Intelligent Design

of 3D Robotic Arm
Interim Report
University of Wolverhampton
Department of Engineering

1|Page

I confirm that this interim report can be completed in the time available.

Signed.................... (University Supervisor)

Date .........................

Signed....................... (Student)

Date .........................

Accepted ............. (Project Module Leader)

Date .........................

2|Page

Declaration Sheet
I thank to my Almighty to help me to complete the work successfully on time. My instructor guided
me throughout the time.
This work or any part thereof has not been presented in any form to the University or to any other
Institutional/ Organizational body before neither for assessment nor for other purposes. Save for
any definite acknowledgements, references and/or bibliographies are cited in the work. I confirm
that the scholarly contents of the work are the outcome of my own efforts and of no other person.
It is acknowledged that the author of any project work shall win the copyright.
However, by submitting such copyright work for valuation, the writer grants to the University a
continuous royalty-free license to do all or any of those things referred to in section 16(i) of the
Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988. (Viz: to make a copy of the work; to issue the copies
to the public; to perform or display or show the work in public; to spread the work or to make an
adaptation of the work).

Student Name (Print):

Student Number:
Signature: ...

Electronic signature (scans and insert)

3|Page

Date:

Vignette

The base of a robot and the arm are two main parts of an industrial robot. The base of the robot
is a stationary part in most of the cases which is supposed as a workstation. It is movable with
truck or railway. Robotic arm consists of a number of moveable bonding which forms a kinematic
chain attached to the basement (rigid or movable). The arm usually consists of a basic structure
and a wrist. The robot is fixed by a device named the end-effector for accomplishing the assigned
task. In most of the cases, the device is a gripper. This is an elaborated report of design of robotic
arm. First of all we have discussed about the individual parts of a robotic arm and their working
principle. We have designed and drawn each of the parts of the arm. We will also discuss about
them. We will discuss about different circuit diagram, H Bridge in the report and derive a
mathematical formula that will illustrate the working principle of the robotic arm. We will discuss
about the historical background of robotic arms and its different area of usage. At the end of the
report we will recommend some points for future working area about the arm.

4|Page

Content
SI NO

Description

Page
No

Introduction

Literature Review

Objective

13

Methodology

14

Robotic Arm

15

Mechanical Structure of a Robotic Arm

19

Micro-Controller

20

Robot Circuit Diagram

22

Power Supply of Robot

23

10

Stepper Motor

25

11

Magnetic Sensing unit

25

12

Control Unit

26

13

Mathematical background

28

14

Three Dimensional Effect

31

15

H-Bridge

34

16

Operation of an inverter

38

17

Pulse width Motion

42

18

Robot tooling

46

19

Industrial usage of robot

51

20

Result and Conclusion

60

21

Reference

61

5|Page

1. Introduction
Practically, automation is one of the main elements for developments in the industrial field where
it assists in decreasing the need for humans and increasing both the productivity and efficiency.
The automation field mainly includes large areas, generally in industrial development. Moreover,
it is possible to apply the automation method for building sophisticated apparatus to serve our day
to day purposes like automobiles, automobile, medical equipment etc. Amid all these outcomes,
robotic arms are widely utilized in various industrial propose. The robotic arm is similar to human
hand where it has two joints for the arm movement; a free rotating joint for rotation and a
translational joint for the displacement. The movement of the robotic arm is mainly driven using
one of three systems; electric driver as motors, pneumatic or hydraulic system as pistons. A micro
controller is mainly used for controlling these systems. The majority of robotic arms are developed
to be utilized in various industrial purposes to offer quick and reliable performance to help in
producing mass (VECHET and KREJSA, 2009).

Robot arms are flexible, adaptable and extensively utilized for various applications, such as in the
assembly, welding, material handling and painting. On the other hand, it is well known that robots
have better repeatability (mainly 0.1 to 0.2 mm) than positioning precision (up to 20 mm). Thus, it
is preferable to apply industrial robots with devices for image data acquisition for object metrology
(LU.et al, 2001). The design of a three-dimensional (3D) robotic arm can be tested and checked
with the use of real time simulation systems. Furthermore, these systems can be used in checking
out various components, such as power plants, astronauts and aircraft pilots. The model input in
real time simulators is got from exterior devices every specific sampling time. After that, model
equations should be solved in defined time intervals to compute the variables and then present
them as output for the next sampling time. The main used commercial tools for developing models
to real time simulations are the SIMULINK in MATLAB, d-SPACE and MPLAB (FERRETTI and
MAGNANI, 2008)
6|Page

2. Literature Review
Background
In the past, the main concentration in the field of robotics was on its accuracy, velocity and
controllability. After that, it becomes on the adaptively, knowledge and independency due to the
increasing concern about the investigation and search for using robots in exploring various
intelligent schemes. This in turn directs researchers and investigators for this field of robotics. But,
the main concern nowadays is on the improvement of both the practical objects of robots and its
primary intelligent performance. This can be initiated based on defining several features of genetic
schemes. Experiences have demonstrated that creating a robot or a computer form significantly
improves normal scheme needs (PFEIFER. et al, 2006).

Generally, the advance technological revolutions which varied the manufacturing perception
dimensions in the industry occurred because of the robotic arms. Joysticks are used for controlling
robotic arms manually. But preloaded codes are used for controlling the arms automatically. In
the current industries, there is a need for more enhanced controlling techniques to control robotic
arms, such as actuators and motors. (SANCHETI, 2012)

7|Page

Co-related work
The earlier works on robotic arms were implemented gradually. Potentiometer was used for
operating the robotic arm manually. Gradually, it was replaced by micro-controller. In the past,
studies were performed to recognize the design constraints that are essential for finding out
optimal options between components which are most appropriate for this application.

The design of a control system with the use of micro controllers requires extra electric
components, as control pendent and DC motor controller. The selected parts must meet the
design requirements and specifications. Practically, most of the time was spent on the installation
and wiring. Thus, researchers focused on using real time simulation tools for implementing,
simulating and testing robotic arms. In recent years, various researchers focused on the field of
developing improved robotic arms that can be used to carry out various trivial and tedious tasks
for the long time without complaining and work in difficult situations where humans cannot work
in. Kuba, Huang and Wang, Lama, Ferretti, Magnani, Lu et al, Sancheti are some specialists on
robotic arm who worked a lot for its development.

Kuba in 2006 proposed the development of an algorithm for the simulation of a robot arm. Two
types of software programs can be used in making three-dimensional computer animation and
graphics; commercial software programs, as Maya and 3DMAX and program languages, as
3DJAVA and OpenGL. In the proposed work, the OpenGL programming language is used in the
implementation and simulation for three-dimensional computer animation and graphics of a robot
arm. Furthermore, the Maya software is used in the drawing of 3D graphical objects. The robot
arm is formed with the use of the layered structure where it can be controlled with the use of both
a keyboard and mouse right button operation.

