Translated from Bulletin ASE, Volume 65

(1974), No.7, pages 496 . 508

Problems related to switching impulse generation

at high voltages in the test plant

K. Feser

E I-29

Bei der Erzeugung hoher Schallstofispannungen im Priiffeld

ist die Festigkeit der Luft zu beriicksichtigen. Anhand einiger
Beispiele wird das Problem der Festigkeit der Luft diskutiert.
Es wird gezeigt, dass die bei Schallstofispannungen auftretende Leadervorentladung fur die Dimensionierung der Elektroden und fur die Abstande spannungsfihrender Teile zu geerdeten Objekten massgebend ist. Einige praktische Beispiele
erganzen die theoretischen Betrach tungen. Daran anschliessend wird das Triggerverhalten von Stossgeneratoren in der
Marxschen Vervielfachungsschaltung bei hochohmigen inneren Seriewiderstanden untersuch t. Es werden die moglichen
Verbesserungen in der bisherigen Konzeption der Marxschen
Vervielfachungsschaltungdiskutiert, urn sowohl die Erzeugung
von Blitzstoj3spannungen
wie such die Erzeugung von Schaltstofispannungen normgerecht durchfihren zu Mnnen. Einige
Gedanken iiber die Dimensionierung der Bauelemente und
iiber die Spannungsmessung bei SchaltstoJspannungen bilden
den Abschluss der vorliegenden Ausfihrungen.

Pour la production de hautes tensions de choc de manoeuvres dans un laboratoire dessais, il faut tenir compte de la rigidite dielectrique de lair. Le probleme de cette rigidite est
examine a laide de quelques exemples. On montre que, pour
des tensions de choc de manoeuvres, les d&charges preliminaires luminescentes sous forme de Leader sont determinantes
pour le dimensionnement des electrodes, ainsi que pour les
distances entre parties sous tension et les objets mis a la terre.
Quelques exemples pratiques completent les considerations
theoriques. On examine ensuite le comportement a lirmorcage des generateurs de chocs en couplage multiplicateur de
Marx, dans ie cas de resistances intemes serie, de valeurs elev&es. Des ameliorations possibles dans la conception du couplage multiplicateur de Marx sont indiquees, pour pouvoir produire aussi bien des tensions de choc simulant la foudre, que
des tensions de choc de manoeuvres conformes aux normes.
L exposese termine par quelques considerations sur le dimensionnement des composants et sur la mesure des tensions de
choc de manoeuvres.

Problems related to switching impulse generation at high voltages

in the test plant
by K. Feser

The strength of the air must be considered in the generation of high switching impulse voltages in test plants. The problem with the strength of the air shall be discussed on the basis
of several examples. It will be shown that preliminary leader
discharges which occur with switching impulse voltages are of
primary significance for dimensioning electrodes and clearances of live parts to earthed objects. Some practical examples
will supplement the theoretical deliberations. Then, the trigger

behaviour of impulse generators in the Marx multiplier circuit with high-impedance internal series resistors will be examined. A discussion will pertain to the possible improvements
of the previous concept of the Marx multiplier circuit for the
standardized generation of ligthning impulse voltages as well
as of switching impulse voltages. A few aspects of dimensioning some elements and of measuring techniques for switching impulse voltages will form the epilog to this paper.

1. Introduction

However, since statistical examinations on the number

and shape of the actually occurring overvoltages - e.g. in a
network - are just as important for the selection of a test voltage as the physically most stringent condition for certain
electrode configurations, the choice of a test voltage should
consider technical and economic deliberations, e.g. also including the complexity of the tests. One conclusion, however,
does seem to follow from the illustrated dependencies: the
necessary test plant must be capable of generating different
unipolar over-voltages from several Ps to several 1000 us in a
simple manner. For voltages of several MV, this requirement
is economically feasible only with impulse voltage generators
which are built according to the well-known Marx multiplier
circuit. The generation of unipolar overvoltages with test
transformers is very limited insofar as voltage shapes are concerned, so that in the following sections, the generation of
unipolar impulses will pertain exclusively to multistage Marx
impulse generators.
Figure 3 is a comparative illustration of the 50% flashover
impulse voltage of rod/plane spark gaps in function of clearance. As this figure illustrates, only the positive polarity of a
unipolar overvoltage on a strongly bent electrode can lead to
these low flashover values. The flashover voltage for negative
polarity on the strongly bent electrode features almost linear
dependence up to 3.5 MV, and it is not possible to ascertain
a marked influence of the front time as indicated by the almost equivalent flashover values with front times of 250 ps

All commonly used connecting elements between the point

of electrical energy generation and the consumer location can
not handle the necessary energy transportation task - in ten
years, consumer capacity is expected to double - unless
transmission voltages are increased. Transmission voltage increase over the past fifty years (fig. 1) will clearly indicate
that transmission line voltages between 1000 and 1500 kV
must be anticipated in this or the next decade. This progress
in energy technology directly influences the development of
test technologies, since the purpose of any test is to provide
evidence of the full functional capability of the test specimen
with respect to all actual operating conditions with a certain
degree of statistical reliability. Computer or network model
examinations and practical measurements in the network pertaining to the form and magnitude of unipolar overvoltages as
they may occur due to switching activities in the network
show that these socalled inner overvoltages have front times
of several 100 ns. Thereby, the form of the overvoltages may
be aperiodically damped or oscillating.
At the same time, several reports published in the last few
years mentioned abnormal flashovers with unipolar impulse
front times of several 100 ps. The examinations conducted in
the late sixties showed that the flashover voltages of air spark
gaps are dependent on the front time of the unipolar overvoltages and feature a pronounced minimum in the range of several 100 ps [ 1; 21. As illustrated in fig. 2 which represents
the flashover voltage of a rod/plane spark gap with positive
polarity on the strongly bent electrode, the minimum of the
flashover voltage is displaced to longer front times with increasing clearance. The minimum of the flashover voltage of
air spark gaps can be approximated by a straight line with a
slope of 2.08 kV/ns as shown in the illustration. This means
that according to the formula

Ts krit = ~
- 6oo
2.08

r-

WSJ

(U in kV),

a critical rise of the unipolar overvoltage is obtained for each

switching impulse voltage level. From this point of view, test
philosophy could be required to assign the most critical voltage increase to any given test voltage, e.g. for a test voltage
of 2 MV, the associated front time should be 675 ~.ls.

