the family.
Frommsisatheoryofhumaninterrelatedness,oftenassociatedwiththeinterpersonaltheory
ofHarryStackSullivan.
ComingtotheUnitedStatesin1933,hewasfirstassociatedwithKarenHorney.Splittingwith
Horney, Fromms career is primarily connected to the White Institute and a Mexican institute
thathefounded.
Among his many books are:Escape From Freedom(1941) about authoritarianism,Man for
Himself(1947),The Forgotten Language(1951) about dreams, fairytales and myths,The Sane
Society(1955),The Art of Loving(1956),Sigmund Freuds Mission: An Analysis of His
PersonalityandInfluence(1959),andTheAnatomyofHumanDestructiveness(1978).Thereis
animportantstudybyDanielBurston,TheLegacyofErichFromm(1991).
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AnIndependentScotsmanEdwardGlover
18881972
EdwardGlover,whopublishedcritiquesofMelanieKleinandCarlJung,playedamajorrolein
thedevelopmentofpsychoanalysisinEngland.Graduatingwithdistinctionfrommedicalschool
in Scotland at age 21, he undertook psychoanalytic training with Karl Abraham in Berlin.
FollowingthedeathofhisbrotherJamesin1926,hebecameJonesssecondincommandat
theBritishPsychoanalyticalSociety.AlthoughGloverenjoyedaconsiderablereputationinthe
UnitedStates,becauseofhisconflictswiththeBritishKleinians,hehadacertainnotorietyin
England.HeresignedfromtheBritishPsychoanalyticSocietybecauseoftheseconflicts,which
are well documented inThe FreudKlein Controversies, 194145(1991). In spite of the
controversyaroundGlover,hewasamodelofindependenceandintegrity.
GloverhelpedfoundtheInstitutefortheStudyofDelinquency,thePortmanClinic,theBritish
JournalofDelinquency,andwroteTheRootsofCrime(1960).Hisothermajorworksinaddition
to his 200 published papers are:The Technique of Psychoanalysis(1955),Freud or
Jung(1956),TheBirthoftheEgo(1968),PsychoAnalysis:AHandbookforMedicalPractitioners
andStudentsofComparativePsychoanalysis(1939),War,SadismandPacifism(1933).Thereis

an excellent study by Paul Roazen,Oedipus in Britain: Edward Glover and the Struggle over
Klein(2000).
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TheTwoAnalysesofHarryGuntripHarry
Guntrip19011975
HarryGuntripisknownnotonlyforhismajorcontributionstoobjectrelationstheorybutalso
for his revealing paper on his analyses with Ronald Fairbairn and D. W. Winnicott. Guntrip
contrasted the engaging and informal style of Winnicott, which focused on early childhood
experiences, with the more formal, stereotyped oedipal interpretations of Fairbairn. Guntrip
keptadiaryofhisanalysiswithFairbairn,whichmaysomedaybepublished.
Although never a member of the British Psychoanalytical Society, his work greatly influenced
themiddlegroupoftheBPS.TrainedatLondonUniversity,Guntripwasfirstaministerofthe
Congregational Church and later a lecturer in psychology at Leeds University. His religious
background clearly influenced his life and work. It was in Leeds that he practiced analysis,
oftenseeingministersfortreatmentformodestfees.
ThereisabiographybyJeremyHazell,H. J. S. Guntrip: A Psychoanalytical Biography(1996),
which tells much of his recorded analysis and dreams. Hazell also editedPersonal Relations
Theory: The Collected Papers of H. J. S. Guntrip(1994). Works by Guntrip includeSchizoid
Phenomena, Object Relations and the Self(1969),Personality Structure and Human
Interaction(1973),andPsychologyforMinistersandSocialWorkers(1949).
In Guntrips lucid writing, the work of Klein, Fairbairn, and Winnicott are synthesized. But he
alsoadvancedhisownideasinwhichhecriticizedFreudforbeingtooorientedtowardbiology
andthereforedehumanizing.Hearguedthattheregressedegoexertsapowerfuleffectonlife
and understood the schizoid sense of emptiness as reflecting the withdrawal of energy from
therealworldintoaworldofinternalobjectrelations.
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TheEgoPsychologistHeinzHartmann1894
1970
Heinz Hartmanns ego psychology influenced a whole generation of psychoanalysts.
ConsideredamajorfigureinthesecondgenerationofpsychoanalystsafterFreud,Hartmann
was challenged to fulfill Freuds hope to create a general psychoanalytic psychology. He
emphasizedtheindependenceofegoprocessesversusdrive,andtheroleofexternalreality.
Inhiswritingstherearefewclinicalobservationsashefeltthatitwasimportanttodevelopa
conceptual framework that illustrated a general theory. Hartmann believed in a conflictfree
sphere of the ego, which functions from birth or soon after, that is not the result of drive