8|Page

The implemented robot arm consists of two joints which can be moved throughout various ways,
such as rotations. On the other hand, the designed robot arm has some limitations, such as the
low accuracy on the arm control in the angle part.

Huang and Wang (2012) presented the design of an object grasping system for controlling a robot
arm. The hardware part includes a constructed robot arm together with a gripper and a computer
that serves as a control center and two Charge Coupled Device (CCD) cameras that are used to
observe the optimal object. The optimal object position in the 3D space is computed with the use
of two-eye imaging geometry. The constructed robot arm is driven with the use of Inverse
Kinematics (IK) theory. In this process, the robot arm is permitted to achieve a certain point around
the optimal object to locate the optimal object in the efficient grasping area.

After that, a fuzzy dependent object approaching control is used to regulate the position of the
gripper in order to decrease the position error among the target object. It also regulates the
position of the gripper before it reaches to the optimal object position. Therefore, the gripper is
able to grasp the optimal object accurately. In the proposed work, two experimental cases were
performed to illustrate the efficiency of the presented control system. The obtained results
demonstrated that the proposed control system is very effective and useful for actual robot arms.

Lama in 2012 introduced the development of a complete control system for a robotic arm to control
both the automatic movements and precise positioning of the required robotic arm. This was
performed based on designing a gripper to be end effectors. In the proposed work, the main used
components are: a program able logic controller (PLC) that is used to automate the
electromechanical process and a DC motor controller that is used to control the electric motor
performance in a pre-defined manners to initiate and stop the motor, choose the rotation type,
choose and control the speed, control the torque and protect from faults and overloads.
9|Page

Furthermore, a DC motor is used to drive the robot arm axis and a potentiometer is used as an
adaptable voltage divider to measure the voltage and control each joint movement in a manual
way. The obtained results demonstrated that the presented control system for the robotic arm
was efficient. But, the main problem is the location of the end effect or orientation and position
based on the fixed reference frame.

Ferretti and Magnani (2008) proposed the real time simulation of Dexterous Robot Arm
(DEXARM) in order to sustain both the implementation and improvement of the
DEXARMcontroller. The robot model assembly depends on the recent Modelica model libraries,
while the controller is demonstrated with the use of SIMULINK/MATLAB. The proposed Simulink
arm controller explanation can be simply tested and interfaced to drive the arm model for tuning,
evaluating and check out principles. Furthermore, an important effort has been performed to
produce a human machine interface that is capable to sustain the input of force disturbances and
motion commands with the 3Darm motion visualization depending on the controlling open source
package.

Lu et al (2001) proposed an advanced robot application in metrology based on presenting the

design of a robotic measuring system for three-dimensional range data acquisition. The system
includes an industrial robot, a personal computer, multiple laser stripes and a stereo CCD camera.
Various processes must be performed initially after applying the robot in metrology; robot and
camera calibration, visual measuring methodology and surface connection and register. The
visual measuring is considered as non-contactable measuring methodology for the acquisition of
3D data. The necessary information for transforming data from 2D image coordinate into 3Dworld
one can be obtained from the stereo camera with various laser stripes which do not need any
rotation for the measured object that may cause a real challenge in rotating large objects.
Furthermore, it can offer a quick way for getting more data for each image capturing. Practically,
10 | P a g e

the robotic measuring system must move to various positions in order to obtain the measured
data for surface association to offer a full feature. The robot controller can present spatial
coordinate for every movement as well as it can add to the calculated data coordinate for the
surface association.

Sancheti in 2012 proposed the process of changing the remote controls perception to actuate the
manually worked robotic arm based on introducing the way of eradicating the joysticks and
buttons and replace them using more intuitive techniques to control the whole robotic arm via the
operators hand motion. The proposed work was performed using a MEMS accelerometer
technique which can offer three axis analog signals; X Y and Z in proportion to their position and
the applied force.

MEMS accelerometer sensors for discovering the human arm motion, gripping the sensor which
is a simple linear potentiometer and a signal conditioner for preventing loading effects on sensors
and filleting from high frequency noises, analog to digital converter part, controller part for
processing the data to take decisions as predefined or pre-stored algorithms or codes and the
output section which includes a driver to drive the motor based on amplifying the provided low
voltage and current signals from the controller and motors for achieving the robotic arm
movement. The proposed work demonstrated the way of implementing a successive controlling
technology with the use of simple hardware and intelligent software.

11 | P a g e

3. Objective
To know the working principle of a robotic arm
To know the accessories mounted in a robotic arm and their functions in detail
To draw different view of the arm
Mathematical derivation of the design
To know the circuit diagrams involved in making robotic arms
To know the industrial usage of robotic arm
Scope of future work

12 | P a g e

4. Methodology
The proposed 3D robotic arm will be designed with the use of Solid work program which is a
three-dimensional mechanical Computer Aided Design (CAD) program that can be run on
Microsoft windows, while the used motors will be controlled using the MPLAB software program
which is an integrated tool set for the implementation of embedded applications on micro
controllers. We will work as per the following Gantt Chart:

Fig 1: Gantt chart of the project

13 | P a g e

5. Robotic Arm
A Robotic arm is a mechanical arm which is programmed in such a way that it performs almost
same as that of a human arm. As a part of this research an arm is made using wood as a material.
The power transmission for movement of arms and other parts are done using servo motors. In
all three servo motors are used. Servo motor 1 of 24V is used for horizontal movement of arm.
Servo motor 6 which also is of 24V is for vertical movement of arm. Servo motor 3 is of 12V for
moving the gripper. The power transmission is done using gears on both left hand and right hand.
The arm can work on a radius of 270 mm and its vertical movement is restricted to 260 mm. It
can carry a maximum weight of 50 mg along with it. The arm is movable vertically 0-120 degree
horizontally 0-360 degree. The complete weight of this assembly will be close to 3 pound and is
very handy for use.

The important components that are used for creating this robotic arm are:
Support Cylinder: Support cylinders are used to restrict the arm movement so that a sudden jerk
can be avoided.
Shaft: It is used for connecting the arms one for base and one for connecting the gripper.
Mountings: It is used for mounting purpose which helps the complete assembly connected
through base
Top and Bottom Plate: Bottom and upper rotating plate is present in between of arm and base
and helps the arm for rotating purpose. Same like bottom rotating plate there is a upper rotating
plate which helps the upper part of arm to move from one position to other.
Upper and Bottom Arm: Upper and bottom arm link is used to connect the gear and arm. It is
used for transmitting power from gear to arm for movement purpose.
Gripper: Gripper is used for lifting and holding the material from one place to other.