Fig. 1

Development of transmission line &

kV

3000
kV

2000

I
a-

positive switching
impulse voltage

1000

Impulse shapes)

-+

500

1 0 0 0 JJS

1500

T5
Fig. 2

Influence of front breakdown voltages in

rod/plant spark gaps in air ] I]

Fig. 3

50% breakdown voltages of rod/plane spark

gaps as a function of distance LZ

u,j breakdown voltage

T, front time

and 1.2 ys. With a positive polarity, the lightning impulse voltages correspond to the linear dependence with a slope of
about 5 kV/cm (or 500 kV/m) which has been known for
some time. This applies also to the highest voltages ever mea.
sured (currently in the range of about 5 MV).
For gaps of up to about 7 m, corresponding to a swit,
thing impulse voltage of 1500 kV, the switching impulse voltage 250/2500 proposed in the international specifications
provides the lowest flashover voltage. For larger gaps, we obtain lower flashover values with longer front times. This is
illustrated by the dotted curve in figure 3. With a voltage of
3 Mill. V, for example, a front time of 1.2 ~.ls will yield a
flashover of only about 6 m, a front time of 250 /.LS already
provides 22 m and a front time of about 1200 ps will produ,
ce a 35 m flashover. Figure 3 will also help answer the question: Why switching impulse tests? .
Since the amplitudes of the switching impulse voltages
occurring in the network are proportional to the network voltage, the increase of the transmission line-voltage to e.g.
1500 kV will bring up problems pertaining to switching impulse voltage strength. The questions concerning test procedures of electrical apparatus with switching impulse voltages
must therefore also be considered as this is the case at present in several proposals. In the same light, it should be determined to which degree it may be possible to reduce previous
test voltages or possibly replace them [3].
In the following sections, we shall dwell specifically on
problems concerning the generation of high switching impulse
voltages, and the prerequisite according to which the test
plant must generate all existing test voltages as specified in
standards shall be observed. For completeness sake, figure 4
shows two test voltages with the associated data. The lightening impulse voltage 1.2/50 (front time 1.2 ps + 0.35 PS,
time of half value 50 ps k 10 ps) was generated to simulate

ud 50% breakdown voltage

the travelling waves which occur in transmission lines due to

lightning discharges. In contrast, the switching impulse voltage 250/2500 ps (front time 250 ps 2 50 ps, time of half
value 2500 ps * 1500 ps) is shown to represent overvoltages
which occur due to switching activities. Other special impul.
se shapes are also considered such as the 1.2/5 ~.ls impulse
voltage or the switching impulse voltage 1500 * 500 ps/
3000 ps for arrestor tests [4; 51.
a

% 1

JJ,
b

_j

50

----c, h

Fig. 4

Standardized test voltages

a Lightning implllsc voltage 1.2/50

Front time:
Ts = 1.2 + 0.36 /.a
Time of half value:
T, = 50 !I 10 /.s
b Switching impulse voltage 250/2500
Front time:
T,, = 250 + 50 pa
Time of half value:
Tt, = 2500 + 1500

ps

Since air is still an important insulator for test plants, we

shall first discuss the special characteristics of flashovers in
air of switching impulse voltages. This will lead to questions
pertaining to the size of screening electrodes, the size of laboratories and sizes of active components.
We shall then examine the generation of high switching
impulse voltages with multi-stage Marx impulse generators,
emphasizing the different possibilities of triggering these generators. In conclusion, the possibilities of measuring voltages
in the UHV range will be discussed.

2. Pre-discharge phenomena and flashover volrages with

switching impulse voltages

In order to interpret the differences in flashover voltages

from air gaps with inhomogenous field, we must examine the
pre-discharge behaviour because the flashover phenomena is
strongly influenced by pre-discharge phenomena.
The results of the numerous known physical investigations
with switching impulse voltages in air gaps show that two
forms of pre-discharge essentially influence the flashover behaviour for positive unipolar overvoltages on a strongly bent
electrode [6; 71:
a) streamer pre-discharge and
b) leader pre-discharge.
We shall use an example to clarify the significance of predischarge for flashover voltages with an example. Figure 5
shows the flashover probability of a rod/plane spark gap in
function of the flashover voltage for two different electrode
shapes with a gap of 50 cm. While the given test conditions
for a 30 point with a radius of 0.3 mm at the end of the rod
yield a standard distribution of flashover voltages, a pronounced mixed distribution was obtained when a 2 cm semi-sphere
was used as an electrode cap. According to statistical laws,
this mixed distribution can be separated into two standard
distributions and the statistical result for this test verified by
at least 20 impulses per test point shows that two significant
parameters must influence flashover behaviour. It is obvious
in this case that the pre-discharge behaviour must be examined in greater detail. The investigation proves that the low
flashover values of about 270 kV occur when the flashover is
produced by the leader pre-discharge, while the higher flashover values are always obtained when the flashover is produced by the streamer pre-discharge. When the electrode cap is
a point, the leader pre-discharge always occurs prior to the
flashover. In accordance with this pre-discharge behaviour,
only the lower flashover values occur (fig. 5). This presumption was verified among other things by the visual image of
the pre-discharge phenomena [ 71.
When a 2 cm semi-sphere is used to cap the electrode, the
same voltage will either produce a leader or streamer pre-discharge (fig. 6). Distribution seems to be random to a great
degree. Leader pre-discharges always occur when a 30 point
is used as an electrode cap. This even applies when voltages
are much lower. The pictures also show the essential characteristics of both pre-discharge forms. The streamer pre-discharge consists of several low-intensity individual channels,