modification. InEgo Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation(1939), he noted that the
newbornhumanandhisaverageexpectableenvironmentareadaptedtoeachotherfromthe
veryfirstmoment.

BorninViennatoadistinguishedfamilyofhistoriansandacademicianshisfatherwasAustrian
Ambassador to Germany after World War I Hartmann graduated from medical school at the
UniversityofViennain1920butpursuedseveralcareersbeforeturningtopsychoanalysis.He
washisfatherspersonalsecretaryduringhisambassadorship.Hartmannunderwentanalysis
withSandorRado,JosefBreuer,andSigmundFreud,collaboratedwithRadointheeditorship
oftheInternationale Zeitschrift fur Psychanalyse, helped establishPsychoanalytic Study of the
Child,andservedasPresidentoftheInternationalPsychoanalyticalAssociation.
His books includePsychoanalysis and Moral Values(1960), andEssays

on

Ego

Psychology(1964). An edited festschrift that collects his major papers,Psychoanalysis: A

GeneralPsychology,waspublishedin1966.Hartmannisbestknownforhiscollaborationwith
ErnstKrisandRudolphLoewensteinandforhisinfluenceonDavidRapaport.
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ACourageousDissidentKarenHorney1885
1952
Karen Horney, who wrote best sellers in a popular style emphasizing the cultural and social
aspects of psychoanalysis, left the American Psychoanalytic Association to form her own
association,theAmericanInstituteforPsychoanalysis.
BorninHamburg,shewroteaboutheryouthinTheAdolescentDiariesofKarenHorney(1980).
Bernard Paris, the founder of the Karen Horney Society, has written her biography,Karen
Horney:APsychoanalystsSearchforSelfUnderstanding(1994).
KarenHorneyreceivedhermedicaldegreeinBerlinin1915.AnalyzedbybothKarlAbraham
and Hans Sachs, she became an early faculty member of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute.
Her work criticized the male bias in psychoanalysis and challenged many of Freuds ideas
about women. She saw the ego as evolving over life and believed in the limitless ability of
peopletodevelop.Horneysawtheneuroticpersonalityasstemmingfromalackofwarmthin
parentchildrelationships.
ComingtoAmericain1934,shefirstwenttotheChicagoInstituteforPsychoanalysisandthen
totheNewYorkPsychoanalyticInstitutewhereherideashelpedtodisqualifyherasatraining
analyst. In part, she was perceived as a threat to classical theory because of her critique of
Freud inNew Ways in Psychoanalysis(1939). There was also considerable envy of her
becauseofthepopularityofherbooksandlecturesattheNewSchoolforSocialResearch.
Among Horneys other books are:The Neurotic Personality of Our Time(1937),Self
Analysis(1942),OurInnerConflicts(1945).HerFinalLecturesappearedin1987.

