Introduction to Hydrology (lecture1)

A: Hydrologic Cycle / Water Cycle

1. Hydrology
- is the study of various steps through which water go through in the hydrologic cycle.

-These steps include:

a) Evaporation

heat from sun caused the water from rivers, lakes and oceans to
evaporate into the atmosphere
b) Transpiration- from plants leaf into the atmosphere.
c) Condensation - of water particles in space to forms cloud
d) Precipitation- rainfall on land and sea
e) Interceptionrain stuck to plants leaf, vegetation, wetting the ground
f) Surface Runoff- Water flowing on land surface into river and then flow to sea
g) InfiltrationSome amount of water will infiltrate and percolate into the ground
h) Groundwater flow- subsurface flow of water, and it might come out as springs 9can
also see it in well)

Engineering Hydrology deals with:

1. Estimation of water resources.
2. The study of processes such as precipitation, runoff, evapotranspiration and their
interaction.
3. The study of problems such as floods and draughts, and strategies to tackle the
problems

2. Practical applications of hydrology are found in tasks like:

a) Design and operation of hydraulic structures (spillway, sluice gate, river concrete
lining etc.)
b) Water supply system (dam, drawoff tower, pipelines etc.)
c) Wastewater treatment and disposal
d) Drainage and irrigation (e.g. drain system for flooded area)
e) Hydropower generation
f) Flood control, erosion, sediment control, etc.
- Knowledge of hydrology are used to analyze problems involved, how to solve it,
how to plan and manage the available water resources etc.

Hydraulic Structures What is the purpose of Concrete lining the river?

-note the concrete pile (or steel sheet pile), pile cap, and concrete lining

4.

This is the place where Sungai Gombak (left) meets Sungai Klang (right). Look at the sheet
piles.

Here steel sheet pile is used instead of concrete pile

Note the different color between water from Sg Gombak and Sg Klang. What does it shows?

On the left is Sg Gombak and on the right is Sg Klang. The photo shows there is a lot of erosion
and sedimentation occurring upstream of Sg Klang, compared to Sg Gombak.

This is the natural river, before construction of concrete lining

What are the reasons why so much money was spent to change these 2 rivers?

1. To enlarge the cross-section of the rivers, increasing its capacity. This reduces possibilities of
flood.
2. To increase the Manning roughness coefficients n of channels bed. This means smoother
flow, less friction, more efficient flow.
3. The sheet piles protect the riverbank and reduced erosion of riverbanks.

Sluice gate in Malaysia, many times it will look like this.

What is the purpose of sluice gate?

It is to stop flow of water from one area to another area. During planting of paddy, a lot of water
is needed, so Sluice gate is lifted up and water flow into paddy field.

The gate can be lowered to completely block flow of water.

Why is it used in coastal area?
Because we dont want saline water from the sea, move far inland during high tide at sea and
low flow in river. Saline water will kill planted vegetable and trees.

Sluice gate in Irrigation canal in Malaysia to supply water when paddy need it/planting season

Sluice gate that is opened sideways.

Morning Glory/ Bell-mouth shaped Spillway it exist in a reservoir. What is the purpose of it?
Morning glory spillway or side spillway ensures water level in dam does not exceed MWL
(maximum Water Level).
When rain heavily upstream, water level in reservoirs will increase. Excess water will enter the
spillway and released downstream of the dam.
Without spillway, water can overtop the dam, erode the base and the foundation of the dam
resulting in erosion. Severe erosion can cause instability and even dam failures.

A submerged Morning Glory Weir

A Side Spillway What is the purpose of it? Where do you think this is?

The purpose is to safely channel excess water in dam to downstream area. It is normally located
on the side of a dam.

This is a large hydropower dam. The Side Spillway release water when it exceed the MWL.
Note the high energy in water released. It can cause severe erosion to riverbanks and riverbed.

Chute blocks in a spillway. What is the purpose of the blocks?

Water upstream of dam has high potential energy and when it flows downstream, it can cause
severe erosion to riverbanks and riverbed. The blocks caused turbulence to water, dissipating
much of its energy.

3. All the steps in hydrologic cycle can be divided into 3 systems (on ground, above, below):
a) Surface water system
- Include overland flow, surface runoff, and groundwater outflow
b) Subsurface water system
- Include infiltration, groundwater flow
c) Atmospheric water system
- Include evaporation, transpiration, interception and rainfall

4 . Figure of Hydrologic Cycle

5.

To practicing engineer (hydrologist) who plan and build hydraulic structures, knowledge
of hydrology is important. Suppose:
a. A City wishes to increase its water supply

- engineer must look for source of supply, e.g. uninhabited mountain catchment area,
underground water etc., and decide which is better source (cheaper, cleaner, more
reliable
source).
Why do we prefer uninhabited mountain catchment area?
All human activities will eventually release discharge into drains and it enters river,
causing pollution to river water quality. When there is no human activities upstream of a
river, river water will be clean. It will be easier and cheaper to treat it for water supply.

What are sources of water for water supply in Malaysia?