14 | P a g e

The following figure shows the robotic arm that we have designed:

Fig 2: Design of Robotic Arm

15 | P a g e

Here is the legend of the above drawing:

Fig 3: legend of robotic arm

16 | P a g e

Recent improvements in robotic arms demonstrate an increasing interest in this field and its
applications which more and more require completely new requirements for the design of robotic
arms in comparison with traditionalindustrial ones. The first step in designing a robotic arm is the
mechanical understanding of humanlike hand abilities. In summary, the main issues that must be
taken into account for designing a robotic arm are:

The precise enough implementation and simulation of the robotic arm counting its joints.
The robotic arm model must be capable of predicting the whole arm performance under
impedance control and offering accurate responses for coming inputs from the real
controller
Careful simulation and high control functions for the joint control methods
Interactive concerning of force disturbances and motion commands and visualizing the
simulated motion via animating a 3D arm model

This project introduces the design of a three-dimensional robotic arm that will consist of a
mechanical system for reducing the use of motors and the involvement of electricity to be used in
performing various trivial and tedious tasks for a long time instead of humans. The proposed
system will be controlled with the use of a fuzzy controller instead of binary controllers.
Furthermore, sensors will be used to fetch the current state and send it as a feedback to the main
fuzzy controller instead of having embedded systems.

17 | P a g e

6. Mechanical Structure of Robotic Arm

Robotics is the study of robot. It includes both electrical and mechanical element mixed with
control technology, artificial intelligence and computing system. It is a reprogrammable
multifunctional manipulator which is designed for serving the purpose of moving materials, tools,
parts and devices with a programmed motion to perform a diversity of tasks. For performing any
necessary task, the robot must interface with the surroundings. Such interface includes feeding
device, human behavior and activities of other robots.
For making a 3-D structured robotic arm, three stepper motor will be required. The circular
movement of the total structure is controlled by the stepper motor which is located at the base.
Another motor is located at the shoulder. It controls the up and down of the arm. The robot has a
magnetic arm. The third stepper motor is located at the wrist. It performs the task of picking up of
objects with hand.

18 | P a g e

7. Micro-Controller
Microcontroller is a single chip where the entire computerized application for any device exists.
Engine controllers of vehicles, focus controller of camera are some common examples of microcontroller. For serving all these applications, these chips are highly facilitated with on-chip
configuration such as sequential ports, input/ output ports in parallel connection, counting device,
timer, control on interruption, analog to digital converters, and access of the memory randomly,
I/O memory, and the peripherals of the micro-controller. These configurations are chosen as per
the area of application. Micro-controllers are supposed as powerful digital processor. It is so well
programmed and the degree of controlling is so high that it has additional effectiveness of
application.
Micro-controllers have embedded applications for controlling. It has the capability to perform
multiple tasks at the same time. It performs multi-tasks quasi-simultaneously or sometimes
simultaneously. Now we will have a look on the different components of a micro-controller unit:
Random Access Memory (RAM): RAM is the most important parts of a micro-controller. It is
used to store data on temporary basis during runtime.
ROM: It is one kind of memory. It usually stores the program to be accomplished.
SFR: SFR stands as the short form of Special Function Registers. These are distinct
fundamentals of RAM.
Program Counter: It is one type of engine. Programs are usually started with this engine. It also
portrays to the memory about the command to be performed. When the task is done, counters
value is increased by 1.

19 | P a g e

Control Logic: The task of this device can be predicted from the name control. It basically
controls all the aspect of operation within the micro-controller unit. It contains several parts like
Arithmetical Logic Unit (ALU), accumulator and command detector.
A/D Converter: It means analog to digital conversion.
I/O Ports: For using in practical, micro-controllers have two ports. These ports are connected with
pins is some special cases. The pins are designed specially as per the need of customer. The
ports are called input and output ports.
Oscillator: Oscillator selects the rhythm of the MCU. It enables and controls the synchronous
and harmonic functions of the parts of MCU.
Timers: It is used for taking the measurement of time. It mostly behaves like a counter.

20 | P a g e

8. Circuit Diagram
The following components are prerequisite for building the circuit of the robotic arm:
1. MCU
2. LATCH 74LS373,
3. EPROM 2732,
4. Intel 8255 PIO
5. Diodes
6. Resistors
7. Capacitors
8. Inductors
9. Transistors and
10. op-amps
All these components are set together to make the circuit for controlling the stepper motors
arrangement. Micro controller acts as a processor here. It co-ordinates every single function of
each component of the circuit board.

21 | P a g e

9. Power Supply
The main function of Power supply unit is to empower the total system which includes the control
unit, stepper motor and the magnetic unit used for sensing. Usually a 220/12V transformer of
step down type is used for the purpose. Additionally a rectifier is used for converting the 12V AC
current to DC current. Filtering circuits feeds an unregulated output into the voltage regulator.
Usually LM7805 and LM 7812 are the voltage regulators that are used. These regulators are
chosen for designing because the output of LM7805 is +5V. It usually provides power to the
control unit. Besides, LM 7812 provides an output of +12V. It empowers the stepper motor. TIP41
works like an emitter. It is connected with the IC regulators. It ensures that the Magnetic coil,
control unit and the motor produces required voltage.
MCU 8051
It is one kind of processor. It usually does the co-ordination of different operation of the robotic
arm. It gathers information from the LATCH, the PIO and the EPROM. Then it guesses the
instructions and follows the command accordingly. It is supposed as the heart of the whole
system.

22 | P a g e

The following figure shows the microcontroller of a robotic arm:

23 | P a g e

10. Stepper Motor

Stepper motor is a particularly designed motor used in robotic arm. It is compelled and controlled
by an electrical pulse chain. Usually MCU generates the electrical pulse. We all know that a
complete revolution makes a 360 degree angle. Each of the pulse of the MCU drives of the
stepping motor by a fraction of a complete revolution. It is defined as step angle.
11. The Magnetic Sensing Unit
The magnetic detecting unit contains a magnetic coil. It can be magnetized through the activation
of the port P 1.0 of the 8051. There is a particular reason for using port 1.0 because every pin can
join with maximum four TTL inputs when they are defined as output. This is why, pin 1.0 is
connected to magnetic coil with three TTL logic.
The circuit is designed in such a way that even if the wrist moves downward, the 8051 will be able
to convey electrical signals to the magnetic coil through the pair of Darlington. Three BC548
Darlington NPN transistors provide necessary power to the magnetic sensing unit. A diode and
5k resistor is also used for the purpose. Current is amplified by the pairs. Thus the magnetic coils
become magnets. By using the principle, it is possible to pick up the magnetic materials. The arm
continues its movement through similar operation. When the wrist comes down, it drops the
magnetic material to some other point. The arm can perform the task when electrical signal is
withdrawn by 8051 from the coil.