BacktoTop

FreudsBoswellErnestJones18791958
ErnestJones,whowithSigmundFreud,createdaninternationalcartelcalledpsychoanalysis,
had a distinguished but problematic career. A fierce publicist for psychoanalysis, he was
describedasafierylittleman,withastaccato,militarymannerandathisworsthecouldbe
spiteful,jealous,andquerulous.
JoneswasborninWalesandat21,hehadcompletedhismedicaltraininghavingpassedup
Cambridge University. He met Freud in 1906 at the Salzburg Congress and a lifelong
relationship ensued in spite of Freud having been warned about Jones by Jung. Exiled to
Toronto, he founded the American Psychoanalytic Association and was active in promoting
psychoanalysis in North America. Jones returned to London to practice psychoanalysis in
1912. His analysis with Sandor Ferenczi left him ambivalent and even hostile to Ferenczi for
the rest of his life. In 1919 he founded the British Psychoanalytical Society and in 1920 he
becamepresidentoftheIPAandfoundedtheInternationalJournalofPsychoAnalysis.Helater
founded the International Psychoanalytic Library, which produced seminal volumes in
psychoanalysis.
His sanitized and hagiographic biographyThe Life and Work of Sigmund Freud(3 vols. 1954,
1955, 1957) endures to this day. His autobiographyFree Associations: Memoirs of a
Psychoanalyst(1959) was preceded byOn the Nightmare(1931) (he suffered from
nightmares),EssaysinAppliedPsychoanalysis(2vols.1951),PapersonPsychoanalysis(1912),
andhismuchadmiredHamletandOedipus(1949).TheCompleteCorrespondenceofSigmund
FreudandErnestJones19081939(1993)isrichwithpsychoanalyticlore.
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AnalyticalPsychologyCarlGustavJung1875
1961
Jung ranks in importance only to Freud in the history of psychoanalysis. In spite of the
contributions of this great Swiss psychiatrist, few of his ideas have been integrated into
mainstream psychoanalysis although many terms, such as complex, archetype, word
association are part of the psychoanalytic vocabulary. His view of libido as being a life force,
rather than sexual, remains today a distinction between analytical psychology and
psychoanalysis.ForJung,thegrowthandtransformationoftheindividualstotallifeexperience
defines the core of psychic life. Jung had a lifelong interest in the occult and spiritualism.
Jungsworkhasbeenparticularlyattractivetopeopleinthecreativeartsandreligion.
AlthoughthereisanInternationalAssociationforAnalyticalPsychologyandtraininginstitutes
and journals throughout the world, analytical psychology has never been as bureaucratic as
theInternationalPsychoanalyticalAssociation.

BorninSwitzerland,JungreceivedhismedicaldegreefromtheUniversityofZurichwherehe
wrote a dissertation on the pathology of occult phenomena. A confidante of Freud, he
accompaniedhimtoAmericafortheClarklecturesin1909andbecamepermanentpresident
of the IPA. Their relationship deteriorated, however, and it is well documented inThe Freud
JungLetters(1974).
The Collected Works of C. G. Jungnumbers 18 volumes and range over many subjects
including art, literature, synchronicity, alchemy, religion, symbolization, and psychoanalysis.
There are many studies of Jung includingJung: A Biography(1985) by Gerhard Wehr,Jung:
Man and Myth(1978) by Vincent Brome, and an excellent introduction inThe Cambridge
CompaniontoJung(1997).HisautobiographyisMemories,Dreams,andReflections(1963).
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UnconsciousPhantasyMelanieKlein1882
1960
Melanie Klein, the first Kleinian, occupies a singular place in the history of child analysis and
the psychoanalytic movement. Born in Vienna, she intended to study medicine but an early
marriageandchildrenintervened.ShemovedtoBudapestwhereshewasanalyzedbySandor
Ferenczi, and later to Berlin where she trained and was analyzed by Karl Abraham. After an
invitationfromErnestJones,shemovedtoLondonwheresheworkedfortheremainderofher
life.
Melanie Klein not only pioneered child analysis but contributed to the psychoanalytic
vocabulary as well. She highlighted early (preoedipal) experience, introduced the concept of
positionsratherthanstagesindevelopment,namely,theparanoidschizoidandthedepressive
position. She dated the oedipal period much earlier than Freud had, and traced anxiety and
guilt to the childs early relationship to the breast. Klein placed emphasis on aggression,
unconsciousphantasy,andthedeathinstinct.Herconceptofprojectiveidentificationhasbeen
appliedtotechnique.
She split over child analysis methods with Anna Freud, and her theories, hotly debated in
LondonduringWorldWarII,arepublishedinTheFreudKleinControversies194145(1991).
A major biography by Phyllis Grosskurth,Melanie Klein: Her World and Her Work(1987),
includes material from an unpublished autobiography. Her work is collected in several
volumes:Narrative of a Child Analysis (1961),The Psychoanalysis of Children(1975),Love,
Guilt and Reparation 19211945(1975), andEnvy and Gratitude(1957).Introduction to the
WorkofMelanieKlein(1975),byHannaSegal,providesavaluableoverview.
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TheFirstSelfPsychologistHeinzKohut1913
1981

