PowerElectronics - BAsic Consepts

POWER ELECTRONICS EE 362L
INDEX
10 Cornerstones...................2
1-phase bipolar inverter.....11
3-phase inverter .................14
3-phase power and
commutation......................7
3-phase PWM inverter.......14
3-phase rectifier ...................7
3-phase Thvenin equivalent
...........................................8
with .............................8
3-phase voltage and
commutation..................7, 8
air gap flux ........................16
amp......................................3
Ampere's law .....................20
amplitude modulation ratio12
area
sphere ...........................20
average ................................2
average value.....................19
B magnetic flux dens. ......20
binomial expansion............20
binomial theorem...............20
bipolar inverter ..................12
bridge rectifier .....................6
buck converter ...................10
buck-boost converter ...10, 11
C capacitance......................3
calculus..............................19
capacitance ..........................3
capacitor ..............................2
CF crest factor ....................2
commutation
3-phase power ................7
3-phase voltage ..........7, 8
power..............................6
voltage............................6
commutation interval...........6
complex conjugate.............18
complex numbers ..............18
conjugate
complex........................18
constant torque ..................17
constant volts/Hz ...............17
converter
buck..............................10
buck-boost..............10, 11
Ck...............................11
dc-dc...................9, 10, 11
step-down .....................10
step-up..........................10
coulomb...............................3
crest factor ...........................2
Ck converter ....................11
D electric flux dens...........20
dB decibels .........................3
dc...................................2, 19
dc-ac inverters .............11, 14
dc-dc converters ......9, 10, 11
Tom Penick
decibel .................................3
delta-wye transformer..........8
dependent variable.............20
derivatives .........................19
diode current........................8
distortion .............................2
duty cycle ............................9
E electric field ..................20
efficiency of induction motor
.........................................17
electric motors...................15
Euler's equation .................19
even function.......................4
farad ....................................3
Faraday's law.....................20
Fourier series...............2, 4, 5
square wave....................5
frequency domain..............20
frequency modulation ratio12
fsl slip frequency ...............16
full bridge converter ..........11
Gauss' law .........................20
general math ......................18
generalized harmonics
1-phase .........................13
3-phase .........................14
graph paper........................21
graphing terminology ........20
H magnetic field ...............20
half-wave rectifier ...............5
harmonics
generalized, 1-phase.....13
generalized, 3-phase.....14
henry ...................................3
Hoft .....................................2
horsepower ..........................3
hyperbolic functions..........20
I1 ..........................................8
iA rectifier current ...............8
independent variable .........20
inductance ...........................3
induction motor .................16
induction motor model ......15
inductor ...........................2, 3
LC tank circuit ...............3
integration .........................19
inverter ........................11, 14
3-phase .........................14
bipolar ..........................11
harmonic voltage..........13
pulse width modulation 12
J current density ...............20
joule.....................................3
KCL.....................................2
kelvin...................................3
Kimbark's equations ............7
with .............................7
Kirchoffs current law .........2
Kirchoffs voltage law.........2
tom@tomzap.com
KVL ....................................2
L inductance .......................3
LHpitols rule.................20
LC tank circuit ....................3
linear range........................12
linearizing an equation ......20
ma amplitude modulation
ratio .................................12
magnetic path length ...........3
magnitude..........................18
Maxwell's equations..........20
mf frequency modulation
ratio .................................12
minimum inductance...........9
model
induction motor............15
motor
induction motor............16
N number of turns ...............3
newton.................................3
ns synchronous speed .......16
odd function ........................4
overmodulation .................12
parallel resistance ................3
permeability ........................3
PF power factor..................3
3-phase rectifier .............9
phase .................................18
phase current .......................8
phasor notation..................18
plotting I1 ............................8
plotting iA ............................8
plotting paper ....................21
plotting V1 ...........................8
plotting Vdc ..........................8
power ..................................2
electric motor ...............15
power and commutation......6
power factor ........................3
3-phase rectifier .............9
pull out ..............................15
pulse width modulation
synchronous .................12
pulse width modulation in
inverters...........................12
PWM pulse width
modulation ......................12
PWM inverter
3-phase.........................14
rectifier
three-phase.....................7
rectifiers ..............................5
resistance
in parallel .......................3
resistor.................................2
rms ................................2, 19
square wave .................19
rms harmonic voltage in
inverters...........................13
www.teicontrols.com/notes
PowerElectronics.pdf
root mean square ............... 19