24 | P a g e

12. Control Circuit

The main purpose of the circuit is to monitor the working of the magnetic sensing unit and the
mechanical arm. The MCU 8051 is denoted as the brain of the control panel. It is responsible for
co-coordinating the activities of the other accessories. At the beginning +5V power was supplied
to the control unit. The micro-controller unit starts. It loads the program from EPROM M2732A
which follows and executes several instruction codes. Stepper motor moves 9 degree per step
when the signal is sent from the 8051.
The first stepper motor (M3) which is located at the wrist moves 5 times (90 X5= 450). It turns the
gear in such a way so that the arm goes to a downward position. The second stepper motor of
the shoulder (M2) goes for the next 5 steps by making 450 same as earlier. Then the third stepper
motor (M1) located at the base of the robot moves either 20 times by making a step of 180 degree
of 10 times by making 90 degree angle.
Everything depends on the pressing of the button which will ultimately cause the entire structure
to move from either left to right or right to left with the attached gears. The magnetic coil which
rests in the hand becomes magnetized when the final gear of the hand pauses moving. After that,
when it finds any material, it magnetizes them. M3 and M2 moves the robotic arm up at the
moment when M1 rotates the structure either from left to right or right to left. At last the 8051
makes the magnetic coils demagnetized. As a result, the arm drops the metallic object.

25 | P a g e

There are four buttons which are controlled by the control unit which is located at the base of the
robotic arm:
1. ON/OFF: The ON button puts on the system and OFF button puts off the system.

2. START/STOP: The START button starts the movement of the whole arm from its reset
point, while the STOP button takes the arm back to its reset button after completion of its
movement.

3. RIGHT-LEFT/LEFT-RIGHT: when this button is switched to the RIGHT-LEFT part it

causes movement from right to left, while the LEFT-RIGHT part causes movement from
left to right.

4. 180/90: when the button is on 180, it causes a rotation of 180 degree of the base stepper
motor, but when put on 90 degrees, it causes rotation of 90 degrees.

26 | P a g e

13. Mathematical Background

The Denavit-Hartenberg parameters are used widely as a tool for calculating both the orientation
and position of the end effectors. These parameters assist in defining the constraints among the
links of both joints of the robotic arm. The main four Denavit-Hartenberg parameters for any joint
are:
!

= "#$"&"' ( *+,$ '-. /"'& 0+, (23 , 23 + 1) ("'& 83

9 = '&(. /"'& $. 23 '* 23 + 1 :";$ 83
*3 = *+,$ '-. /"'& (83 1, 83 ) ("'& 23
>3 = '&(. /"'& (83 1, 83 ) ("'&23

Figure 5: Constraints of parameters

27 | P a g e

For each joint, two of these four parameters are variables; d? for the linear joint and ? for the
rotator one. In this case, it is supposed that the motor has two rotator joints, thus,d? = 0. The
solution for the robot arm depends initially on defining these four parameters with the use of the
Free Body Diagram (FBD) of the arm.

Mainly, six angular variables must be used for defining both the position and orientation of the
end effectors. In general, the proposed Denavit-Hartenberg principle includes some rules for
defining these parameters with the use of FBD. The FBD offers a definition of constraints and
natures of joints where each of the joints has certain coordinating system. The following figure
shows the FBD of the robotic arm with six angular variables ( six? )

Figure 6: FBD of the robotic arm

28 | P a g e

Figure 7: six angular variables

Thus, the transformation matrix of each joint can be described as follows:

-",>3
,+'>3 -", (3B!)
0

,+'>3
-",>3 -", (3B!)
0

0
,+' (3B!)
0

(3B!)

,+'

(3B!) *3

Then, the orientation and position of the arm can be computed based on multiplying the
resultant translation matrixes of its joints.

29 | P a g e

14. Three dimensional effect

The purpose of this project is designing a 3D robotic arm that will include a mechanicalsystem to
decrease the use of motors and the involvement of electricity. Since the mechanical system
cannot be used for 3D robotic arm movement, it will be used for 2D robotic arm movement as a
backbone mechanism while motors will be used for 3D robotic arm movement. The 3D robotic
arm design will be controlled with the use of a fuzzy controller. Furthermore, sensors will be used
to fetch the current state and send it as a feedback to the main fuzzy controller.The following
figure shows the initial design for the proposed 3D robotic arm.

Figure 8 : Initial design for the proposed 3D robotic arm

30 | P a g e

As shown, the proposed 3D robotic arm will move on the XYZ plan. The 3D robotic arm
movement will be divided into two 2D movements; Right-left movement on the XY plane (like a
cylinder) and up-down movement on the XZ plane as shown below:

Fig 9:
These movements will be performed and controlled using motors which in turn will be controlled
with the use of the MPLAB. The input of the system will be a point with (x, y, z) coordinates, which
the designed arm must move to reach it.
As an example, when the input point is (4, 3, 5), the coordinates of this point are divided as follows:

Fig 10:

31 | P a g e

The designed arm must move till reaching this point. As proposed the movement is divided into
two stages; an XY plane movement and am XZ plane movement. In the first stage, the arm will
move on the XY plane based on moving 4 points on the X axis and then 3 points in the Y axis
direction as shown below. In the second stage, since it is already moved on the X axis, it will just
move on the Z axis with 5 points. This process is shown below

Fig 11:

32 | P a g e

15. H Bridge
H Bridge is one kind of circuit which is represented as a typical graphical and is an electronic
circuit. This electronic circuit alters the voltage in either direction which is applied across the load.
These types of circuits are mostly used in robotics work. Its main function is to allow DC motors
to run to and fro.
The H bridges circuits are used in various AC/AC converters, DC-to-AC power inverters, pushpull converters for DC to DC, controller of motors and various kinds of electronics device. A
stepper motor which has two poles usually contains two H-Bridges. A motor controller is used to
drive them. H bridges are also easily available like the integrated circuits. It is also possible to
build them up from various distinct components.

Operating principle
H bridge is arranged in such a way that it is particularly used in order to reverse the motors
polarity. It can be used in order to Brake motor. It shortens the terminals which results sudden
stop of the motor. It allows the motors free run to a stop if the motor is disengaged from the
circuit.
The following table sums up the entire operation, with an appropriate diagram.

