1891

Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 73, No. 10, 2010, Pages 18911901
Copyright G, International Association for Food Protection

Microwave Heating Effects on the Chemical Composition and the

Antioxidant Capacity of Tataouine Virgin Olive Oils from Tunisia
IMEN OUESLATI,* WAEL TAAMALLI, FAOUZIA M. HADDADA,

AND

MOKHTAR ZARROUK

Laboratoire Caracterisation et Qualite de lHuile dOlive, Centre de Biotechnologie de Borj-Cedria, B.P.901-2050, Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
MS 10-166: Received 1 April 2010/Accepted 8 June 2010

ABSTRACT
Four Tunisian virgin olive oils (VOOs), derived from varieties (Chemlali Tataouine, Zarrazi Douirat, Fakhari Douirat, and
Dhokar Douirat) grown in the harsh pedoclimatic conditions of the region of Tataouine, were evaluated for their responses to
microwave heating. Aside from fatty acid composition, all other evaluated parameters were affected by microwave heating, and
their variations depend on the genetic factor. Chemlali Tataouine VOO exhibited the slowest biophenol degradation rate and the
least diminution in oxidative stability and consequently, its total fraction and both lipidic and methanolic fractions remained
unchanged with an exceptional antioxidant potential. In the remaining studied VOOs, the biophenol contents, the oxidative
stability, and the antioxidant potential underwent gradual decreases; nevertheless, their levels at the longer treatment time are
close to some fresh VOOs. These results should be taken into consideration when Tataouine VOOs are recommended for
microwave heating.

Over the past 20 years, the microwave oven has

become an essential appliance for most kitchens. Not only
are microwaves routinely used for household heating
purposes, but they are also used for food processing and
preservation in the food industry (17). The primary benefits
are its capacity to rapidly transmit heat with high penetration
power (26), as well as its convenience, user-friendliness (10,
13), and the time and energy one saves when compared with
conventional cooking methods (2).
Microwave heating has been recently introduced as a
way to improve the quality of fried food because oil and fat
have low specific-heat constants and therefore heat quickly.
Different studies have aimed to evaluate the effects of
microwave heating on food and its constituents (2),
including the lipid fraction of animal fats and vegetable
oils (50). The process of microwave heating can accelerate
the oxidative reactions that promote the production of free
radicals that rapidly react with atmospheric oxygen to
produce hydroperoxides and secondary oxidation products
(2, 18, 26).
Other chemical effects have also been observed; for
example, free acidity levels moderately increased in
microwaved vegetable oils because of fat hydrolysis (2,
18, 26), while tocopherol levels decreased (2, 26); the data
for fatty acid isomerization (trans formation) remain
controversial (32). Additionally, the density and viscosity
of oils reportedly increased on microwaving, and the
elevated viscosities were found to be directly related to
the formation of triacylglycerol, and fatty acid dimers and
* Author for correspondence. Tel: 216-22649361; Fax: 216-79412948;
E-mail: imen.oueslati@fst.rnu.tn.

polymers, whereas the increased densities were ascribed to

oxygen incorporation into oxidation compounds (oxidized
triacylglycerols) (3). Interestingly, the consumption of
dietary antioxidants seems to play an important role in
protecting against these degenerative events.
Numerous researchers have reported that frying with
virgin olive oil instead of other vegetable oils can reduce the
risk of colon cancer (7). The rich antioxidant composition of
virgin olive oil was cited as one of the major factors
contributing to its positive effect on colon cancer prognosis
and protection (20). Moreover, these antioxidants decrease
the formation of heterocyclic amines that form during the
frying of protein-rich food such as meat, eggs, and fish, and
which are reported as animal carcinogens (39).
Virgin olive oil (VOO) is obtained only from the olives.
It has not undergone any treatment other than washing,
decanting, centrifuging, and filtering. It can be qualified as a
natural product. VOOs can have the following designations and classifications depending on their sensory (taste
and aroma) and analytical characteristics (the degree of
acidity refers to the proportion of free fatty acids, not to the
taste): extra VOO (EVOO), VOO, ordinary VOO, lampante
VOO, etc.
During the past few years, there has been an increase in
the amount of research exploring the use of VOOs, which
are rich in natural antioxidants for frying purposes. In
Tunisia, particularly in the arid region of Tataouine
located in the south of Tunisia, this region is characterized
by extreme pedoclimatic conditions (shallow soils, high
temperatures that reach 45uC, and low rainfall between 88
and 157 mm/year)the VOO of four old varieties, namely
Chemlali Tataouine, Fakhari Douirat, Dhokar Douirat, and

1892

OUESLATI ET AL.

Zarrazi Douirat (which exist only in Tataouine arid region

but never elsewhere), have been extensively characterized.
These VOOs have excellent chemical compositions, with
high proportions of monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid),
modest amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids, high phenol
contents, and unusually high a-tocopherol contents. In
addition, they display aromatic profiles dominated by
lipoxygenase products, their sterolic compositions contain
an unusual high level of D-5-avenasterol, and they harbor
high squalene contents. Thus, these four oils possess
abundant oxidative stability (3537). All of these characteristics contribute to the unique commercial potential of
VOOs of the Tataouine varieties and suggest a future for
large-scale production.
To the best of our knowledge, there are no reports
describing the effects of microwave treatment on the
antioxidant activity of VOOs and on the chemical
composition of Tunisian VOOs. Thus, the objective of this
study was to evaluate the effect of microwave heating on
free radicalscavenger effectiveness and on the chemical
composition of Tataouine VOOs by the study of (i) the more
traditional index based on the peroxide values (PV), free
acidity (FA), and the specific UV extinction coefficients
(K232 and K270); and (ii) a more innovative index that takes
into account the polar biophenol contents, oxidative
stability, and the radical-scavenging capacity of Tataouine
VOOs as well as their extracts.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling. Four samples of VOOs were analyzed from the
following varieties: Chemlali Tataouine, Fakhari Douirat, Zarrazi
Douirat, and Dhokar Douirat. All the varieties were grown in the
locality of Douirat in the arid region of Tataouine (southern
Tunisia). Because of the hard pedology of the region of Tataouine
(see pictures in the previous work of Oueslati et al. (35)), the olive
samples were handpicked throughout the day and then transported
from Tataouine to Tunis (,531 km).
Olive samples of 5 kg each were handpicked at the same stage
of maturity, when the fruit skin is with light-violet color. Only
drupes not damaged, fresh, and healthy were selected. After
harvest, the olive fruit samples were immediately processed in a
laboratory olive mill (Abencor analyzer, MC2 Ingenieria y
Sistemas, S.L., Sevilla, Spain) consisting of a hammer crusher, a
mixer, and a basket centrifuge. The olive paste was mixed for
30 min at room temperature, centrifuged without the addition of
warm water, and then transferred into dark glass bottles. The amber
glass bottles were completely filled (without headspace) and stored
in the freezer until analysis. The experimentation of the microwave
heating was started 1 day after the olive oil extraction.
Microwave heating. A domestic microwave oven was used
for sample treatment (model AG820ASI, Midea, China). Three 70ml aliquots of each VOO were poured into respective glass beakers
of dimensions 7 cm (h) by 5 cm (inside diameter). The open
beakers were placed on the rotating turntable of the microwave
oven at equal distances from each other and exposed to a frequency
of 2,450 Hz at medium power (800 W). The oil samples were
subjected to microwaving for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 min. The
three 70-ml aliquots of each oil were combined after microwaving
in order to achieve a homogeneous sample that could be used for
chemical analysis. After the microwave heating, the samples were