Heinz Kohut founded a school of psychoanalysis that is not only a theory but a movement
replete with conferences, training centers and organizations. Born in Vienna, he trained in
medicineandin1939barelyescapedtheNazistotheUnitedStates.InChicago,Kohuttrained
at the Chicago Institute and became a major figure in American psychoanalysis, which
includedthepresidencyoftheAmericanPsychoanalyticAssociation.
Kohut envisioned self psychology as an extension of psychoanalysis and fought against its
becoming a separate movement. He emphasized the importance of an empathic immersion
intotheexperienceofthepatientbytheanalyst.Hedeemphasizedtheroleofthevicissitudes
of drive and defense and the Oedipus complex as the cause of pathogenesis. Instead, he
highlightedtheroleofearlyempathicfailureandtheimportanceofnarcissismasaseparate
line of development. Kohut differentiated tragic man one with a depleted self from guilty
manonewhoavoidsoedipalguilt.ForKohut,thegoalofpsychoanalysisistohelpthepatient
ridhimselfofarchaicselfobjectsandtodevelopacohesiveselfthatcompletesdevelopment.
Kohuts groundbreaking book isThe Analysis of the Self(1971) and is followed byThe
Restoration of the Self(1977) and the posthumously publishedHow Does Analysis Cure?
(1984). Kohuts letters were edited by Geoffrey Cocks,The Curve of Life: Correspondence of
HeinzKohut19231981(1994).ThereisabiographybyCharlesB.Strozier,HeinzKohut:The
Making of a Psychoanalyst(2001). A fourvolume collection of his papers,The Search for the
Self(1978,1979,1990,1991),includesTheTwoAnalysesofMr.Z.thathasbeenrevealed
asKohutsselfanalysis.
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Psychoanalysis,Art,andEgoPsychologyErnst
Kris19001957
Ernst Kris combined two careers in a life cut short at age 56. Having graduated from the
University of Vienna at 22 with a PhD in art history, he was to become a curator at the
KunsthistorisheMuseuminVienna.Hepublishedaworkoncaricaturewiththenotedhistorian
C. H. Gombrich, and another on art history with O. Kurz, some of which were reworked
intoPsychoanalyticExplorationsinArt(1952).
Kris married the analyst Marianne Rie, the daughter of Oscar Rie, Freuds friend and
pediatrician in 1927 and in 1928, became a member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.
With Robert Waelder, he edited the journalImago, and later in the United States he was
instrumentalinestablishingPsychoanalyticStudyoftheChild.
Fleeing to Britain, he did research on German war propaganda, which resulted in his
coauthoringwithH.SpierTheGermanRadioPropaganda(1944).
Arriving in the United States, he became a soughtafter teacher at the New York
Psychoanalytic Institute, the New School for Social Research, and the City College of New
York. His papers are collected inSelected Papers of Ernst Kris(1975). Kriss work on insight,
childanalysis,psychoanalytictechnique,thegoodhour,andhisconceptofregressionunder