33 | P a g e

Fig 12:

34 | P a g e

H Bridge is a simple circuit. It has four switching elements. The load is located at the center. All
together looks like an H configuration.

Fig 13:
The switching element of the circuit is denoted with Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4. These are all FET
transistors. These are used in high-voltage applications areas. There are many combined
explanations which occur in order to control the integration of the circuits with switching elements.
D1, D2, D3 and D4 are the Schottky typed catchy diodes. The upper end is directly linked to the
supply of power. The bottom end is pulverized here. It is possible to turn on and off the four
switches within some restrictions.

35 | P a g e

Another term full bridge also stands as synonym of H Bridge. Such bridge contains 4 switches
located at the corner of 4 edges and the motor is situated at the middle. All together form like a
cross bar shown below:

Fig 14:
One unique feature of H Bridge is the 4 switches used in it which are known as follows:
1. High side left,
2. High side right,
3. Low side right and
4. Low side left

The 4 switches are shown in clockwise direction in the above figure.

These switches are turned on in pairs but certainly not on similar side of the H Bridge. If both
are placed together on same side, it may result in short circuit. This phenomenon is known as
SMPS literature (switch-mode power supply). The batteries will simply drain when the bridge is
adequately dominant and manages to grip the load.
36 | P a g e

In order to provide power to the motor, all is to be done to turn on the switches which are
diagonally opposed.

Fig 15:
The current flow by turning on the high side left and a low side right switch is shown in green.
As the current flows, the motor begins to turn in positive manner.

37 | P a g e

16. Operation as an Inverter

Inverter is a common use of H Bridge. The arrangement of the H Bridge in the inverter is known
as a single-phase bridge inverter. A square wave voltage waveform will be generated across the
load with H bridge DC supply. A triangular wave will be generated for a pure inductive load along
with its peaks depending on the input voltage, inductance and switching frequency.
H-Bridge is a type of circuit which is used in order to acquire an alterable DC motor which can
turn in both ways, clockwise and vice versa. This circuit simply allows its users to alter the direction
of the motor quickly with a controller or a switch.

H-Bridge with Switches

Fig 16:
Here CIRCUIT A can easily create a short circuit and is just a demonstration circuit.
Switch A-D- motor rotates clockwise
Switch B-C- motor rotates anti-clockwise
Switch A-B- creates Brake

38 | P a g e

Fig 17:
Circuit C is an improved design of circuit A and Circuit B. it will not create short circuit.
H-Bridge with a Relay

Fig 18
This motor is active all the times. Just push the button in order to reverse the rotation direction.

17. Pulse width Modulation (PWM)

39 | P a g e

PWM is a terms used as the short form of Pulse Width Modulation. It is applied to control the
motor. It is a peculiar technique of rendering dynamism following a particular sequence of beats
instead delivering it through a continuous varying signal. Through increasing-decreasing the width
of the pulse, the shaft controller modulates the energy flow which ultimately reaches to the shaft
of the motor. The self-induction motor acts like a filter. It stores energy during the operating cycle.
It corresponds with the reference signal or inputs. It is one type of movement of energy at a
reference frequency to the load.

PWM works in a similar way like pushing a merry-go-round in a playground. Each push has an
energy which is further stored in the heavy platforms inertia and gradually accelerates frequently
harder along with long-lasting pushes. The kinetic energy received by the riders is totally different
from the manner it is applied.

Fig 19:

40 | P a g e

Fig 20:

Fig 21:

41 | P a g e

In the good old days, only partial power for sewing machine motor, rheostat which was connected
in the series in order for the adjustment of current flowing was required but a heavy amount of
power loss as heat used to be there in the regulating element. Despite it was an unproductive
system, it was pretty unobjectionable at that point because entire power was little. This was
supposed as one of those power controlling approaches which was followed but never had been
successful.

17.1 Working Principle of PWM

PWM applies a pulse wave of rectangular shape. A wave which is controlled in such a way that it
results I the difference of the waveforms middling value. For example, if the waveform is denoted
with f(t), time period with t, lower value ymin, higher value with ymax, and duty cycle with D, the
average value of the waveform will come up from the following formula:

Fig 22:

42 | P a g e

As f(t) is a beat wave, its value is ymax for 0 < t < D.T and ymin when D.T < t < T. Under the
conditions, the above expression will become,

The above equation can be abridged as

seen that the mean value of the signal (

. From this equation, it is clearly

) is directly reliant on D.

17.2 Categories of Pulse width Modulation (PWM)

There exist the following three types of PWM:

The centre of the pulse might get fixed at the centre of the time window and simultaneously
edges of both the pulse moved for compressing/expanding the width.

It is possible to modulate the tail edge of the pulse according to the preference.

The lead edge of the pulse can be controlled accordingly but the tail edge can only get
static.

43 | P a g e

17.3 Pulse width Modulation using 555 TIMER IC

It is inconceivable to impart a message of low frequency over the signal of an anonymous channel.
It results in signal distortion, signal loss or attenuation. In order to make a smooth transmission,
there are various techniques which can be used known as modulation. Modulation is a process
of some different characteristics of a carrier signal directly in conformity with the immediate value
of the message signal. A Carrier signal is a wave which is generated with high frequency through
a local oscillator. This is further used to carry the message signal between the transmitters to the
receiver. A carrier mixed with the message signal is known as a modulated signal and this process
is known as modulation. In any basic communication system, modulation is a very important
process which helps in processing the transmission range and reduces the size of an antenna as
well. Furthermore, it reduces the noise interference in order to increase the efficiency of the whole
system.
17.4 Communication and Control
The whole signal of the PWM system is digital. There is no necessity of digital-to-analog change
as well. This is one of the major advantages of PWM. The effects of noise are denigrated while
keeping the signal in digital form. The clamor which is created can only disturb the digital signal if
they are strong adequately in order to alter the logic-1 to logic-0 or the other way round.

17.5 Applications

PWM is used in a form of signal modulation in telecommunication.

In delivering and controlling the amount of power with load, but without getting any losses
which can further result in linear power delivery.

In order to control the voltage regulation along with an appropriate duty cycle, PWM is
used in voltage regulators which further result into an appropriate voltage at the desired
level.