while the leader pre-discharge features a highly luminous predischarge channel which pushes the potential of the electrode
with a low voltage drop into the field space. Further pre-discharge phenomena are produced at the head of the leader predischarge. We shall discuss the characteristic differences of
both types of pre-discharge later on.
Based on the available test results on current, voltage, and
charge behaviour in the gas discharge gap and on the visual
image of the gas discharge, it is possible to establish a hypothesis concerning the fundamental development of flashovers
for lightning and switching impulse voltages.
The following sections will only mention the more essential exterior differences in discharge behaviour which are of
special signifiance for practical applications. The individual
physical differences are still not fully understood today.
An impulse-type of pre-discharge - the streamer pre-discharge - occurs with lightning impulse voltages after the nominal voltage is exceeded. This phenomenon makes the electrical field around the highly stressed electrode so homogenous that an impulse-type of pre-discharge cannot occur until
a very much higher voltage level is attained. If the streamer
pre-discharge reaches the opposite-electrode, a leader channel
is heated up from the positive electrode side. It is not necessary for the voltage to increase any further to heat up this leader
channel.
In contrast, continously occurring streamer pre-discharges
will be noted with switching impulse voltages as the voltage
level rises above the rated value. Due to the continous generation of current pulses, a leader will form at the anode as the
voltage level rises, even before the streamer pre-discharges
have reached the opposite electrode. Through further streamer pre-discharges, the leader can grow in steps with constant mean speed [19], whereby the streamer pre-discharges
are generated at the leader head. The leader pre-discharge
cannot grow unless the voltage in this case is increased. The
flashover occurs when - as with lightning impulse voltages the streamer pre-discharge has reached either the opposite
electrode or the opposite discharge [7].

60

I
i

IL

.
I;~b-f--lI
A

.
I

dFig. 5

Influence of electrode shape with respect to

breakdown probability of a 50 cm rod/plane
spark gap in air for switching impulse voltages
W
breakdown probability
ud breakdown voltage
S
standard deviation

The following characteristic values of both pre-discharge

types are important in test technology:
a) voltage requirements and
b) charge requirements.
The voltage requirements of the pre-discharges provide the
necessary clearances of live parts to earthed objects. In the
case of streamer pre-discharges, the voltage requirements for
this type of pre-discharge are 4 to 5 kV/cm, depending on air
density and humidity, whereas in the case of leader pre-discharge, the voltage requirements are only about 0.5 to 2 kV/
cm. This means, for example, that with minimum distance of
5 m from a live electrode to an earthed wall, it is possible to
create a positive lightning impulse voltage of 2 to 2.5 MV,
while a positive switching impulse voltage of 1 MV wfl already lead to flashover. Of course, this data applies only if the
above-mentioned pre-discharges occur, i.e. if a strongly inhomogenous field exists.
A second very important criterion for test technology is
the charge requirement for pre-discharge phenomena, because
this may lead to an influence on the shape of the voltage if
the pre-discharge is too charge-intensive and at the same time

the internal resistance of the voltage source is too high. While

streamer pre-discharges require only a low charge dependent
on the rated voltage (magnitude: ( 1 PC), which can practically be covered by stray capacity, the high charge requirements for leader pre-discharges (magnitude: up to 20 ,uC/m)
with switching impulse voltages can lead to a distortion of
the impulse shape in the rise of the switching impulse voltage,
because the voltage source is of high impedance due to the
large series resistors. The identically high charge requirements
for leader discharge with lightning impulse voltages is no longer critical in this case, because the generation of leader discharge phenomena with lightning impulse voltages is combined with the flashover. For switching impulse voltages, this
charge requirement leads to voltage steps if an insufficiently
high load capacity does not provide the necessary charge, so
that the voltage at the test object is influenced by the predischarge [7; S].
For personnel safety in test plants, it should be observed
that the flashover for switching impulse voltage does not r,
follow the law of the shortest distance whatsoever. This is
due to the fact that leader pre-discharges exist. Therefore,
the term abnormal flashover is often found in literature
[91.

3. Dimensioning of screening electrodes, laboratory sizes

Two important conclusions for generating switching impulse voltages in practical test technology can be drawn from
these few considerations on the development of the flashover
in air:
a) Avoidance of leader pre-discharge by corresponding
electrode shapes or ~ if this is permissible - sufficiently
large clearances to prevent flashovers from voltage generators to earthed objects in spite of leader pre-discharges.
b) Sufficiently large load capacity to prevent feedback
effects of the pre-discharges on the voltage characteristic in the event that leader discharges occur on the test
object.

Figure 7 shows the leader onset-voltage levels of practical

electrode configurations in comparison with the flashover voltage of a rod/plane spark gap. On the left-hand side of the
characteristic for the rod/plane spark gap, the flashover occurs
without pre-discharges, whereas on the right-hand side, leader
pre-discharges occur and the flashover voltage of the rod/plane
spark gap is approximately the same for flashover voltages
with other electrode configurations. The graph shows, that a
certain switching impulse voltage is permissible for a certain
2500

~-----L

rod/plane ---/

----

d=2;

kV

electrode size. The onset-voltage is not substantially improved

and the flashover voltage is only slightly increased if the clearance to earth is enlarged. Practical improvements, i.e. an increase of the onset voltage level, can only be obtained by enlarging the electrode. This will be illustrated with an example
(fig. 8). A flashover distance of 11 m can be obtained with a
voltage of 2 MV if leader pre-discharge occurs. This means,
for example, that for a sphere-shaped screening electrode
with a diameter of 1 m and a distance of only 10 m to the
ceiling or the wall, a flashover will occur from this electrode
to the earthed wail. An enlargement of the screening electrode to a diameter of 2.5 m would lead to the fact that a flashover over more than 3 m could not be obtained with a switching impulse voltage of 2 MV, so that it would be possible to
even reduce the laboratory size, thus effecting building construction savings. It is self-understood that for this concept,
the total test arrangement must be designed to avoid pre-discharges so that, for example, the high voltage leads would also
have to be included in the concept.
These considerations are meant to clarify the fact that the
electrode shape is insignificant for the flashover voltage as
soon as leader pre-discharges occur. In this case, the flashover
voltage is approximately the same for all electrode shapes. In
order to obtain a practical improvement, the field strength at

double
- 10m
-L d =0,5

10 m

---\ I-+\ 1 --
-. , .-_.__. L$
\
,-----\ \ I ,/
I
I
-7
r5m -i
O,?m

iii

f
\

I---I ---in-i
;