1. Reservoirs upstream of dam. 2. Rivers

3.Groundwater (Kota Bharu)

- Engineers then must estimate amount of water that can be supplied, amount of rain and
length of drought period, amount of water lost to evaporation etc.
- What are the dimensions of the dam, size of pipelines? All these need to be studied and
relevant data collected and analyzed to finally come up with the decision.

6.

Meteorological data are important in the study of hydrology.

What are meteorological data?
They include streamflow data, precipitation data, humidity, temperature, radiation and
wind speed. They are measured using certain equipment and recorded. Most important
are streamflow and precipitation data which are also called hydro-meteorological data)

7.

Civilization is dependent on water supply. As cities become larger and industrialization

continues, the role of hydrologist will also increase to meet demands for water for
drinking, irrigation, industry, and power generation.

Some related data : Klang Gate Dam

a. Water Surface Area

= 2.73 km2

b. Dam maximum height

= 36.89 m

c. Length of crest (top)

= 138.72m

d. Width of crest (bottom)

= 3.67m

e. Drawoff Tower 5 levels of water intake. Water flow by gravity from drawoff tower to WTP (water treatment
plant) 11.3km away at Bukit Nanas.
This is not Klang Gate Dam. Notice the Draw-off Tower and The Bell mouth Spillway

Some related data: Three Gorges Dam (China) World largest Hydropower Dam
a. Water Surface Area

= 1045 km2

b. Dam maximum height

= 185 m

c. Length of crest (top)

= 2335m (2.3km)

d. Width of crest

= 40m at the top, 115m at the bottom)

e. Catchment area

=1,000,000 km2

f. Turbines and Total Capacity= 32 turbines, 22,500 Megawatt

(Bakun Dam 8 turbines x 300MW = 2400 MW max capacity)
g. Dam reservoir is

= 600 km long

Some related data:

Capacity of Bakun Dam 2400MW x 365 x24 hour/day =21,024,000MWh = 21,024 GWh
The electricity consumption in Malaysia in 2014 is 127,279 GWh (Bakun can supply close to 20% but
is not. Why? Then the electricity is used for what? Other dam downstream of Bakun was also planned)
Electricity generation in Malaysia

Energy generation in Malaysia (hydropower contributes only 4%)

Photos of Klang Gate Dam note the i. Concrete Arch Dam Structure,
ii. The Overflow weir and the Side Spillway
iii. The Drawoff Tower

The Draw-Off Tower will consists of valve at 5 different elevation, Highest, High, Medium,
Low, Lowest.

When one valve is opened, raw water from reservoirs will flow through large pipe to WTP
(Water Treatment Plant) to be treated, and then sent to domestic consumers and industries.

Which valve do you think we will open? The top no 1, no 2, no 3, no 4 or no 5?

We will opened valve no 1. Because at top level, water is cleaner with less colloids and
sediments. If water level is below level of valve 1, we open valve no 2.

Water being released through one of the weir (Sluice gate lifted for that weir).

Aerial view of Klang Gate Dam

Chilling on top of the hill viewing the spectacular landscape of the Klang
Gate Dam,

The view from the spillway it is still wet, maybe from water being released through it earlier.

Note the 4 sluicegate closing the weirs, and the 4 spillways.

i. What are the two parallel pipes for?
ii. It will go where?
iii. What is the purpose of the hole under the spillway opening?
The two parallel pipes are to transfer raw water from dams reservoir to WTP. The hole is
for removing sediments that accumulate at the bottom of the dam, reducing dams
capacity

Aerial View of Sungai Selangor Dam

I visited your senior who is doing his Industrial Training there (Oct 2014)

The feature of Sungai Selangor Dam note all the components of a Dam
- Dam embankment, Dam Crest, Overflow Weir, Spillway, Plunge Pool, Draw-off Tower, Reservoir

Closer view of the Overflow Weir and The Drawoff Tower

What does the red earth in the photo below tell you?
It tells that water level in the dam is very low. If the dry period persist, water rationing might be
needed.

Klang Gate Dam under construction note the small size of a person there with respect to the
size of the dam..

Three Gorges Dam The largest hydropower dam in the world

Night view of the dam

Note the size of the car compared to the width of the dams crest (2.3km long concrete dam)

- How does a ship pass through a dam?

-A dam will always have difference of height of water upstream and downstream
- This difference in height allows the potential energy in water to be transferred into electricity,
by allowing it to rotate a turbine.
- However, a ship needs to move through the same river. How do ship cruise through from
upstream to downstream in the same river? Note the difference in height of water upstream and
downstream of the dam

Which way is the direction of the flow in the river ?

-----

or

-------

Note the series of gate

One of the 32 turbines at Three Gorges Dam

Series of turbines

B: Catchment Area / River Basin/ Watershed

1. It is an area of land where all rainwater that fall in the area will flow into one river.
2. It is also called drainage area, drainage basin, watershed or river basin.
3. A catchment area is separated from its neighbour by a ridge or water divide.
4. We draw this water divide by looking at Topogaphic map and delineate the catchment
boundary by estimating which way the rainwater will flow.
5. We then use planimeter to measure the size of the area for that catchment.
6. The amount of flow from that area can then be calculated by the equations below:

Rational Method:
Q = CiA

where

Q = volume of water from that rain event

C = landuse coefficients
i = rainfall intensity of that rain event.
A = Catchment area.