44 | P a g e

18. Robot Tooling

Mechanical gripper is a device that is used for gripping tools. Usually the robotic arm bows down
to pick up something and also to drop something. As we have already described that the robotic
arm can be used for inspection, repair and maintenance purpose, thus, some additional tools may
be required for the purpose. Such gripping tools include guns for arc welding, spray gun for
painting, spindle for drilling, grinder with wire brushes, router, and torch for heating etc. We will
discuss about these tools in detail in this section.
18.1 Routers, sanders and grinders
A grinder, disc type sander or belt type sander, a routing head can be attached readily on the
wrist of an industrial robot. The robot is equipped in such a way that it can route its own work. It
can remove flash from the parts made of plastic. It is also possible to do rough snagging work
of casting by using t tool. Specific path should be followed for finer finishing of a work.in some
cases templates can also be used in addition to all these arrangements. Templates are necessary
for visualizing, assuming, predicting the task. It also applies tactics to perform a task like a human
being. The accuracy of the task depends on the relative position of the work piece and the
templates. In most cases, the part is delivered to the holder where the template is mounted. A
feeder can also be used for proper positioning of the robot and the assembly machine in an
automatic process.
18.2 Spray gun
This device serves the purpose of spraying in such a way through which the volatility can be
controlled. It can be used for automatic application like priming, painting. In addition to that it has
applications in glass and ceramic frits. Sometimes it can be used as masking agent before
painting work.

45 | P a g e

In case of industries whether it is big or small, robotic arm is supposed as a better choice than
setting an new set up for serving the purpose because changing the setup is a lengthy process.
More over a robot can spray on multiple surface and compound curvatures. The initial investment
foe such robotic setup will be a bit expensive than that of other conventional methods of spraying.
Comparing the initial investment for total changeover and installation of robotic arm system, it has
been observed that robotic arm can purpose the serve as well as cost effective in the long run.
Thus, industrial robots can be furnished to meet the demand. Usage of robotic arm is intrinsically
safe.
18.3 Spot welding gun
A welding gun serves the purpose of doing spot welding either on flat surface or on curved
surface no matters the curve on the surface is complex or compound. In case of production in any
industry it is preferred to stop the material for sometimes to observe the conditions while doing
welding rather than continuous welding. It is recommended to hive enough time to the robot to
track a moving target before welding. If there is not enough time to do that, 2 or 3 robotic arms
can be used together to perform the operation. Similarly, if all the welds are not same, then
different gun needed to use for different welding. A robot can position welds within 0.050 in., but
the line must position the work accurately.
18.4 Stud-welding head
It may also need to equip an industrial robot with a stud-welding head. Studs are fed to the head
from the tubular feeder which is suspended from overhead of the studs. A caution can take to
locate the welded studs. It also enhances the accuracy of the objective. It is possible for an
industrial robot to position a stud within 0.050 in. But in that case positioning of the work piece
must be exactly on-the-line. There is no limitation for the weight of the head. Stud-welding heads
can perform well within the standard robot of 100-lb capacity.
46 | P a g e

18.5 Inert gas arc welding torch

Using a robot head torch in arc welding is another great application for industrial robot that can
reduce human stress and produce more precise and safe output with better quality also as well.
Multiple pass or single both types of welding are possible by using a robotic arm. It is very effective
solution for simple or curved joints.
It is also convenient for running a number of short joints that have various planes and different
angles. The capacity of reaching the arm of the robot determines the maximum size of the work
piece that can be subjected with the arm. For continuous change of the angle in which the torch
is placed, Industrial robot is a good solution. Robot can also handle flame cutting torch in
fabrication purpose.
18.5 Ladle
Ladling hot materials like molten metal is supposed as hot and hazardous job. So, industrial
robots are assumed to cope up with such hazardous environment more efficiently. These robots
can be used in casting the piston, die casting of permanent molds and other related applications.
These robots are capable of scooping up the molten metal from the pot to the mold before pouring.
The pouring is also done by the robotic arm. Dipping techniques are kept out of the mold if there
is any possibility to form dross.
18.6 Heat torch
Manipulation of a heating torch for baking the molds of any foundry by moving the torch over the
surface which will let the flame linger at the place where additional heat input is required is
possible by a robotic arm. As the heat is directly applied here, thus the fuel is saved and the
baking process is faster than that of a gas fired oven.

47 | P a g e

18.7 Pneumatic nut-runners, drills, and impact wrenches

Mechanical robotic arms can also be used for drilling and counter sinking. Robot can provide
more accuracy in choosing correct location. It reduces time for positioning and drilling. It provides
high quality and fewer hazards.
18.8 Tool changing
It is possible for a single industrial robot to handle a number of tools at a time. In some case,
automatic tool changing commands are programmed in the memory of the robot. The tools can
be of different types, shapes and capable of performing multiple tasks at a moment. Sometimes
a number of tasks are required to be done on the same work piece. Sometimes the same task is
needed to be done on different work piece at any particular time.
18.9 RDS End Effectors
For maximizing production de-paint rates, the robot De-paint System which is known as RDS in
short is very effective. In this case the end-effectors operate three parallel blast nozzles. Operator
can have a look of the blast process by means of a camera. Lamps having Dual air cooling system
were used for providing lights. There was a crash hoop for prevention of inadvertent contact which
may occur between the robot and the aircraft. Pressure sensors were used as a pressure
controlling parameter for the blast nozzles. A patented sensing system was designed,
implemented and improved by SwRI which uses electromagnetic detecting system for providing
feedback regarding the surface condition of the aircraft.
18.10 Wire harness assembly end effectors
This effector was developed with a vision to sense, grip and transfer apparatuses for assembly of
wire harness in an automated process. The device was designed for handling numerous numbers
of wire size and categories which included the combination of twisted pair also. A couple of
48 | P a g e

stepper motors, numerous number of pneumatic actuators and axes of multiple compliances are
used for driving the mechanism internally.
18.11 Canopy polisher end effector
Such end effectors use an orbital sanding motor. A quick disconnecting pad is also added with
the arrangement. For achieving material removal and clarification regarding optical factors
abrasives are used in four stages. Water is also used with the end effector and abrasive pad for
cutting the debris more efficiently and removing the more quickly. It is possible to do necessary
programming on the end effector for exerting the specific force.

49 | P a g e

19. Industrial usage of robotic arms

Industrial robot is a branch of robotics. It is mostly used in manufacturing and other industrial
application. Such robotic arms are controlled automatically and programmable which ensures its
usage in multiple purposes. Mostly such robotic arms are used in maintenance purpose. The term
maintenance can be divided into three parts: Regular inspection, strategic assessment and
disturbance treatment. Maintenance is a predicting parameter which can assume the upcoming
disturbance in advance. Usage of Robotic arms in industrial usage is significantly different from
regular maintenance tasks that can be done manually because usage of robots for industrial
purpose is free from environmental disturbance, human error, unconsciousness, faster and cost
effective also. Some of the major application areas are:
19.1 Nuclear Industry
Considering reduced health risk, availability and improved safety, tele-operated robots were used
in the following application in nuclear maintenance work:
1. Keeping operational excellence and regular maintenance of industry and laboratory.
2. Neutralizing and disassembling nuclear facilities
3. Monitoring nuclear reactor
4. Emergency intervention (Vertut, Coiffet 1985)

The necessity of using robotic arms for such maintenance work was not preferred by all at the
beginning stage. Mr. Chesser, a specialist in Nuclear Industry, reported in 1988 about the
preciousness of using robotic arm with tele-operating system for dismantling and re-assembling
components in nuclear industry. Advanced Servo Manipulator (ASM) was used at the beginning.
Robotics arm can also be used for analyzing chemical processing by providing extra advantages
of diversified array of maintenance work, predicting tasks which contain higher risk factor and
50 | P a g e

probability of accident and demurrage and providing data from danger zone for human being.
Moreover such device were large in size, thus the necessity of mobility of such device through
the assistance of computer was necessary.