I
I

22,! 5 m

Fig. 8
01

Fig. 7
m

I
6

I
0

I
IO

12

Leader onset-voltages and breakdown voltages

of a sphere plane spark gap in air with
switching impulse voltages
Uvoltage
u distance

Test object arrangement and size of laboratory

for a 2 MV switching impulse voltage

14 m m 16

the electrode surface would have to be reduced to below onset field strength by correspondingly shaping the electrode.
Figure 9 illustrates another example for optimal electrode
dimensioning for a voltage divider. In this case, the maximum
field strength with respect to 1 MV was calculated by a computer for various toroid electrodes and the results were com-

Surface field strength of double maid

electrodes for 1 MV
I
f

Dimensions of tap electrode

21412
230
II

230
350

80
80

160
230

loo

230

60
80
80

140
170
190
-

piled in table 1. We can observe that the field strength configuration at the electrode surface can only be optimtied with
two toroids of different sizes, e.g. 80/60 or lOO/SO. The onset
field strength in air depends on the electrode radius and very
substantially on the voltage shape. For switching impulse voltages and large electrode radii, we can expect a onset field
shape of about 25 kV/cm, so that the 80/60 double toroid
would be sufficient for a switching impulse voltage of approximately 2.2 MV, whereas a lOO/SO toroid would handle a
switching impulse voltage of 3.1 MV. In the meantime, these
values have been verified by measurements. Some examples of
test laboratories in which these ideas have been partially implemented should clarify the previous considerations.
Figure 10 shows a research laboratory which was specially
dimensioned for generating high switching impulse voltages.
For transport reasons, the very large electrodes needed for
this purpose can no longer be built as single units, and the
plateelectrode shown in figure 10, the so-called polycon electrode, has proven to be reliable for very high voltages. Apart
from the transportation costs, these polycon electrodes also
feature advantageous manufacturing costs (forming costs). A
damped capacitive 5.4 MV voltage divider suspended from
the ceiling is visible in the foreground. Its electrode is 4 m

high and has a diameter of 7 m. In comparison with a full

electrode with the same dimensions, the onset voltage of a
polycon electrode is about 15% lower. Another polycon electrode has been used as a screening electrode with a 6.4 MV
impulse generator visible in the background. Remarkably
enough, all leads are thin wires, a fact which certainly brings
great practical advantages. The test concerns the dielectric
strength of a conductor tower design for future transmission
line voltages of over 1 MV. The Hydro Quebec hi&-voltage
laboratory in Varennes has a floor area of 67 x 82 m2 and a
heigth of 51 m.
Figure 11 shows the EdF research laboratory in Renar
di&res. Here again, the leads (diameter 60 cm) have been in.
eluded in the overall concept of a pre-discharge free installa.
tion for highest voltages. In view of the more favorable connection conditions, double toroids (ring diameter 100 cm)
were partially used as screening electrodes in voltage dividers
or load capacitors. The floor area of the laboratory is 65 x
65 m2, and its height is 45 m. The electrodes available can be
used for generating switching impulse voltages up to about
3.3 MV.

4. The tiring of multi-stage impulse generators for lightning

and switching impulse voltages
A decisive factor for the generation of unipolar impulse
voltages with Marx impulse generators is the successful series
switching of the capacitors charges in a parallel connection

(6 MV impulse voltage generator,

6 MV voltage divider)

This series switching is done by spark gaps, and the following

sections will mainly discuss the firing of multi-stage Marx
impulse generators whereas in this case two partially contrary
conditions must be examined:
a) firing with lightning impulse voltages;
b) firing with switching impulse voltages.
4.1

Parameter which influence firing

Until about 15 years ago, the reliable series switching of

the spark gaps in a generator was almost exclusively handled
by triggering at most the first stage, i.e. by initiating flashover
at the first spark gap with the trigger impulse, while the rest
of the stages consecutively fired due to the overvoltages which
occurred on the basis of the flashover at the first stage. If all
capacitors are to be successfully switched in series, the overvoltage level at the as yet untriggered spark gaps is decisive,
and the second spark gap represents the critical point. The
parameters which influence firing were probably not conclusively identified until a few years ago [lo; 11; 121. Examinationsshow that the stray capacities are essential for the buildup of natural overvoltages in the following spark gaps, whereby stray capacities against earth increase the oven&ages in
the following stages and stray-capacities between the stages
reduce these overvoltages. The series and parallel resistors are
also very important with regard to overvoltages. Whereas the
influence of stray capacities is the same for all circuits due to
its design, the dimensions of the parallel and of the series resistor are determined by the voltage shape and the selected
circuit.
Figure 12 illustrates the overvoltages at the second spark
gap of the original Marx impulse circuit as a function of the
series and parallel resistor, whereas fig. 12a shows the influence of a series resistor on the overvoltage at the second
spark gap. As elucidated in [lo], the overvoltage can be dividedinto two parts: a transient part due to the charging of the
stray capacities which is damped by the series and parallel re-

sistors and in a stationary part which is given by the dimension of the parallel series resistors. With a high internal
series resistor, we can observe that the overvoltage is given almost exclusively by the stationary part of the overvoltage
which is determined by the size of the series and parallel resisters. The oscillogmms in fig. 12b clarify how the overvoltages at the second spark gap also become smaller with decreasing parallel resistance, whereby both the transient and
stationary parts are reduced. The overvoltages are also dependent of the number of stages, whereby the overvoltages at
the second spark gap become smaller as the number of stages
increases [lo]. Small parallel resistances are used with high
stage capacities for the generation of lightning impulse voltages, because the product of parallel resistance Rp times ima