thecontroloftheegoendures.PaperswrittenwithHeinzHartmannandRudolphLoewenstein
onegopsychologyarenowregardedasclassics.Studygroupsthathefoundedandnamedin
his honor at the New York Psychoanalytic Society produced a monograph series of excellent
studies.
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FrenchFreudJacquesLacan19011981
Lacan lived for eighty tumultuous years and made a very successful career out of saying
things that just no one could understand. Expelled from the International Psychoanalytical
Associationinthe1960sforheresiesincludingshortsessions,hisstagebecamePariswhere
he established his own school of psychoanalysis and numbered as his friends Giacometti,
Malraux,LeviStrauss,Dali,Picasso,andSarte.
Lacan has become a whole climate of opinion with some adoring his work and finding great
meaningwhileothersdismissinghimasafraud.Attemptstosummarizehisworkaredifficult.
Lacanintroducedarangeoftopicsthatareconnectedwithhisideas:theprimacyoflanguage
functions in the structuring of the unconscious, the nature of the symbolic order, the
recentering of psychoanalysis on the speech of the analyst, the mirror stage, the critique of
any form of therapy that strengthens the patients ego, a general critique of ego psychology.
AfterhavinglefttheParisPsychoanalyticSocietytofoundtheFrenchPsychoanalyticSociety,
heestablishedhisownschool,EcoleFreudiennedeParis,whichremainsinexistencetothis
day. His work is carried on by his soninlaw JacquesAlain Miller, the head of Ecole de la
CauseFreudienne.
NumerousstudiesofLacanexistandhisworkhasinfluencedthehumanitiesandliterature.A
major work isThe Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis(1977). Studies include
MalcolmBowiesLacan(1991)andBiceBenvenutoandRogerKennedysTheWorksofJacques
Lacan:AnIntroduction(1986).
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RelationalPsychoanalystStephenA.Mitchell
19462000
Stephen Mitchell, who died far too young at the height of his intellectual vitality, has made a
lasting impression on contemporary psychoanalysis. In his first major work with Jay
Greenberg,Object Relations in Psychoanalytic Theory(1983), the authors surveyed the
development of psychoanalysis dividing psychoanalysis into two distinct traditions, an
intrapsychic one as opposed to a relational/interpersonal one exemplified by the work of
Sullivan,Fromm,Kohut,andothers.ThispioneeringworkwasfollowedbyRelationalConcepts
in Psychoanalysis(1988), the establishment and editorship of a journalPsychoanalytic
Dialogues(1991),Hope and Dread in Psychoanalysis(1993),Influence and Autonomy in
Psychoanalysis(1997),Relationality(2000), and, with his wife Margaret Black,Freud and

Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought(1995). A posthumous work,Can Love

Last?TheFateofRomanceoverTime(2002)waswrittenforageneralaudience.
TrainedininterpersonalpsychoanalysisattheWilliamAlansonWhiteInstitute,Mitchellbecame
a soughtafter speaker and advocate of new trends in psychoanalysis. He claimed that there
hasbeenaparadigmshiftinpsychoanalysis(laKuhn)toatwopersonrelationalapproach
emphasizing the analysts potential impact on the patient along with highlighting the
importanceofpostmodernandfeministviewsinpsychoanalysis.
A Stephen A. Mitchell Center has been established in New York City and the International
AssociationforRelationalPsychoanalysisandPsychotherapy(IARPP)helditsfirstconference
in2002.Nopsychoanalytictheoristhashadsodramaticaneffectonpsychoanalyticthinkingin
recentyears.
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TraumaofBirthOttoRank18841939
OttoRank,borninmodestcircumstancesinatroubledhomewithanalcoholicfather,through
the generosity of Freud and his own talents made lasting contributions to psychoanalysis,
manyofwhicharenowpartofcontemporarypsychoanalysis.FreudsaidofRank,Onedaya
young man who had passed through a technical training college introduced himself with a
manuscript which showed very unusual comprehension....I gained in Otto Rank a most loyal
helperandcoworker.ThemanuscriptbecameTheArtist(1907)andwasfollowedbyTheMyth
of the Birth of the Hero(1909),The Incest Theme in Literature and Legend(1912),The
Double(1914),TheDonJuanLegend(1922),andTheTraumaofBirth(1924),whichchallenged
theprimacyoftheOedipuscomplex.RankchangedhisnamefromRosenfeld,gainedaPhD
fromtheUniversityofViennain1912,becameSecretaryoftheViennaPsychoanalyticSociety
(theminutesofthesocietyarehiswork),and,withHansSachs,editedtheImago.
Although never analyzed, he was, nonetheless, a member of the Secret Committee. Rank
broke with Freud and became, along with Adler and Jung, a major early dissident. His other
major work, with Sandor Ferenczi,The Development of Psychoanalysis(1923) highlights the
importance of the patienttherapist interaction. Rank stressed the preoedipal motherchild
bond, conceived of transference in maternal terms, emphasized the role of birth in later
development,rejectedthelibidotheory,andshortenedthelengthofanalysis.
ThereisanexcellentbiographybyE.JamesLieberman,ActsofWill:TheLifeandWorkofOtto
Rank(1985).
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DiagnosticTestingandSystematizingDavid
Rapaport19011960