Fig 23: Robotic Arm working in a nuclear plant

Nuclear reactors were not primarily designed for conducting maintenance with robotic arms. But
such risky reactors with high radiation were harmful for the workers. These limitations increased
the usage of robots for maintenance tasks in nuclear plant.
A number of programs were conducted on the difficulties of maintenance of nuclear reactor which
ultimately portrayed on the necessity of using robot technology for doing the job. (Tsukune et
al.,1994).
Researchers of United States are also showing a notable attention on the usage of robotic arm
for decommissioning nuclear reactor.

51 | P a g e

They inaugurated two systems two dexterous manipulator arms and a vehicle with a manipulator
for dismantling the 5th Pile of Cicago Nuclear Reactor in 1997. Remediation of hazardous waste
from site is another important co-related topic. Underground tank inspection was also done by
Robotic arms in 1997.
Another important term, emergency intervention, caught attention after accident at Three Mile
Island (TMI-2) of United States. Robotic programs were thought to conduct the recovery
operations. Robotic arms with laser were also used to perform the task.
19.2 Highways
Highways are supposed as a critical component of transportation system in the developed world
as the societies are become more mobile day by day. But the repairing, maintenance, traffic are
not properly handled. Conventional techniques for such repair and maintenance works involves
lot of time, cost, manpower and high risk for human being as well as environment.
Traffic problem is another additional and common problem. Robotic solution for highway
maintenance work can increase the work, health and safety at workplace for the workers. It can
reduce the traffic problem. It will increase productivity by reducing cost and human error. It will
provide more precise work in a shorter time. The following areas can be mentioned as the major
application area of using robotic arm:
1. Highway Integrity Management: It includes tasks like crack sealing and pothole repairing.

2. Debris Management: Robotic arms can be used for snow removal, garbage, bags, packets
cleaning, and refusal collection purpose on road.

3. Highway Making Management: Robotic arm can be used for signaling, showing safety
signage on road, paint re-striping. Other signage like roadway advisory
52 | P a g e

4. Security Management: Such robotic arms can be used for security purpose with camera
and sensor.

5. Landscaping Management: It includes controlling the growth of hazardous plants on

roadside, cutting branches of big trees to create passage for big vehicles.

6. Work Zone Management: Automatic alarm, warning system, sprinkler system, creating
barrier for unlawful activities etc can be included under the point. (Ravani and West, 1991)

Some important prototypes for implementing highway maintenance and repairing were
successfully implemented during 1990s. The following figure shows the process of sensing and
sealing the cracks on highway. Sensing the crack throughout the width of the lane is done with
scan camera and sealing is done by a SCARA robot.
The presence of any crack on the highway and command for sealing the crack is provided by a
laser based finder at the tooling. Similar technology was also used for detecting crack on aircraft
runway. Carnegie Mellon University developed another robot and they named it REX. It used
topography and computer command to detect buried objects and take necessary action.
Automated pavement distress data collection vehicles which was built by Komatsu Ltd., of Japan,
could collect data on surface condition, crack information etc in a faster way. It had a speed up to
60km/hr. It could provide data within a 4m wide and 0.25 meter deep range.

53 | P a g e

Fig 24: Highway Inspection with Robotic arm

19.3 Railways
Railway is an important sector throughout the world. Robotic arms are mainly used for grinding,
cleaning, painting, welding, and crack checking. (Martland, 1987). A project led by Toronto Transit
Commission designed an automated system which could clean the undersides of subway
vehicles. Such system required 3 robots for painting purpose.
These robots were mounted on both the sides and under the subway. A master computer was
used to control the entire system as well as the three individual robot controllers. A vision system
mounted with robot was used for correcting the position of the robots in their tracks.
This system exposed much better output considering working condition and quality than that of
human workers. Speno Rail Services Co. developed another robot called RMS-2 for railway
grinding system.

54 | P a g e

This robot could sense the condition of the exterior of the rail. An integrated computerized system
was used for generating grinder controls to finish the railway to the proper, pre-determined rail
curve. The system had capability of grinding rails up to 6 mph speed.
19.4 Power Line Maintenance
Typically the power line maintenance works are done by human personnel who are skilled in the
adjacent field. Such tasks usually include the replacement of ceramic insulator and for opening,
closing, connecting, testing of different circuits.
These are supposed as very dangerous work for human workers. Risks of getting high voltage
electric shock or falling down from some high place are involved to do the job. Also, long training
is required to obtain a skilled worker which involves both time and money. Also the end user
claims un-interrupted flow of electricity even though the maintenance hour to the power
companies.
Thus the Electric Power generation companies were trying to implement some sorts of robotic
arrangement for doing the job safely. Both tele-operated and semi- sovereign approaches were
developed to solve the problem.
Teleoperator for Operation, Maintenance and Construction by Advanced Technology which is
shortly known as TOMCAT first developed one of the first system to perform such risky power line
maintenance work. The system consisted of a bucket truck which was insulated, a functional
manipulator which was bolted to the end of the boom of truck, a monitor for controlling supervision,
pre-set command and necessary power supply.
The controlling devices were mounted on the back side of the bucket. It included a master
manipulator so that no feedback force can affect. Japan introduced a dual-arm robot system
figure.

55 | P a g e

It is a human-robot cooperative arrangement. Laser sensor helped the robots to control their
positions. When human worked from a control station on the truck, the risk of injury was reduced.
Spain, Chian and other countries have also worked and developed the system to their needing.