Fig. 12

at the second spark gap after fting

of the first spark gap in a 6.stage Mm
impulse generator

Natural overvoltages

time

pulse capacity Cs remains constant for the generation of the

standardized tail time of 50 ps. In practice, this means that
the firing of impulse generators with more than 10 kJ per
200 kV stage in the original Marx multiplier circuit will bring
problems due to the low overvoltages with an increasing number ofstages.
Apart from generating 1.2/50 lightning impulse voltages,
these generators must also be suitable for producing switching impulse voltages, e.g. 250/2500. The generation of
250 ps front times lead to large series resistances, which in
turn reduce the natural overvoltages as shown in fig. 12a, if
these series resistors are built into the generator. (This question will be discussed in greater detail later on.)
Both conditions
a) high energy and
b) the generation of switching impulse voltages lead to
firing difficulties in the original Marx multiplier circuit concept, but these difficulties can fundamentally
be eliminated with two possibilities:
a) Spark gap triggering without overvoltages with additional triggering devices in all stages;
b) corresponding circuits which increase the over voltages
at the spark gaps which have not been fired, whereby
only the first spark gap is fired with a triggering device.
However, all possibilities which are implemented to obtain
good trigger behaviour with switching impulse voltages must
include the concept that these generators are also necessary
for lightning impulse voltages and that a switching system
must fulfil certain requirements in this respect, specifically
where transformer tests are involved.
4.2

Firing of spark gaps with additional trigger circuits

To produce safe firing of all spark gaps without or with

only small overvoltages by selecting a corresponding switching
spark gap and an additional trigger circuit, the following possibilities are known:
a) three electrode spark gaps with additional distance or
pressure adjustment and capacitive transmission of trigger impulses [ 13; 141, which are produced by the firing
of previous stages.
b) multiple electrode spark gaps with trigger generators
with an impulse voltage of more than 100 kV per stage
[ 151, which are initiated capacitively by an impulse of
the previous stage.
c) laser spark gaps in each stage.
Figure 13 shows the schematic of this type of firing concept for multi-stage generators with the example of a threestage generator, whereby the spark gaps (FS) and the trigger
generators (TG) may be designed in different manners in the
solutions mentioned above.
Figure 14 compiles the different switching spark gaps (FS).
The solution according to fig. 14a illustrates a three electrode
spark gap (usually sphere gap with firing pin), in which the
so-called cross-triggering concept initiates flashover at the
spark gap. In this triggering system, the actual trigger generator initiates only the first stage, the other stages receive the
triggering impulse by the capacitive transmission of natural
overvoltages which are produced when the previous stage is

10

5 = =

I
I

-c
--i-k
I

Fig. 13

Schematic of a 3-stage Marx impulse voltage

generator with special trigger circuits
2s
3
Iit
TG
ck

impulse capacity per stage

series resistance per stage
parallel resistance per stage
load capacity
switching spark gap
trigger generator
coupling capacity

fired. The fact that impulse generators designed in this fashion

fire with switching impulse voltages is mainly due to the very
low (about 10 kV) necessary overvoltages for cross-triggering,
so that the stray-capacitors incorporated between the stages
and reducing the natural overvoltages [lo] and thus the trigger range [ 141 do not produce very significant disadvantages.
When lightning impulse voltages are generated, the coupling
capacitors reduce the trigger range [ 141, but firing still occurs,
because the impulse factor of the spark gaps is smaller than 1
[2 11, so that the capacitors are switched in series even if only
very small overvoltages are obtained. A disadvantage of this
triggering system, the polarity dependence of cross-triggering
[13; 211 can be avoided by cross-triggering both switching
spark gaps, but this makes additional capacitors between the
stages ,(additional interstage capacity, price) necessary. The
large scatter of the breakdown of a gab system with crosstriggering and the long build-up time of the breakdown of the
switching spark gap are main disadvantages of this triggering
system [ 131. Additional gap and pressure adjustment is indispensable, because very small natural overvoltages occur with
lightning impulse voltages due to the low-impedance tail
resistance - especially with high stage energies and large number of stages - which is also manifested in the large scattering
of the tiring of impulse generator. The inhomogeneity in all
switching spark gaps can initiate additional misfirings, and

spark erosion at the firing pin of all spark gaps calls for additional maintenance. The trigger range obtainable with this
triggering system basically depends on the dimensions of the
circuit components, whereby a smaller triggering range will have to be anticipated mainly in the parallel circuits of stages.
The second possibility according to figure 14b is a multiple
electrode spark gap designed with a triggering pulse of about
150 kV and trigger generators (TG) in each stage.
To avoid the need for additional distance or pressure adjustments, an installation was designed with a multiple spark
gap and 150 kV trigger generators in each stage which are initiated from the previous stage with 50 ns delay per stage [ 161.
This solution provides a trigger range of 15 to 100% of the
charging voltage without spark gap adjustment. Thereby, reliable firing of all spark gap is independent of the dimensions
of the parallel and series resistances, i.e. of circuit elements.
These advantages of triggering with multiple spark gaps are
contrasted by the following disadvantages:
a) In view of substantial arc cooling due to the many electrodes, the spark gaps extinguish in the tail of the
switching impulse voltages when such voltages are generated.
b) The arc voltage drop is much larger with multiple spark
gaps (e.g. obtained with 15 partial spark gaps) than
with a single spark gap. Also, this arc voltage drop depends on the breakdown voltage level, i.e. on the charging voltage. This leads to the fact that the efficiency
of the impulse generator wilI become dependent of the
charging voltage and also to a marked non-linearity in
impulse generation through the switching system [ 161.
c) Due to low partial spark gap distances (approx. 5 mm)
the service life of the spark gaps is reduced by the arc
points of the electrodes (spark erosion), since electrode
burn-off is dependent on electrode distances and has

larger adverse effects in small gaps than in larger gaps.