J. Food Prot., Vol. 73, No. 10

stored under N2 and cooled at room temperature in the dark. After

around 1 h, the analyses of the FA, PV, and UV absorbance were
started.
FA. FA, given as percentage of oleic acid, was determined by
titration of a solution of oil dissolved in ethanol-ether (1:1) with
0.1 M potassium hydroxide. Repeatability of the FA was
satisfactory (coefficient of variation percentage [CV%] ~ 2.2, n
~ 5) (15).
PV. PV, expressed in milliequivalents of active oxygen per
kilogram of oil (mEq O2/kg), was determined as follows. Olive oil
(2.50 g) was dissolved in a mixture of chloroformacetic acid (2:3
[vol/vol]) and was left to react in darkness with saturated potassium
iodide; the free iodine was then titrated with a sodium thiosulfate
solution. Repeatability of the PV was satisfactory (CV% ~ 3.6, n
~ 5) (15).
Specific UV extinction coefficient (K232 and K270). K232 and
K270 extinction coefficients were calculated from absorption at 232
and 270 nm, respectively, with a UV spectrophotometer (Secomam
Anthelie Advanced, Ales Cedex, France), using a 1% solution of
oil in cyclohexane and a path length of 1 cm. Repeatability of the
specific UV extinction coefficient was satisfactory (K232: CV% ~
1.4, n ~ 5; K270: CV% ~ 2.3, n ~ 5) (15).
Fatty acid profile analysis. The fatty acid composition of the
oil was determined by gas chromatography as fatty acid methyl
esters (FAMEs). FAMEs were prepared by vigorous shaking of a
solution of each olive oil sample in n-hexane (0.2 g in 3 ml) with
0.4 ml 2 N methanolic potassium hydroxide solution. Chromatographic analysis was performed on a Hewlett Packard 4890D gas
chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector (Hewlett
Packard, Palo Alto, CA), using a fused-silica capillary column (30 m
by 0.25 mm inside diameter by 0.25-mm film thickness; HP Supelco,
Inc., Bellefonte, PA). The injector and detector temperatures were
maintained at 240 and 260uC, respectively; the oven temperature
was set at 210uC. Nitrogen was employed as the carrier gas, with a
flow rate of 1 ml/min. Fatty acids were identified by comparing
retention times with those of standard compounds.
Oxidative stability. Oxidative stability was evaluated by
the Rancimat method (24). Stability is expressed as the oxidation induction time (hours), measured with the Rancimat 743
apparatus (Metrohm Co., Basel, Switzerland), using an oil sample
of 3.5 g. All the oil samples were heated at 100uC while the air was
bubbled at a flow rate of 10 liters/h, with continuous conductimetric monitoring of the oxidation process. The reproducibility
of the determination of oxidative stability was 1.9% over five
replicates.
Spectrometric estimation of chlorophyll content. The
content of chlorophyll pigments was estimated from the equation
C (milligrams per kilogram as pheophytin a) ~ 345.3[A670 2
(A630 z A710)/2]/L, where Al is the absorbance of the oil at the
respective wavelength, and L is the cell thickness (in millimeters)
(27). The repeatability of the determination of total chlorophyll
content was checked for five replicates and was 3.6%.
Colorimetric determination of VOO total polar biophenol
content. The content of total polar biophenol was determined
according to procedures described by Tsimidou (46). An aliquot of
the polar fraction (0.2 ml) from each of the unheated and heated
(for 2.5 h) VOO samples was transferred into a 10-ml volumetric
flask to which water (4.8 ml) and Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (0.5 ml)

J. Food Prot., Vol. 73, No. 10

MICROWAVE HEATING EFFECTS ON TUNISIAN VOOS

1893

were subsequently added. Three minutes after the addition of the

reagent, 1 ml of a saturated sodium carbonate solution was added
to the reaction mixture. The solution was diluted with water to a
final volume of 10 ml, and after 1 h, its absorbance at 725 nm was
measured against a blank solution. Total phenol values were
expressed as milligrams of caffeic acid per kilogram of oil. The
reproducibility of standard solutions within the same day was
satisfactory (C ~ 100 mg/kg, CV% ~ 5.7, n ~ 5).
Fractionation of unheated and heated olive oil
samples. The fractionation of the oil samples was performed
according to the method described by Kalantzakis et al. (28).
Unheated and heated VOO samples (2.5 g) were dissolved in 5 ml
of n-hexane and extracted with 5 ml of a methanol-water mixture
(60:40 [vol/vol]). The resulting mixture was shaken vigorously by
means of a mechanical shaker (Vortex) and centrifuged at
3,500 rpm for 10 min. The (apolar) lipidic fraction (LF) was
obtained after evaporation of n-hexane. The methanolic fraction
(MF) (polar) was also retained and used as it was without any
further manipulation. The total fraction (TF) oil is without
fractionation.
Measurement of radical scavenging activity of VOO. The
unheated and heated olive oil samples were analyzed for their
capacity to scavenge the stable 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl
radical (DPPHN ) (28). One milliliter of the oil solution in ethyl
acetate (10% [wt/vol]) was added to 4 ml of a freshly prepared
DPPHN solution (1024 M in ethyl acetate) in a screw-cap 10-ml test
tube. The reaction mixture was vortexed for 10 s, and the tube was
held in the dark for 30 min, which allowed the reaction to reach a
steady state. The mixtures absorbance at 515 nm was measured
with respect to a blank solution (without radical). A control sample
(without oil) was prepared and measured daily.
The DPPHN concentration in the reaction medium was
calculated from the following calibration curve, which was
determined by linear regression:

:
A515nm ~ 10:6DPPH  z 0:0167

(r ~ 0:99)

where [DPPH ] is the concentration of DPPHN, expressed as M

(moles per liter).
The radical scavenging activity (RSA) toward DPPH was
expressed as the percent reduction in DPPHN concentration by the
constituents of the oils:

%DPPH red ~ 100 | (1 { DPPH 30 =DPPH 0 )

where [DPPHN ]0 and [DPPHN ]30 are the concentrations of DPPHN in
the control sample (t ~ 0) and in the test mixture after the 30-min
reaction, respectively.
The same procedure was followed for the LFs of unheated and
heated VOO samples.
The RSA of the MFs from unheated and heated VOO samples
were determined as follows: 0.5 ml of each MF was added to 3 ml
of a DPPHN methanolic solution (1024 M), and the resulting
mixture was shaken vigorously. Absorbance at 515 nm was
measured after 20 min. A calibration curve of DPPHN in methanol
was constructed as above:

A515nm ~ 7:3576DPPH  { 0:0172

(r 2 ~ 0:99)

Another calibration curve was generated with Trolox, as an

external standard with a range of concentrations from 0.03 to
0.4 mM in order to calculate the percent reduction in DPPHN
concentration:


%DPPH red ~ 200:93Trolox z 11:955
r 2 ~ 0:99

where [Trolox] is the concentration of Trolox (in micromoles).

FIGURE 1. Changes in oxidative indices of (A) free acidity (FA),

(B) peroxide value (PV), and specific UV extinction coefficients
K232 (C) and K270 (D) after microwave heating treatment on
Tataouine virgin olive oils.
Results were expressed as micromoles of Trolox per kilogram of
oil.
Statistical analysis. All values are expressed as the mean of
five replicate experiments. Significant differences among varieties
and microwave times (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 min) were
determined by one-way analysis of variance, followed by Duncans
test (P , 0.05). Calculations were performed with SPSS 16.0
software for Windows (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Changes in FA. FA values varied significantly among
the unheated Tataouine VOO samples (P , 0.001, a ~
0.05); however, none of the FA values exceeded 0.8%; thus,
they did not exceed the upper limit established for extra
virgin olive oil (16), which is the designation given to the
best commercial quality olive oil. When subjected to
microwave heating for different time intervals, the
Tataouine VOOs showed significant changes in their FA
values (P , 0.001, a ~ 0.05). The changes were slight
prior to 15 min of heating (Fig. 1A) but became more
considerable after the longer treatment times (20 and

1894

OUESLATI ET AL.

30 min). This finding was more pronounced in Zarrazi

Douirat VOO (approaching 2.5%) as compared with the other
samples studied (approaching 0.9%). These results complement those reported by Albi et al. (2) and Farag et al. (18).
Cossignani et al. (13) and Brenes et al. (8) found that FAs did
not significantly increase in EVOO after 10 min of treatment,
under similar microwave conditions. However, Albi et al. (2)
did not find any FA increase in EVOO after 120 min of
microwave heating at half power (170uC). The increase in
acidity is undoubtedly due to the splitting of ester linkages of
triglyceride molecules because of heating (50).
Changes in the PV. Figure 1B presents PV alterations
during microwave heating for different time intervals. As
reported, the PV adequately represents changes in oxidation
of the VOOs during microwave heating (50). At the
beginning of the experiments, prior heating, the PVs were
10.56, 12.5, 14.5, and 15.21 mEq O2/kg of olive oil for
Dhokar Douirat, Fakhari Douirat, Zarrazi Douirat, and
Chemlali Tataouine VOOs, respectively (Fig. 1B). Thus,
before treatment, all olive oils presented PVs that complied
with regulation (16) of EVOO (20 mEq O2/kg of olive oil).
During microwave heating, Dhokar Douirat olive oil
showed no significant differences (P ~ 0.48, a ~ 0.05)
in the PV, which remained unchanged until the end of heat
treatment (time 0 min: 10.56; time 30 min: 10.76 mEq O2/
kg oil). This finding may be related to the balance between
decomposition and production of hydroperoxide. In contrast, all other olive oil samples showed significant
differences (P , 0.003, a ~ 0.05) with increasing
microwave heating times. Specifically, the PV increased
during the initial stage of frying (10 min) to its maximum
value (19.67 mEq O2/kg of olive oil observed for Chemlali
Tataouine oil), which still did not exceed the limit that is
permitted for extra virgin oils. This increase was followed
by a decrease in PV with further heating (Fig. 1B). This PV
behavior documented in Chemlali Tataouine, Fakhari
Douirat, and Zarrazi Douirat olive oils could be explained
by changes during the oxidation process. At the beginning
of the experiment (during the first 10 min), the increase in
the PV could be due to the decomposition of peroxides.
After 10 min of heating, the decrease in the PV might be
because the rate of hydroperoxide demolition, which leads
to the formation of secondary oxidation products, has
exceeded that of hydroperoxide generation. Our observations are similar to those of Abd El-Moneim et al. (1), Albi
et al. (2), Caponio et al. (10), Cossignani et al. (13), and
Malheiro et al. (33) who observed increasing PV with
increasing microwave heating times. However, hydroperoxides are unstable at high temperatures. Microwave
heating promotes rapid transformation to secondary products, thereby contributing to off-flavors. Thus, monitoring
the PV during microwave heating has been questioned as a
valid analytical procedure.
Changes in absorptivity at 232 and 270 nm.
Absorptivity at 232 and 270 nm could be a good tool for
the analysis of oxidized oils. The analysis of variance
demonstrated that there were significant differences (P ,