Fig 25 Power line maintenance with robotic arm

56 | P a g e

19.5 Aircraft Servicing

Robotic technology is used for serving aircraft applications. Robotic arm can be used for removal
of the coating from the body of a multi-engine jet. It can also be used for regular inspection work
with greater efficiency. Automatic skin inspection, painting work, stripping of aircrafts can also be
done with robots.
19.6 Underwater Facilities
Robotic arm technology is providing service on the surface of the ocean; mainly in offshore oil
industries. Repairing of communication cables, detecting the leakage in pipeline, repairing at well
heads and platform are the major tasks performed by robotic arm. It can also be used for cleaning
the cooling the boilers of industries, nitrogen purging, pressure checking inside the vessel or other
gaseous space. It can perform inspection during construction or monitor tunnels. It can be used
to put something under water or bring something from under water. It can also be used for carrying
goods during construction of heavy machineries.
19.7 Coke Ovens
Coke oven is another significant field of using robotic arm. Mostly robotic technology is used for
the repairing of the wall of the chamber of the coke ovens. Damages to coke oven usually occur
after operation of several years.
Repeated opening and closing of the chamber door, pushing of coke inside the chamber, and
high temperature cause damage on coke ovens wall. The damaged are noticed in the form of
cracks, gaps between joints, abrasion of wall, gas leakage, air pollution, and flaws of structure in
the oven. Thus for ensuring stable operation for a long time, effective repairing system is an
obvious in the field.

57 | P a g e

The most challenging task is the repairing of the center of the oven. As there is no access inside
the oven wall and in some cases, there may exist poisonous gas and over heat which may cause
the death of any human being, it is not safe and in some case impossible to detect the problem
and repair it.
The repairing technology requires temperature resisting components, pre-built mechanism to
observe the system externally. In addition to that, quality and durability are also major issues. A
temperature resisting robotic arm can provide solution in the above case.
19.8 Others
Robotic arms can be used for carrying goods from one place to another place like luggage, pallets,
bags etc. It can be used for domestic purpose also.
It can be used for carrying goods from one room to another room like bringing food to dining from
kitchen, doing iron of the clothes etc.
In hospital such arms can be used for carrying apparatus or medicine, in library these arms can
be used for managing and sorting book.
In restaurants, such arm can be used to serve food to the table. These robotic arm can be used
for washing dishes, cloths etc.
In departmental store it can be used for keeping items on right place. These robots can be used
for sealing, packing industrial goods.
In industries it can be used for carrying the output of a section that is used as input of another
section. For example, bottles are made of crystal in section A of an industry.
These bottles need to carry 20m away from there to pour water into the bottle. This task can be
performed by robot. In bus stop, airport, railway station such robotic arms can be used to carry
58 | P a g e

the passengers luggage. By providing command according to necessity, the efficiency, speed,
and preciseness of the work done by the arm can be controlled.
In some case such robots can be used to theft, robbery and other unlawful work. But how the
robot will perform and in what purpose the robot are being used, is solely depends on the moral
value of the person who has made the robot and providing command to perform task. By attaching
a number of arms in a robot, multiple tasks can be handled at a time.
China, Japan, USA and other developed countries are trying to speed up their production by
reducing production and maintenance cost by using such robotic arms. The result is they are
doing production more quickly, safely and timely.

20. Results and conclusion

The work is successfully done. A sample robot using 8051 micro controller was built successfully.
The design of the robot was done and the arms and the base of the robot were observed. The
working principle of the robot was well understood from the circuit diagram and drawings. The
robotic arm could rotate left to right and vice versa. It can grip magnetized materials. It can up
and down by changing its position. The 8051 board was made by soldering. We have seen the
usage of the stepper motor and its function as well as its operating principle in the robotic arm.
Then we have focused on the industrial usage of robotic arm. We have gone through the
functionality of a number of tools that can also be mounted on the arm. We have seen multiple
usage of robot in the industrial purpose. We have discussed about the future aspect of such
robotic arm and the way we can develop the technology for human development. This project can
be further enhanced to as a multi-disciplinary project involving electrical and computer engineers
to work together to create more complex, intelligent robots controlled by the 8051 micro-controller.

59 | P a g e

21. Reference
-

PFEIFER, R, IIDA, F and BONGARD, J. 2006.New Robotics: Design Principles for

Intelligent Systems. pp. 1-15

KUBA, M. 2006. Graphical Design and Implementation of Robot Arm using OpenGL

LAMA, B.B. 2012. Controlling a Robotic Arm Manipulator with a PLC. A thesis submitted
to the Degree Program in Mechanical Engineering and Production Technology

FERRETTI, G and MAGNANI, G. 2008. Real-Time Simulation of a Space Robotic Arm.

IEEE

HUANG, C.H and WANG, W.J. 2012. Implementation of Object Grasping Control for a
Robot Arm Using Fuzzy Control and Two-CCD Imaging Measurements. pp 1-18

LU, T.F, TORNG, J and FAN, K.C. 2001. Development of A robotic measuring system for
3D range data acquisition. 6th international conference on manufacturing technology. pp
1-6

SANCHETI, A.K. 2012. Gesture Actuated Robotic Arm. International Journal of Scientific
and Research Publications. 2 (12)

Schnung, A.; Stemmler, H. (August 1964). "Geregelter Drehstrom-Umkehrantrieb mit

gesteuertem Umrichter nach dem Unterschwingungsverfahren". BBC Mitteilungen (Brown
Boveri et Cie).

Tittu,

T.

(2013).

Pulse

Width

Modulation,

Mycircuits9.

http://www.mycircuits9.com/2013/04/pulse-width-modulation-pwm-555-timer-ic.html
Retrieved on 14th March 2014
Patangia, H. (2012) Real Time Harmonic Elimination Using a Modified Carrier,
CONIELECOMP, Mexico.

60 | P a g e

Williams, A. (2002), Microcontroller projects using the Basic Stamp (2nd Ed.). Focal Press.
p. 344. ISBN 978-1-57820-101-3.

McManis,

C.

(2006),

H-Bridges:

Theory

and

Practice.

McManis.

http://www.mcmanis.com/chuck/robotics/tutorial/h-bridge/ Retrieved 14th March 2014

Bejczy, A. K., & Jau, B. M. (1986). Smart hand systems for robotics and teleoperation.
Proceedings of the Sixth CISM-IFToMM Symposium on Theory and Practise of Robots
and Manipulators, Hermes Publishing.

Engelberger, J. F. (1989). Robotics in service (pp 224-226). Kogan Page.

Hall, D. V. (2004). Microprocessors and interfacing, Programming and hardware (pp 278279). McGraw Hill.

Vertut, J. and Coiffet, P. (1985). Teleoperation and Robotics: Applications and

Technology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Tsukune, H., Hirukawa, H., Kitagaki, K., Liu, Y., Onda, H., and Nakamura, A. (1994)
Research and development of advanced robots for nuclear power plants (pp. 51-65).
Bulletin of the Electrotechnical Laboratory, 58 (4).

61 | P a g e