These erosion phenomena mainly occur with lightning
impulse voltages when parallel circuits are frequently
used, because in this case, the spark gap must handle
very high currents.
d) Since the spark gaps are encapsulated, they must be
cleaned in order to reduce misfirings at high voltages by
discharge products, i.e. as with compressed air spark
gaps, an additional pneumatic connection is necessary.
e) With the trigger generators included in each stage, a per
stage delay of 50 ns is obtained. This delay is composed of the trigger generator travelling times and the spark
gap firing intervals [ 161. This provides two different firing mechanisms, depending on charging voltage levels.
With high charging voltages, triggering will occur due to
natural overvoltages, since the 50 ns per stage delay of
the trigger circuit is passed from the natural overvoltages which are transferred with the speed of light in the
upper stages [ 121; if lower charging voltages are present,
triggering will take place via the trigger generators, because the firing point lies far below the static breakdown voltage of the spark gaps.
The latter disadvantage of this trigger system has adverse effects only for lightning impulse voltage generation and leads to pronounced non-linearity at the rise
of the voltage.
f) The trigger generators located in each stage must be
charged by individual charging devices in the corresponding time interval (e.g. overload switches). This calls for
additional circuitry (costs, error sources).
The last possibility - spark gap triggering with laser was mainly used in physical research, wherein a trigger
range of 10 to 100% of the nominal voltage is obtained
[20]. This solution is at present not economical enough
for industrial application.
4.3

Fig. 14

Switching spark gaps

Basic schematic
u three electrode spark gap
b multiple-electrode spark gap with trigger generator TG
C lesser spark gap

Firing of spark gaps 2 to n with natural overvoltages

The second possibility with which triggering problems of

multi-stage impulse generators can be mastered, is triggering
with natural overvoltages. First of all, this method necessitates encapsulated sphere spark gap [22], in order to eliminate
misfirings due to ambient effects and it also requires the development of circuits which increase the overvoltages at the
following spark gaps. The encapsulation of the switching spark
gaps must be designed in such a manner that direct radiations
still possible within the spark gap to restrict the scattering of
the firing of the individual spark gaps to as great a degree as
possible.
Figure 15 compares all three switchmg concepts, whereby
all possibilities attempt to increase the overvoltages over the
discharge circuit. Solution a with external series resistois (Rse)
for switching impulse voltages and external low-impedance
parallel resistances (Rp2) for lightning impulse voltages is
probably the most inexpensive manner to avoid trigger difficulties.
Some of the fundamental disadvantages of this circuit are
the handling difficulties of the external resistors at high voltages, the restricted flexibility within the circuits and the en-

11

largement of the test circuit due to the large resistance sizes

which specifically lead to an inductivity increase in the test
circuit.
Circuit b has only internal resistances and bypasses the trigger difficulties which occur due to the low-impedance parallel resistance used in producing lightning impulse voltages
with generators at high stage energy, in that the overvoltages
can be build up at the high switching voltage resistance Rp 1
during the tiring phase. This high-impedance resistance, which,
for example, determines the tail time of the switching impulse voltage is later-on shunted with the low-impedance tail re-

sistance for the lightning impulse voltage [23] when a corresponding voltage drop - corresponding to the breakdown
voltage of the parallel spark gap - has been obtained over the
switching voltage resistor RP 1. Apart from good trigger behaviour, this circuit also provides the possibility of automatically switching over the tail time from e.g. 50 /.B to e.g. 2500
~(1s within a very short period of time by simply adjusting the
parallel spark gap. When generating lightning impulse voltages,
the parallel spark gap (sphere gap) is automatically adjusted
to half the distance of the main spark gap.

Fig. 15

&

Circuits with improved trigger behaviour for

lightning impulse voltages
II

with external series and parallel resistors

b with parallel spark gap

R

c
P2

with 2-stage discharge circuit

Further

designations

see

text.

Rs
CI

Pl

P2

D2

C5 e

Pl

P2

.6a

C =
b
C5 e

R
RPl

12

P2

R
R

PZ

R
R

pz

Cb

1
F

A7
/X
Fig. 16

r-

Circuit with improved trigger behaviour for

lightning and switching impulse voltages

A variation of this circuit is the series circuit of both parallel resistors. Advantages mainly of economical nature are obtained by designing this parallel spark gap as a rod gap with
non-adjustable distance. In this case, the breakdown delay of
a spark gap with an inhomogeneous field with steep voltage
characteristics is utilized. Example c shows another interesting possibility in which the stationary overvoltage (instead
of the transient overvoltage) in the second spark gap becomes
equal to charging voltage UL irrespective of the number of
stages n. The disadvantage of this circuit lies in the difficult
parallel circuit.
All three possibilities have already been implemented.
However, a mutual feature of circuits b and c is the fact that
the overvoltages are damped too much with high internal series resistances and that the trigger range will become limited
with high per stage series resistance values. This can be avoided in multi-stage impulse generators in that the first 3 to 5
stages are equipped with partially low-impedance series resistors, so that the transient overvoltages in the first stages lead
to firing: from the fourth stage on, the high stationary value of
the overvoltages in a total of e.g. 3 stages will lead to the firing of the following spark gaps. For resistance values of 1 to
5 kOhm per stage, this solution is practical and simultaneously economical. The number of stages which must actually be
equipped with low-impedance series resistors depends basically on the series resistance values and the number of stages.
In an 8-stage impulse generator with 10 kJ per 200 kV stage,
it is sufficient to choose a low-impedance series resistor in
the second stage for, say, internal series resistances of 5 kOhm
per stage, in order to obtain a trigger range of more than 20%
for the series connection of all stages.
For very high-impedance series resistances of several 10
kOhm (for example to generate front times of 1000 ps), it is
necessary to use the circuit illustrated in fig. 16. In this case,
the high-impedance series resistor is shunted with a firing capacitor Cz as the impulse generator fires, thus increasing the
transient, high-frequency overvoltages in the following spark