J. Food Prot., Vol. 73, No. 10

0.001, a ~ 0.05) in absorptivity at 232 and 270 nm among

the studied VOOs across microwaving times. Figure 1C and
1D demonstrate the effect of microwave heating on the
specific UV extinction coefficients (K232 and K270). Before
the microwave heating procedure, all the fresh olive oils
(time zero) exhibited K232 and K270 values lower than the
upper limit of 2.50 and 0.20, respectively, thereby adhering
to the standards established for EVOO (16).
Both spectrophotometric parameters increased gradually with increasing microwave heating time. Absorptivity at
232 nm showed no significant changes until after 10 min of
microwave exposure in almost all of the VOOs studied.
From 10 to 30 min of heat treatment, values increased
gradually to reach 2.78, 3.1, 3.21, and 3.5 in Fakhari
Douirat, Zarrazi Douirat, Chemlali Tataouine, and Dhokar
Douirat VOOs, respectively. This increase may be due to
increased formation of conjugated dienes. The same
situation was also observed for K270 values. In fact,
molecular friction during microwave heating could promote
the formation of trienes and unsaturated ketones or
aldehydes, which are secondary products of oxidation.
These results support the findings of Abd El-Moneim et al.
(1), Albi et al. (2), Caponio et al. (10), and Malheiro et al.
(33). Changes in UV absorptivity of microwave-heated
EVOO samples indicate that oxidation occurred. Reactive
free radicals can be formed in response to microwave energy
exposure. The first step of lipid peroxidation is the
abstraction of a hydrogen atom from the active methylene
group and consequent formation of the free radical. This
reaction can be accelerated by microwaves (18).
It has to be mentioned that the initial high levels of the
quality parameters, which were close to the limits
established by the European Community for EVOO, can
be explained by the transport of olives from Tataouine to
Tunis (,531 km), which caused a slight fermentation of
olives before oil extractions.
Changes in fatty acid profile. Only the most abundant
FAMEs found in extra virgin olive oils are shown in
Table 1. These include oleic acid (C18:1), palmitic acid
(C16:0), and linoleic acid (C18:2). The ratio of monounsaturated fats to polyunsaturated fats (MUFA/PUFA) has also
been studied for its contribution to nutrition. Prior to any
microwave treatment, only Dhokar Douirat VOO had a
FAME composition outside normal values. Chemlali
Tataouine, Fakhari Douirat, and Zarrazi Douirat varieties
produced oils with a high level of C18:1 (maximum of
76.02%) and low C16:0 and C18:2 contents (minimum of
9.50 and 4.77%, respectively). The MUFA/PUFA ratio was
high and reached a peak ratio of 14.67, which was
suggestive of good stability characteristics. After microwave
treatment, all studied FAME and their ratios showed no
marked variation during heating (P $ 0.761, a ~ 0.05).
Thus, before and after microwave treatment, all of the
Tataouine VOOs, aside from Dhokar Douirat, showed
desirable fatty acid compositions that were similar to those
fatty acid compositions found in some fresh Spanish, Greek,
and Italian VOOs (21, 40). The minor fatty acids showed
also no variation after microwave heating (unpublished

J. Food Prot., Vol. 73, No. 10

1895

MICROWAVE HEATING EFFECTS ON TUNISIAN VOOS

TABLE 1. Effect of microwave heating on the fatty acid composition in Tataouine VOOs at different time intervals
Time interval (min):
FAME

10

15

20

30

C16:0 (%)
Chemlali
Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat

12.86
9.79
9.50
18.80

0.10
0.11
0.16
0.24

b Aa
aA
aA
cA

12.84
9.77
9.52
18.82

0.19
0.14
0.11
0.27

bA
aA
aA
cA

12.87
9.78
9.50
18.80

0.16
0.16
0.06
0.20

bA
aA
aA
cA

12.88
9.76
9.51
18.81

0.11
0.12
0.15
0.21

b A 12.85 0.15 b A 12.84 0.11 b A

a A 9.77 0.13 a A 9.75 0.05 a A
a A 9.49 0.10 a A 9.52 0.11 a A
c A 18.83 0.19 c A 18.82 0.34 c A

C18:1 (%)
Chemlali
Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat

74.48
75.00
76.02
51.25

1.58
2.37
0.77
0.59

bA
bA
bA
aA

74.46
75.05
76.06
51.27

1.67
1.98
1.30
1.83

bA
bA
bA
aA

74.49
75.07
76.04
51.25

1.17
1.40
1.69
0.98

bA
bA
bA
aA

74.44
75.10
76.01
51.24

1.70
1.48
2.42
0.58

bA
bA
bA
aA

74.50
75.09
76.11
51.26

0.63
1.53
1.11
1.22

bA
bA
bA
aA

74.47
75.06
76.09
51.27

1.20
0.50
1.43
1.31

bA
bA
bA
aA

C18:2 (%)
Chemlali
Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat

4.77
9.89
9.52
23.41

0.02
0.01
0.09
0.16

a A 4.72
c A 9.90
b A 9.51
d A 23.38

0.11
0.09
0.17
0.08

aA
cA
bA
dA

4.73
9.87
9.48
23.37

0.09
0.14
0.06
0.09

aA
cA
bA
dA

4.70
9.84
9.46
23.33

0.05
0.11
0.11
0.23

a A 4.68
c A 9.82
b A 9.45
d A 23.32

0.16
0.09
0.12
0.27

a A 4.66
c A 9.79
b A 9.43
d A 23.30

0.12
0.05
0.17
0.39

aA
cA
bA
dA

MUFA/PUFAb
Chemlali
Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat

14.67
7.16
7.66
2.21

0.07
0.09
0.12
0.03

d A 14.69 0.09 d A
b A 7.18 0.06 b A
c A 7.69 0.06 c A
a A 2.24 0.05 a A

14.68
7.14
7.66
2.20

0.03
0.02
0.14
0.02

dA
bA
cA
aA

14.65
7.15
7.68
2.23

0.04
0.05
0.09
0.06

d A 14.66 0.05 d A 14.67 0.06 d A

b A 7.17 0.14 b A 7.19 0.05 b A
c A 7.67 0.11 c A 7.64 0.10 c A
a A 2.24 0.05 a A 2.20 0.03 a A

For each parameter examined, means within a column with same lowercase letters and means within a row with same capital letters are
not significantly different (P , 0.05).
MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids.