David Rapaport, in his all too brief life, left a lasting impression on clinical psychology as an
influenceonagenerationofpsychologists.Hehelpedtodefineclinicalpsychologyasaunique
andvaluableprofessionandtodefinepsychodiagnostictestingasameansofunderstanding
how thought functions in personality. His works are monumental, beginning with the two
volume (with Roy Schafer and Merton Gill)Diagnostic Psychological Testing(1945, 1946)
followedbyOrganization and Pathology of Thought: Selected Sources(1951), a vast array of
papers that he translated and annotated. Other books areEmotions and Memory(1950), a
survey of the topic andThe Structure of Psychoanalytic Theory: A Systematizing
Attempt(1958).MertonGilleditedhispapersinTheCollectedPapersofDavidRapaport(1967).
BorninBudapest,heearnedaPhDinpsychologyfromBudapestUniversityin1938and,upon
coming to the United States, worked briefly in New York before going to Kansas and the
Menninger Clinic where he was head of psychology and research. In 1948, he went to The
AustenRiggsCenterinStockbridge,Massachusetts.
Rapaport was not a practicing analyst although he saw a few patients in psychotherapy in
ordertounderstandthoughtorganization.Besidehisworkontesting,hestudiedhowthought
becomes socialized, logical, and goal directed and the codetermination of drive and
environment. His emphasis on cognitive structure and the autonomy of the ego led to
important research by others on cognitive controls. Rapaports interests were always on the
majorissuesofpsychologyaffects,memory,andlearning.
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CharacterAnalysis,OrgoneTherapy,andaLife
ofControversyWilhelmReich18971957
WilhelmReich,oneofthemostbrilliant,creative,andcontroversialofthepioneeringanalysts,
has the dubious distinction of having been expelled from the International Psychoanalytical
AssociationandtheCommunistParty,anddyinginprison,havingbeensentencedforviolating
thepurefoodanddruglaws.Heclaimedthathisorgoneaccumulatorcouldcurecancer,thus
leaving him at odds with the law. Reich was born in Galisia to parents who both committed
suicide.HereceivedamedicaldegreefromtheUniversityofViennaandattainedmembership
intheViennaPsychoanalyticSociety.Hismajorwork,CharacterAnalysis(1933,1961),endures
as it released psychoanalysis from narrower definitions of neurosis. In this tome, Reich
demonstratedthatpsychologicaltraitsofcharacterandphysicalhabitsofpostureorreaction
aremotivatedbyandreflectpeoplesneedtodefendthemselvesagainstthreateningthoughts
and feelings. Reichs work on vegetable therapy, working directly on the body, influenced
Frederick Perls on Gestalt therapy and Alexander Lowen in bioenergetics. His later work on
orgonetherapyledtohisdownfall.
ThereisamajorbiographybyMyronSharaf,FuryonEarth(1983),andhislettersandjournals
arecollectedinBeyondPsychology:LettersandJournals19341939(1994)andAme

:PastPresidentsoftheBritishPsychoanalyticalSociety
:

:Psychoanalysts

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