gaps. With this circuit - a sphere-sphere gap and the firing of

the generator with natural overvoltages - it is possible to obtain practically all desired impulse shapes irrespective of the
values of the series and parallel resistances with a range of
over 20% which is sufficiently large for automatic adjustment of the sphere gap from the preselected value of the
charging voltage. This model has been proven to be reliable
not only for generating lightning impulse voltages with parallel spark gaps but also for generating switching impulse voltages with series resistances of 15 kOhm per stage through tiring capacitors [ 181.
The advantage of both possibilities is the fact that it is
still possible to operate with natural overvoltages and that
the new elements are independent of the charging voltage, i.e.
they are linear. Irrespective of the dimensions of the circuit
components, this layout makes it possible to continue using
sphere gaps and natural over-voltages to create an impulse generating system which fulfils all specification requirements
not only when generating lightning impulse voltages for transformer tests but also when generating switching voltages.

5. Dimensioning of active circuit components

At present, the lightning impulse voltage is probably still
the main criterion with which the impulse capacity C, and the
number of stages are chosen via the type of test objects. By
changing resistance values and load capacities, it is possible
to generate switching impulse voltages, whereby the flexibility of an installation is given by the layout of the resistors. Figures 17 and 18 show dimensioning curves calculated by a
computer for the generation of a 250/2500 switching impulse voltage. A given series resistance can only produce a stand-

kn
\
300200-

0.2
Fig. 11

6 nF

10

Series resistance Rs plotted against load capacity Cb for the generation of a standardized
front time for switching impulse voltages
(example: 2Gstage 4 MV impulse voltage
generator with a per-stage-energy of 20 kJ)

13

6. Measuring switching impulse voltages

6kn
543

-______

- - - - - - - - - - - - -

T
c200 IlOOO)Js
1
-I'

0,2

\
30011000jls
0,s
1
c-

34nF

10

Fig. 18

Tail resistance Rp plotted against load capacity

Cb for the generation of a standardized tail time
for switching impulse voltages

(example: 2@stage 4 MV impulse voltage

per-stage-energy of 20 kJ)

gene-

rator with a

ard switching impulse voltage within a very limited load range.

Several resistance values are necessary if this load range is to
be expanded.
Figure 17 shows the boundary curves for the generation of
a standard front time of 250 A 50 ps in function of the load
capacity cb. We can see, that with a resistance of e.g. 100
kOhm, it is possible to obtain a load range of 600 pF ( cb ( 1
nF according to standards. In contrast, figure 18 shows that
it is possible to cover a large load range in accordance with
standards with only one value for the parallel resistance Rp.
For certain time to half value, the magnitude of the parallel
resistance is inversely proportional to the impulse capacity.
The dimensions and the concept of the resistors (i.e. internal or external) substantially influence the efficiency factor
of the impulse generator. As shown in figure 19, the highest
degrees of efficiency of about 90% are obtained with external series resistors. With respect to voltage levels, however,
this solution is probably restricted to about 2 MV (heavy resistors, large test circuit, screening electrodes). The concept
of increased flexibility leads to internal series resistors, whereby three concepts are feasible:
a) The solution with equally large parallel and charging
resistors features the worst degree of efficiency, mainly for low load capacities. The reason for this is the
high series resistance which produces an opposite-voltage during discharge (figure 19).
b) If we increase the charging resistance RL (e.g. RL = 10 .
Rp), the current in the parallel circuit to the main discharge circuit becomes smaller, thus reducing the opposite-voltage at the series resistance Rsi. This increases
the degree of efficiency. However, this measure may
lead to the fact that the charging time of the upper stages of a multi-stage impulse generator can amount to
several 10 s.
c) This difficulty can be avoided by incorporating a charging switch instead of charging resistors, thus providing
not only as high a degree of efficiency as with external
resistors but also a short charging time.
14

A question which is connected with the generation of such

high voltages is that of how these voltages are to be measured.
To keep the number of elements in the test circuit as low as
possible, it is advantageous to design the load capacity as a
voltage divider for measuring the switching impulse voltages,
but the transfer behaviour of the measuring system should also fulfil certain requirements in view of possibly occurring
voltage steps. In the past years, the damped, capacitive voltage divider has proven to be a reliable instrument but if it is to
retain its efficiency as a load capacitor for all voltage types
from lightning impulse voltages to switching impulse voltages,
it must be dimensioned on the basis of the voltage to be measured and the tasks to be fulfilled.
Figure 20 shows the transfer behaviour of a low damped
capacitive voltage divider of 4.5 MV. The transmission characteristics are measured without a resistor in the lead. The
lead termination was obtained with a resistance in the voltage
divider. The advantage of this design is the possibility of directly connecting the test objects without a resistor at the beginning of the lead which would become very large as a high
voltage resistor and would not always provide optimum termination behaviour for random test object impedance. For
measuring lightning and switching impulse voltages, the resistor in the secondary section of the voltage divider can be
omitted, and this voltage divider can be regarded as a capacitive voltage divider, i.e. the ratio can be determined with 50
Hz [24]
R,,RP und R

%I

IO04

c 30

se
R =lO.R undR

iL-!p- &=- - e1J] R5.P1 c2

RLez_

m
, ,,,

4 5 nF

IO

cb

I
I

Fig. 19

c-lo---I

;P WRp

Efficiency factor q of the impulse voltage generator

plotted against load capacity Cb for various
resistor layout concepts
(Exemple: 2Sstage 4 MV impulse voltage generator with a per-stage-energy of 20 kJ)
2