data). These findings support those of Cossignani et al. (13),

who reported no changes in the fatty acid composition of
VOOs during microwave heating. Mai et al. (32) also
showed that microwave heating of fatty foods (chicken fat,
beef tallow, bacon fat, fish oils, and peanut oil) did not yield
any alterations in the fatty acid composition nor in
isomerization of unsaturated fatty acids.
Changes in chlorophyll content. Pigments not only
determine the color of a product, but given their antioxidant
nature in the dark and pro-oxidant activity in the light,
pigments also play an important role in the oxidative
activity of processed food. Changes in total chlorophyll
content, expressed as pheophytin a, are shown in Table 2.
Before the microwave heat treatment, all the fresh oils under
consideration showed significant differences (P , 0.001, a
~ 0.05) in their chlorophyll contents; Dhokar Douirat oil
possessed the least (5.67 mg/kg), whereas Chemlali
Tataouine oil had the most (31.32 mg/kg). The remaining
oil varieties presented intermediate amounts.
During the microwave treatment, all of the samples
showed gradual decreases in their chlorophyll contents. In
fact, when correlating microwave heating time to chlorophyll content, very significant negative correlations were
established (Table 2). After 5 min of microwave treatment,
the chlorophyllic pigments in Chemlali Tataouine, Zarrazi

Douirat, and Fakhari Douirat olive oils decreased to 27.12 (a

13.40% decrease), 9.73 (25.01%), and 9.40 (36.80%) mg/
kg, respectively. However, the Dhokar Douirat VOO was
completely depleted (Table 2).
After 15 min of microwave heating, the chlorophyll
content of Chemlali Tataouine, Zarrazi Douirat, and Fakhari
Douirat VOOs decreased by 31.86, 39.14, and 57.50%,
respectively; however, their amounts remain similar to those
found in some fresh Tunisian (25), Portuguese (33), and
Argentinean (45) VOOs. At the end of the microwave
treatment (30 min), only Chemlali Tataouine showed a
noticeable amount of chlorophyll content (8.19 mg/kg), a
trait that may be attributed to its highest initial chlorophyll
content (Table 2), whereas a strong degradation in the
chlorophyll compounds of Fakhari Douirat and Zarrazi
Douirat olive oils was detected with a decrease reaching
1.45 and 1.78 mg/kg, respectively.
Changes in oxidative stability. The effect of microwave heating on the oxidative stability of Tataouine olive
oils, as measured by induction time by using the Rancimat
method, is shown in Table 2. Before treatment, oxidative
stability values for the studied VOOs varied significantly
among olive varieties (P , 0.001, a ~ 0.05). According to
the classification established by Uceda and Hermoso (47),
all oils other than Dhokar Douirat showed remarkably high

20.985a
20.944a
20.975a
20.604a
20.893a
20.509a
20.884a
20.793a
20.886a
20.972a
20.890a
20.939a
20.529d
20.965a
20.952a
20.970a
20.541d
20.965a
20.960a
20.925a
20.915a
20.971a
20.942a
20.931a

Studied parameters

Chlorophyll (mg/kg as pheophytin a)

Chemlali Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat

Oxidative stability (h)

Chemlali Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat

Biophenol content (mg CA kg21 oil)

Chemlali Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat

RSA of TFc
Chemlali Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat

RSA of LF e
Chemlali Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat

RSA of MF f
Chemlali Tataouine
Fakhari Douirat
Zarrazi Douirat
Dhokar Douirat
5,475
5,366
5,396
5,220

92.58
52.87
65.68
85.57

94.87
92.23
92.78
90.39

915
612
681
491

92.76
72.6
83.7
30.4

31.32
14.87
12.98
5.67

dD
bF
cD
aC

19
23
13
25

dA
aE
bD
cC

bA
ab D
ab E
aE

cC
bE
bC
aD

2.34
2.23
1.47
1.17

2.34
2.47
0.49
0.18

5,469
5,349
5,385
5,209

92.24
49.41
62.64
82.55

94.52
92.16
90.26
91.78

909
592
662
367

90.6
68.5
81.1
24.7

dA
a DE
b CD
cC

a
a
a
a

17 c C
28 b E
11 b C
9aD

2.27
1.44
2.12
1.79

2.11
3.59
2.88
1.41
A

b CD
bE
bD
a BC

13 d D
5bD
7cB
6aE

4.4
2.9
1.5
6.6

d Fb 27.12 1.35 c E
cF
9.40 0.66 b E
bE
9.73 0.36 b D
aB
00 00 a A

10 d D
7bE
13 c C
13 a F

4.1
3.4
5.2
5.8

1.13
0.67
0.97
0.21

5,464
5,278
5,255
5,196

92.17
45.27
58.99
80.42

94.69
72.89
70.76
81.87

892
581
654
277

89.9
63.0
81.6
22.8

24.48
7.46
7.98
00

d CD
bD
cD
aB

22
25
20
11

dA
aD
bC
c BC

cA
aC
aD
bD

cC
bD
bB
aD

2.18
1.74
1.48
2.06

1.66
2.01
2.77
2.09

14 d C
5bC
7cB
10 a D

3.4
4.2
3.1
3.9

1.01 c D
1.19 b D
0.12 b C
00 a A

10

5,398
5,131
5,248
4,687

91.08
34.29
45.59
79.25

94.33
63.95
55.12
72.66

851
576
608
226

84.2
54.7
75.4
18.3

21.34
6.32
7.90
00

dC
bC
cC
a AB

dA
aC
bB
c BC

dA
bB
aC
cC

15 d B
11 b C
9cB
14 a C

1.65
1.81
3.28
1.36

3.31
2.69
2.96
2.24

9dB
4bC
10 c A
11 a C

6.8
1.6
3.6
2.8

0.82 d C
1.04 b C
0.23 c C
00 a A

15

5,287
5,082
5,233
3,781

90.33
28.74
41.91
77.24

92.89
51.76
48.32
62.98

838
552
602
190

73.5
48.1
70.4
16.3

16.89
4.34
5.37
00

cB
bB
cB
aA

dA
aB
bB
cB

cA
aA
aB
bB

29 d A
9bB
5cB
9aB

3.20
0.80
1.07
2.91

1.91
1.34
1.47
2.35

20 c AB
3bB
13 c A
6aB

4.6
3.1
2.0
4.0

1.45 c B
0.14 b B
0.40 b B
00 a A

20

5,265
4,978
5,147
3,514

88.67
22.69
35.17
65.92

90.78
50.34
40.76
53.99

823
513
597
141

55.7
36.2
48.9
12.4

8.19
1.45
1.78
00

cA
aA
bA
aA

dA
aA
bA
cA

cA
bA
aA
bA

8dA
14 b A
10 c A
15 a A

1.25
3.64
1.32
0.81

1.77
2.92
2.30
2.04

18 d A
8bA
5cA
8aA

2.6
3.6
6.7
2.1

0.91 c A
0.08 b A
0.09 b A
00 a A

30

Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.