Modified Rational Method

Q = CsCiA

where

Q = volume of water from that rain event

Cs = Storage coefficients
C = landuse coefficients
i = rainfall intensity of that rain event.
A = Catchment area.

Klang River Basin / Watershed /Catchment Area: is an area where all rain that fall in that
catchment will flow into Klang River

The
3 rivers passed through city center causing frequent flash floods. To solve this problem,water in

Klang River is diverted into Kerayong River using Smart Tunnel bypassing city center.

The blue line is the boundary of Kuala Lumpur. Note the cities in the river basin - Port Klang,
Klang, Shah Alam, Petaling Jaya and KL

This is all the river basins in the state of Selangor.

- Note the Sungai Selangor Watershed and Sungai Klang Watershed.
- What are the 3 possible major purposes of a dam?
- What are other benefits of a dam?
1. Water Supply, Flood Mitigation, Hydropower.
2. Recreation/Tourism, Aquaculture.

Note the 2 enclosed areas above which are Kuala Lumpur and
Putrajaya.
The 2 rivers passing through them are Sg Klang and Sg
Langat.

This is all the river basin in the state of Perak.

Which river most likely will be the widest river? Why?

Sungai Perak. Because it has the largest catchment area.

All rain that fall in that catchment area will flow into that river.

Which river has the largest catchment area?

Note how the state boundaries follow the catchment area boundaries.

C: Water Budget Equation

1. Imagine one large lake. There will be many movement of water entering and leaving it.
2. This movement of water into it will include Precipitation, Stream Inflow, and
Groundwater Seepage into it.
3. The movement of water out of it will include Evaporation, Transpiration, and
Groundwater Seepage out of it.
4. There will be increase or decrease of water level in the lake due to these inflow and
outflow.
5. The Equation for Water Budget is:
Change in Storage = Mass Inflow Mass Outflow

Example 1.1 (page 6)

A lake had a water surface elevation of 103.200 m above datum at the beginning of a certain
month. In that month, the lake received an average inflow of 6.0m 3/s from surface runoff
sources. In the same period, the outflow from the lake had an average value of 6.5m 3/s. Further,
in that month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and the evaporation from the lake surface
was estimated at 6.10 cm. Write the water-budget equation for the lake and calculate the water
surface elevation of the lake at the end of the month. The average lake-surface area can be taken
as 5000ha (1ha=100m x 100m= 10,000 m2) Assume that there is no contribution to or from the
groundwater storage. Ans = New water surface elevation at the end of the month = 103.2 m +
0.058 m = 103.258 m

Lets watch the video 1 on Hydrologic Cycle (Water Cycle). The content includes:
1. The amount of water on earth is the same today as it is millions of years before.
2. The water on earth moves in continuous loop.
3. There is life on earth because earth has this perfect water cycle.
4. Water cycle it is fascinating
- it is around us all the time
- it is described by 2 words, FLOWS and STORES.
-it is series of water flows and water stores(storages)
5. Statistics

- 70% of water on earth is in the ocean

- 97% of water on earth is saline (containing salt)
- 2/3 of fresh water is in ice sheets and glaciers
- 30% of fresh water on earth is groundwater.
- only 0.3% of fresh water on earth is surface water.
- of the 0.3% surface water, 87% is in lakes, 11% in wetlands and 2% in
rivers.

6. There are many names for every movement of water in water cycles. They are:
1. Precipitation
2. Surface Runoff
3. Infiltration
4. Interception
5. Groundwater flow
6. Evaporation
7. Transpiration
8. Condensation

Lets watch the video 2 on Three Gorges Dam in China, the processes and its
challenges.
Question: How do you construct structures in fast moving water?

Exercise 1: Draw the catchment boundaries by drawing the

water divide for the watershed given below.

1. Draw The Sub-Catchment by Drawing The Water Divide

1.Draw The Sub-Catchment by Drawing The Water

Divide

Homework
Note: At least 50% of mid-sem exam questions will be from
homework.
Homework 1
1. Print this diagram and draw the catchment boundaries of all rivers.

2. This is the map of UKM. The red colored/dark colored area is the highest ground
while the red line is Tasik Kejuruteraan. The big blue line is Sungai Langat and the
small lines are tributaries. Print one page in black and white. Draw the catchment
boundary of all the rivers by drawing the possible water divide.

3. Refer to Engineering Hydrology Book by K Subramanya page 14, and do the following:
a. Revision Questions
b. Problems
c. Objective Questions

: 1.1
: 1.2, 1.3, 1.5
: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9

Some explanations as guidance to solve assignment given

Problems 1.1
Two and half centimeters of rain per day over an area of 200 km 2 is equivalent to
average rate of input of how many Cubics meters per second of water to that area ?
= 2.5cm/day x 200km2 x 1m/100cm x 1000m/1km x 1000m/1km x 1day/24hour x
1hr/60minutes x 1min/60sec
= 57.87 m3/sec