C;
RP

charging resistor
c,
external series resistor Rsi
impulse capacitor
4
parallel resistor

firing capacitor
internal series resistor
charging voltage

Literature
H. C. Barnes and D. E. Winters: UHV transmission design requirements - switching surge flashover characteristiw of extra long air gaps.
Tram, IEEE PAS 90(1971)4, p. 1579...1589.
[?] Phtnombnes damorgages dam Iair des intervalles pointe-plan de 5 m
et 10 m soumis & de5 chocs de manceuvre de polarit positive. Rapport
CigrC no 33...15, 1972.
[3] fi;l;eeser: Gedanken zur StoBspannungserzeugung
und Priiftechnik fiir
Entwcklung
YOII U H V - S y s t e m e n . B u l l . S E V 64(1973)15,
s. 911...917.
[4] Parafoudres. Premi&re partie: Parafoudres ?+ rCsistance variable pour
rCseaux a courant altematif. Publication de la CEI 99-l. Deuxi&me
Cdition. 1970.
[5] Essais ?I haute tension. Publication de la CEI 60. Deuxibme Cdition.
1962.
[6] E. Lemkr: Der Durchschlagmechanismus van Luftfunkenstrecken be!
Schaltspannungen. Wiss. Zeitschr. der Techn. Unlversitlt
Dresden
17(1968), S. 105...115.
[7] K. Feser: Mechanismus zur ErklPrung des Schaltspannungsphlnomen~.
STZ 46(1971)46, S. 937v.946.
[8] M. F. Simon and G. L. Leroy: Contribution to a better understanding
of impulse voltage measuring systems. Trans. IEEE PAS 91(197?!?,
p. 478...484.
[9] D. Kind: Einfiihrung in die Hochspannungs-Versuchstechnik. UniText. Braunschweig, Vieweg-Verlag, 1972.
[lo] A. Rodewald: Ausgleichsvorg~nge in der Marxschen Vervielfachungsschaltung nach der Ziindung der ersten Schaltfunkenstrecke. Bull. SEV
60(1969)2, S. 37...44.
[Ill A. Rodewald; Die Ziindwahrscheinlichkeit der Schaltfunkenstrecken in
B u l l . S E V 60(1969)18,
d e r M a r x s c h e n Vervielfachungsschaltung.
s.
175 Rfil
-. _._...
__.
[12] F. W. Heilbronner: Firing and voltage shape of multistage impulse
generator% Tram IEEE PAS 90(1971)5, p. 2233...2238.
[13] G . Carrara e L . Dellera: Sullinnesco d e i g e n e r a t o r i d i impulsi d i
tensione. Energia Elettrica 42(1965)1, p. 15...20.
[14] T. E. Broadbent: New high-voltage multistage impulse generator circuit. J. Scient. Instruments 37(1960)7, p. 231...236.
[15] M. J. Bishop und R. Feinberg: Grundsltzliche Verhesserung des Hochspannungs-Stossgenerators.
Anwendung des Polytrigatrons als Schaltg&t. E und M 88(1971)2, S. 62...67.
[16] M. J. Bishop and M. F. Simon: The impulse generators at les Renard&es. Trans. IEEE PAS 91(1972)6. D. 2366...2376.
1171 K . Rongs: N e u e Grosstra&f&a&n-Montagehalle
d e r Transformatoren Union. ETZA 94(1973)2, S. 125...127.
[18] K. Feser: Erweiterung des Auslijsebereiches
van vielstufigen Stossgeneratoren fiir die Erzeugung ~0x1 Schaltspannungen. ETZ-A 94(1973)3,
s. 171...174.
[19] B. E. Giinger and E. G. Maim: Sudies of spark formation at high
switching voltage of positive polarity. Trans. IEEE PAS 91(1972)6,
p. 2427...2436.
1201 K. H. Schmitler: Funkenstrecken mit optischer Triggerung. Laser
2(1970)3, S. 9...10.
[21] W. Lampe: Triggerung vcm Stossgeneratoren
mit weitem Arbeitsbereich. ETZ-A 83(1962)18, S. 591...596.
[22] A. Rodewald: Zur prazisen AuslBsung van Stossgeneratoren bei einer
vorgew%hlten Ladespannung. Bull. SEV 59(1968)20, S. 947...952.
[231 A. Rodewald: Ober eine Marxsche Vervielfachungsschaltung
mit Hilfsfunkenstrecken
zur V e r b r e i t e r u n g d e s AuslGsebereiches. ETZA
92(1971)1, S. 56...57.
1241 K. Feser: Ein neuer Spannungsteiler fiir die Messung hoher Stoss- und
Wechselspannungen. Bull. SEV 62(1971)19, S. 929...935.
[l]

Fig. 20

Transfer behaviour of a 4.5 MV low damped

capacitive voltage divider
(RI = 200 Ohm, cl = 600 pF, R2
Deflection: 200 ns per unit

Ir

0, c2

1.8 ,uF)

7. Conclusions
When generating switching impulse voltages in test plants,
the strength of the air must be incorporated in the design concept of the test plants. For optimum utilization of available
space, it must be observed that the shape of the electrode does
not have an influence on the breakdown voltage after the leader pre-discharge has occurred. A technical solution in the
UHV range must be to prevent leader pre-discharges by correspondingly dimensioning the electrodes. To use flashover
distances as an additional dimensioning criterion is only purposeful for cost reasons where lower switching impulse voltages (up to about 2 MV) are involved, especially if load capacities are high. Special circuits have been developed for
triggering Marx impulse generators for the generation of
switching impulse voltages and also for the generation of
lightning impulse voltages, so that it is possible today, to generate unipolar impulses in the range of ps to ms with one
and the same test installation. Apart from generating the various voltages according to valid standards, the flexibility of
a test installation is one of the most important tasks of an
economical impulse generating system.

Authors address :
Dr. K. Feser. Engineer, Emil Haefely Rr Cie AG, Postfach. CH-4028 Basel/Switzerland

15