For each parameter examined, means within a column with different lowercase letters and means within a row with different capital letters are significantly different (P , 0.05).
c
Radical scavenging activity (RSA) of the total fraction (TF) of Tataouine VOOs, expressed as percent reduction in concentration of DPPHN after a 30-min reaction with unheated or heated olive oil
samples.
d
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.
e
Radical scavenging activity (RSA) expressed as percent reduction in concentration of DPPHN after a 30-min reaction with unheated or heated olive oil lipidic fractions (LF).
f
Radical scavenging activity (RSA) of unheated and heated virgin olive oil methanolic fractions (MFs) expressed as micromoles of Trolox per kilogram of oil samples.

,0.001
,0.001
,0.001
,0.001

0.020
,0.001
,0.001
,0.001

0.024
,0.001
,0.001
,0.001

,0.001
,0.001
,0.001
,0.001

,0.001
0.004
,0.001
,0.001

,0.001
,0.001
,0.001
,0.001

P value

Time interval (min):

OUESLATI ET AL.

Pearson
correlation

TABLE 2. Effect of microwave heating on the induction time, the natural antioxidant contents, and the capacity of the TF, LF, and MF to scavenge the free radical [DPPHN]

1896
J. Food Prot., Vol. 73, No. 10

J. Food Prot., Vol. 73, No. 10

stability, with 72.6 h for Fakhari Douirat, 83.7 h for Zarrazi

Douirat, and 92.8 h for Chemlali Tataouine VOOs, as
compared with what is considered low oxidative stability
(,40 h). With increasing microwave treatment, the
oxidative stability of each sample displayed different
behaviors (Table 2). During the first 10 min of microwave
treatment, Chemlali Tataouine and Zarrazi Douirat VOOs
showed relatively unchanged oxidative stabilities. This
finding was especially apparent when compared with the
VOO of the stable Spanish variety Picual, which showed a
decrease in its stability of more than 9% after 10 min of
microwave heating (8). Chemlali Tataouine and Zarrazi
Douirat VOOs seem to be more resistant to microwave
heating, as suggested by oxidative stability readings of 92.8
to 89.8 h, and from 83.7 to 81.6 h, representing a
corresponding decrease of 3.1 and 2.6%, respectively
(Table 2). At 20 min of microwave heating, Chemlali
Tataouine and Zarrazi Douirat VOOs continued to display
high oxidative stability (.70 h), which is similar to that
found in some fresh European VOOs (41). At the end of
experimentation, although the oxidative stability of these
two varieties showed a remarkable decrease (,40%), the
values remain close to that of some Tunisian (5) and
Spanish (38) fresh VOOs. Furthermore, a significant
negative correlation between the microwave heating times
and the oxidative stability of Fakhari Douirat VOO was
found (Table 2). During the first 10 min of heating, the
decrease in the oxidative stability of Fakhari Douirat VOO
was minimal; a drop from 72.6 to 65.0 h was observed,
which represented a 10.5% decrease. This result is similar to
that found by Brenes et al. (8). After 30 min of microwave
treatment, although the decrease in oxidative stability of
Fakhari Douirat is a more pronounced 36.2 h (a decrease of
approximately 50%), it is still similar to that found in the
fresh olive oil of the main Tunisian variety Chemlali (35) as
well as some Portuguese varieties (30). In contrast, Dhokar
Douirat VOO showed a high deterioration during microwave heating; its oxidative stability had decreased 40%
(18.3 h) after only 15 min of heating and reached 12.4 h at
the end of experimentation. This result is similar to that
found by Marinova et al. (34), who showed that the low
oxidative stability (33 h) of unheated VOO decreased by
40% after 15 min of microwave heating. The major reasons
for the differences in the oxidative stabilities of the studied
Tataouine VOOs most likely include the oils degree of
unsaturation as well as the natural antioxidants present in
the samples. It seems that microwave heating time caused
olive oils to be more prone to oxidation and perhaps this is
due in part to the high temperature reached at the end of the
experimentation (13), since the effect of microwave heating
on the thermoxidative degradation of olive oils has been
proved by Cossignani et al. (13) and Marinova et al. (34).
Some researchers (34) have demonstrated that a
decrease in oxidation stability correlates with the initial
tocopherol content. Other researchers have suggested that in
addition to its low PUFA content (13), the resistance of
olive oil to deterioration from microwave heating might be
due to the presence of phenolic compounds (8, 9). In fact,
recent studies suggest that the biophenolic compounds