rpm
induction motor............ 16
s slip................................. 16
S.S. capacitor principle ....... 2
S.S. inductor principle......... 2
series ................................. 20
single-phase bridge rectifier 6
slip .................................... 16
slip frequency.................... 16
slip speed .......................... 16
space-time ......................... 18
sphere................................ 20
square wave
Fourier series ................. 5
square wave inverter ......... 11
starting torque ................... 15
step-down converter.......... 10
step-up converter............... 10
synchronous pulse width
modulation ...................... 12
synchronous speed ............ 16
tank circuit .......................... 3
temperature ......................... 3
tesla ..................................... 3
THD .................................... 2
Thvenin equivalent............ 7
3-phase........................... 8
with ....................... 8
three-phase rectifier ............ 7
time domain ...................... 20
time-average...................... 18
time-averaged power......... 18
time-harmonic ................... 20
torque ................................ 15
constant........................ 17
starting ......................... 15
trigonometric identities ..... 19
u commutation interval ...... 6
unibipolar inverter............. 12
units .................................... 3
V1 ........................................ 8
Vdc ....................................... 8
vi relationship...................... 2
volt ...................................... 3
voltage and commutation .... 6
volts/Hz ratio..................... 17
volume
sphere........................... 20
watt ..................................... 3
weber................................... 3
wye-delta transformer ......... 8
ag air gap flux ................. 16
efficiency of induction
motor............................... 17
volume charge dens. .... 20
sl slip speed .................... 16
8/18/2003 Page 1 of 21
10 CORNERSTONES OF POWER
ELECTRONICS - Hoft
8. S.S. INDUCTOR PRINCIPLE

Under steady state conditions, the average voltage
across an inductor is zero.
1. KVL
Kirchoffs Voltage Law. The sum of the changes in
voltage around a circuit loop is equal to zero. This is
true in both the instantaneous and average (integrate
over one cycle) sense.
2. KCL
Kirchoffs Current Law. The current entering a node is
equal to the current leaving the node. This is also true
in both the instantaneous and average (integrate over
one cycle) sense.
9. S.S. CAPACITOR PRINCIPLE

Under steady state conditions, the average current
through a capacitor is zero.
10. FOURIER SERIES

In the 1820s, Fourier came out with a 1-page paper on
his Fourier series. A periodic function may be
described as an infinite sum of sines and cosines.
v ( t ) = Vavg + ak cos ( k 0t ) + bk sin ( k 0t )
3. vi RESISTOR
k =1
The voltage to current relationship in a resistor.
v = ir
See p4.
DISTORTION [%]
4. vi CAPACITOR
Distortion is the degree to which a signal differs from

its fundamental frequency.
The voltage to current relationship in a capacitor.
i=C
dv
dt
THD =
RMS value of harmonics for k > 1

RMS value of fundamental frequency k = 1
5. vi INDUCTOR
%THD = 100
The voltage to current relationship in a inductor.
Vdis
Vrms1
2
2
Vrms
Vrms1
= 100
Vrms1
di
v=L
dt
Use the polar form of the Fourier Series, see p4.
6. AVERAGE (DC) AND RMS

Average and dc will be synonymous in this class, but
are not the same as rms.
vavg =
1 t0 +T
v ( t ) dt
T t0
vrms =
1 t0 +T 2
v ( t ) dt
T t0
7. POWER
We are concerned with both instantaneous and
average power. As with rms values, power is related
to heating.
Pavg =
1
T
t0 +T
t0
p ( t ) dt
Vdis = rms voltage distortion [V]