MICROWAVE HEATING EFFECTS ON TUNISIAN VOOS

1897

naturally contained in VOO improve its resistance to

oxidative deterioration (23). Biophenolic antioxidants
interrupt the initiation and propagation stages of the
oxidative chain reaction because they react with lipid
radicals to form more stable products (19).
Changes in polar biophenol content. The colorimetric procedure, which is based on the use of FolinCiocalteu
reagent, was applied in this study for the determination of
the total polar biophenol concentrations (43). Changes in
total polar biophenol content during microwave heating
times are shown in Table 2. Few reports have dealt with the
effect of microwave heating on total biophenol content as
determined by the Folin-Ciocalteu method (3, 11). As
shown in Table 2, total biophenol contents varied significantly during the microwave treatment for all varieties (P ,
0.001). According to the classification of Uceda and
Hermoso (47), all unheated Tataouine VOOs contain
remarkably high levels of total polar biophenols
(.450 mg/kg). Chemlali Tataouine VOO exhibited the
greatest amount (915 mg/kg), whereas Dhokar Douirat
VOO showed the least (491 mg/kg), and Fakhari Douirat
and Zarrazi Douirat displayed intermediate amounts (612
and 681 mg/kg, respectively). As demonstrated by Berlitz
and Grosch (6), the presence of large amounts of
polyphenols in VOO can be advantageous, given that their
antiradical activity can play a protective role in the
degradation of tocopherols during cooking.
During microwave treatment, the variation of the polar
biophenol levels was statistically significant (P , 0.001, a
~ 0.05). In Chemlali Tataouine VOO, the polar biophenol
content remained unaltered during the first 5 min of
microwave heating (915 to 909 mg/kg), but was followed
by a very slight decrease at longer heating times. In fact,
after 15 min of microwave heating, the polar biophenol
content decreased to 851 mg/kg, corresponding to a 6.95%
loss, and it eventually reached 823 mg/kg at the end of the
experiment. The polar biophenol content of Zarrazi Douirat
VOO that was heated for 15 min decreased to 608 mg/kg,
which corresponded to a 10.72% decrease. After this point,
the levels remained unchanged throughout the remainder of
the experiment. In Fakhari Douirat VOO, the polar
biophenol content was gradually reduced to 513 mg/kg
after the longer treatment time, which corresponded to a
16.16% decrease. Intriguingly, the polar biophenol content
in Dhokar Douirat VOO plummeted to 141 mg/kg after
30 min of microwave heating, which corresponded to a
71.24% decrease.
In comparison to the findings of Albi et al. (2), who
demonstrated large decreases in total biophenolic content of
VOOs after prolonged microwave treatment (120 min) and
Cerretani et al. (11), who also showed a drastic decrease in
the polar biophenol contents of Monopoli VOOs (Apulia,
Italy) after 15 min of microwave heating, the Chemlali
Tataouine, Fakhari Douirat, and Zarrazi Douirat VOOs may
be considered resistant to microwave heating due to the
comparatively low deterioration of their polar biophenol
contents. Some studies (42) have shown that p-hydroxyphenyl ethanol (HPEA) and ligstroside derivatives, such as

1898

OUESLATI ET AL.

p-HPEA-EDA and p-HPEA-EA, and lignans do not change

after 10 min of microwave heating, thereby confirming the
high stability of these substances when exposed to
microwave heating. As with oxidative stability, the total
content of biophenol in the studied varieties remained high
and values were comparable to those reported for fresh
VOOs from the second main Tunisian variety Chetoui (5)
and some Spanish varieties (4).
The correlation between polar phenol compounds and
VOO stability has been well established (40) and was
further verified by our findings presented here. During the
microwave treatment, Dhokar Douirat VOO, which had the
lowest total polar biophenol content, showed the weakest
oxidative stability while Chemlali Tataouine, which had the
highest total polar biophenol content, showed the strongest
stability.
Obviously, the effect of microwave heating on the
chemical composition of the studied VOOs varied with
heating time since the temperature increase as long as the
exposure time increase (33) and with the genetic factor,
because the antioxidant rates varied from one variety to
another (8). Other researchers (14) evaluate the changes in
the olive oil composition induced by different microwave
power levels and showed that setting the power of the
microwave oven to 240 W, the olive oil took 40 min to heat
up to a target temperature of 190uC, while it took only 7 min
to reach the same temperature in the microwave oven for
High heating power.
Changes in antioxidant capacity of TF, LF, and MF.
Further experimentation on the RSA of the VOOs in
question verified the exceptional characteristics discussed
above. Changes that occurred in the RSA of TF as well as in
both LF and MF of Tataouine VOOs across microwave
exposure times are given in Table 2. To the best of our
knowledge, no studies have previously evaluated the effects
of microwave heating on the antioxidant capacity of the
polar and apolar fractions of VOO.
As expected considering the findings described above,
the antioxidant activity of unheated Tataouine oil TFs, as
determined by the DPPH test, showed extremely high
capacities (.90%). In fact, Chemlali Tataouine oil TF
showed the highest RSA (94.87%), while those of the
remaining VOO samples demonstrated similar capacities to
quench DPPH radicals (mean percentage of ,91.80%). As
with oxidative stability and polar biophenol content, the
variation of RSA measurements during microwave treatment differed from one variety to another. Given the data
shown in Table 2, it is interesting to highlight the
remarkably high levels of RSA in Chemlali Tataouine oil
TF that were maintained during microwave treatment even
after 30 min of heating (t0 ~ 94.87%, t30 ~ 90.78%).
These levels were almost two-fold higher than those levels
found in the TF of fresh VOO of Greek varieties (28). The
RSA of the TF from Fakhari Douirat, Zarrazi Douirat, and
Dhokar Douirat VOOs did not change during the first 5 min
of the experiment (Table 2), thereby confirming a high
resistance of the antioxidants and consequent oxidative
stability of the studied VOOs when exposed to microwave

J. Food Prot., Vol. 73, No. 10

heating. After 10 min of heating, although the TF of such

varieties gradually decreased in their capacities to scavenge
the free radical [DPPHN ], they also seemed to maintain more
than 40% of their RSA for a longer period, even after 30 min
of heating. Even at the end of heating, the RSA values of the
TFs from Fakhari Douirat, Zarrazi Douirat, and Dhokar
Douirat VOOs (40.76, 50.34, and 53.99%, respectively)
were similar to that found in the TF of the main fresh
Tunisian VOO variety Chemlali (35). Dhokar Douirat VOO
showed lower polar biophenols, oleic acid, and chlorophyll
contents, as well as lower oxidative stability, as compared
with Fakhari Douirat and Zarrazi Douirat VOOs before and
during microwave heating. However, the TF of Dhokar
Douirat had the highest capacity to scavenge the free radical
[DPPHN ] throughout the experiment. This result could be
explained by the fact that the TF of Dhokar Douirat VOO
may have some powerful antioxidant compounds other than
phenols and chlorophylls. Similarly, the high antioxidant
potential of the TF of Tataouine VOO before and during the
microwave treatment is mostly due to the high concentration
of natural antioxidants such as tocopherols, sterols, and
polyphenolic compounds (35).
The LFs from VOOs contain mostly tocopherols,
triglycerides, and phospholipids, and thus the antioxidant
capacity of the LF is predominantly due to the type and
concentration of tocopherols. Phospholipids, on the other
hand, have a much lower RSA but affect the antioxidant
capacity of vitamin E (29). The analysis of variance showed
that the LFs of the fresh Tataouine VOOs showed
significant differences (P , 0.001, a ~ 0.05) in their
RSA. Two groups of LFs were defined; the first group
contains Chemlali Tataouine and Dhokar Douirat LFs and is
characterized by the highest RSA values (92.58 and
85.57%, respectively), whereas the second group is
composed of Zarrazi Douirat and Fakhari Douirat LFs and
is characterized by the lowest RSA values (65.68 and
52.87%, respectively). The variation in the antioxidant
capacity of the LFs of VOOs is due to the variation in their
tocopherol contents (31). Considering the current literature,
it is interesting to mention the unusually high RSA in the LF
of Chemlali Tataouine VOO, which is due to a high atocopherol content (approximately 715 mg/kg) (35). This
antioxidant capacity is three-fold higher than that capacity
observed in the LF of Greek VOOs (28, 48). The LF of
Dhokar VOO, which also showed an extremely high
antioxidant capacity to scavenge free radicals, is also due
to its high a-tocopherol content (approximately 454 mg/kg)
(35). This result explained the high RSA of the TF from
Dhokar Douirat despite its low polar biophenol content.
Similar to what happened to the RSA of the TF from
the studied VOOs during microwave treatment, the loss of
the capacity to scavenge the free radical DPPH by the LF
varied according to VOO variety. Data in Table 2 indicate
that the capacity of the nonpolar fraction of Chemlali
Tataouine VOO to scavenge the DPPH radical remains
unchanged throughout microwave treatment (P ~ 0.424, a
~ 0.05). This is might be due to the initial high levels of
tocopherol compounds. It has been well documented in
several studies that tocopherols have different efficiencies as

J. Food Prot., Vol. 73, No. 10

FIGURE 2. Correlation between the oxidative stability and the

radical scavenging activity of the methanolic fractions of the
studied Tataouine samples.

antioxidants. Furthermore, it has been shown that dtocopherol has the highest efficiency, followed by ctocopherol, which is equivalent to b-tocopherol, and finally,
a-tocopherol as the least efficient antioxidant (45). The LF
of Dhokar Douirat VOO showed no significant variations (P
$ 0.05) in its RSA during the first 5 min of microwave
heating, which was followed by only minor losses observed
at the end of microwave heating, 65.92% (Table 2). A
gradual decrease in the antioxidant capacity of the LFs from
Zarrazi Douirat and Fakhari Douirat VOOs were observed
during the course of microwave heating until they had
succumbed to losses of 35.17 and 22.69%, respectively.
These percentages are similar to those observed for the LF
of fresh Greek VOOs (28, 48).
Because of this evaluation, we concluded that RSA
values of Tataouine VOOs before and during heating were
higher than those values of their respective nonpolar

MICROWAVE HEATING EFFECTS ON TUNISIAN VOOS

1899

fractions. Furthermore, we suggest that the RSAs of the

TFs of the studied VOOs are influenced not only by the
scavenging activity of lipophilic antioxidants (a-tocopherol), but also by the polar phenolic compounds present in the
VOO methanolic fractions.
The MFs of VOOs contain most of the phenolic
antioxidants (including hydrotyrosol, tyrosol, syringic acid,
sinapic acid, caffeic acid, etc.) as well as the lignans and
secoiridoids (oleuropein aglycone) (47). As shown in
Table 2, the RSA of the polar fraction of unheated VOO
samples, expressed in terms of Trolox equivalents, showed
significant differences (P , 0.001, a ~ 0.05) between
varieties; however, these fractions maintained extremely
high amounts (ranging between 5,220 and 5,475 mmol
Trolox per kg of oil). During microwave treatment, the RSA
values of the MFs from VOOs other than Dhokar Douirat
remained constant for a long period and then gradually
decreased, but they maintained large amounts until the end
of the experiment (5,265, 5,147, and 4,978 mmol Trolox
per kg of oil, respectively, for Chemlali Tataouine, Zarrazi
Douirat, and Fakhari Douirat MFs). These antioxidant
capacities are almost two-fold higher than those capacities
observed in the MF of fresh Greek VOOs (28). Despite the
fact that the RSA of the Dhokar Douirat oil MF showed a
drastic decrease over the course of microwave heating time,
reaching 3,514 mmol Trolox per kg of oil after 30 min of
heating, this capacity is still much higher than the capacity
observed in the MF of the fresh Spanish VOOs (22).
These reductions in the radical scavenging potential
across all of the studied MFs can be justified by a similar
trend in the reduction of the total biophenol content of VOO
samples. In fact, a good correlation is established between
the RSA of the MFs and the biophenol contents (r ~ 0.945,
P ~ 0.004; r ~ 0.939, P ~ 0.005; r ~ 0.876, P ~ 0.022;
and r ~ 0.812, P ~ 0.05 at a ~ 0.05 for Chemlali
Tataouine, Fakhari Douirat, Zarrazi Douirat, and Dhokar
Douirat, respectively). This observation is in agreement with
Chimi et al. (12), who reported that phenolic compounds
were degraded because of their antioxidant activity, and that
their degradation rate positively correlated with their
antioxidant efficacy. Some studies showed that oleuropein
ester (39,49-DHPEA), oleuropein, and hydrotyrosol exhibit a
strong radical scavenging activity, which has been shown to
be more effective than 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol
(BHT) or vitamin E (49). So, good correlations between
the total biophenol contents and the oxidative stability and
between the RSA of the MFs and the biophenol contents are
established; a good correlation is established, also, between
the RSA of the MFs and the oxidative stability in all the
studied samples (Fig. 2).
We can therefore conclude that, although the rate of
variation of the parameters studied during microwave
heating differed according to the VOO varietal factor, the
Tataouine VOOs (particularly Chemlali Tataouine) maintained unusually high natural antioxidant contents and
exceptional radical scavenging activity. These findings are
of interest (i) to the local industrial sector as the studied
VOOs can be recommended for microwave heating in
domestic and industrial applications; (ii) to the international

1900

OUESLATI ET AL.

olive oil business, since the exportation and commercialization of Tunisian oil affect many countries; and (iii) to the
final consumer, who demands safe and healthy oil.

J. Food Prot., Vol. 73, No. 10

18.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

19.

This work formed a part of a National Research Project. We thank the

Ministry of High Education, Scientific Research, and Technology for
financial support.

20.

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2. Albi, T., A. Lanzon, A. Guinda, M. Leon, and M. C. Perez-Camino.
1997. Microwave and conventional heating effects on thermoxidative degradation of edible fats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45:3795
3798.
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