Vrms1 = fundamental frequency rms voltage [V]
Vrms = rms voltage [V]
THD = Total Harmonic Distortion [V]
CREST FACTOR [no units]

The crest factor quantifies the smoothness of the
waveform and is related to the weight of its impact on
components. For DC and a square wave the crest
factor is 1, for a sine wave, it is 1.414. A large crest
factor means the wave is not as efficient at delivering
energy.
p (t ) = v (t ) i (t )
CF =
Vpeak
Vrms
p(t) = instantaneous power [W]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 2 of 21
C CAPACITANCE [F]
PF POWER FACTOR [no units]

The power factor is the ratio of true power (the power
consumed, ignoring the reactive factor) to apparent
power (the total power consumed). Also, the power
factor is the cosine of the angle by which the current
lags the voltage (assuming an inductive load).
PF = cos ( v i )
i( t ) = I f + ( I o I f )e t /
+
v C
-
v ( t ) = V f + (Vo V f )e t /
where
= RC
ic ( t ) = C dv
dt
Vc ( t ) =
1 t
i d + Vo
C 0
L INDUCTANCE [H]
DECIBELS [dB]
A log based unit of energy that makes it easier to
describe exponential losses, etc. The decibel means
10 bels, a unit named after Bell Laboratories.
voltage or current
L = 20 log
reference voltage or current
i( t ) = I f + ( I o I f )e t /
v ( t ) = V f + (Vo V f )e t /
where
= L/ R
v L ( t ) = L dtdi
power
L = 10 log
reference power
+
v L
-
I L (t ) =
1 t
v d + I o
L 0
of an inductor:
L=
.4N 2 Ae
I e 10
L = inductance [H]
= permeability [H/cm]
N = number of turns
Ae = core cross section [cm2]
Ie = core magnetic path length [cm]
UNITS, electrical
I (current in amps) = q = W = J = N m = V C
s V V s V s
s
J
N
m
W s
q (charge in coulombs) = I s = V C = =
=
V
V
V
LC TANK CIRCUIT
Resonant frequency:
2
2
C (capacitance in farads) = q = q = q = J = I s
V
J
N m V 2 V
H (inductance in henrys) = V s (note that HF = s 2 )
I
2
J (energy in joules) = N m = V q = W s = I V s = C V 2 = q
C
J
q
V
W
s
kg
m
N (force in newtons) =
=
=
= 2
m
m
m
s
Wb
V
s H I
T (magnetic flux density in teslas) =
= 2 = 2
2
m
m
m
V (electric potential in volts) =
W J
J W s N m q
= =
=
=
=
I
q I s
q
q
C
f =
1
2 LC
PARALLEL RESISTANCE
I never can remember the
formula for two resistances in
parallel. I just do it the hard
way.
R1 || R2 =
R1 R2
R1 + R2
W (power in watts) =
J N m qV
C V 2
1
=
=
= V I =
=
HP
s
s
s
s
746
Wb (magnetic flux in webers) = H I = V s = J
I
Temperature: [C or K] 0C = 273.15K
where s is seconds
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 3 of 21
FOURIER SERIES
FOURIER SERIES and Symmetry
The Fourier Series is a method of describing a

complex periodic function in terms of the frequencies
and amplitudes of its fundamental and harmonic
frequencies.
Let f ( t ) = f ( t + T ) = any periodic signal
where T =
When the function f(t) is symmetric, certain shortcuts

can be taken.
When f(t) is an even function, i.e.
f(t)=f(-t), bk is zero. The Fourier
series becomes:
f ( t ) = Favg + ak cos ( k 0t )
2
= the period.
k =1
If there is also half-wave

symmetry, then:
f (t)
4 T /2
f ( t ) cos nt dt
T 0
ak =
0
1T
2T
When f(t) is an odd function, i.e.

f(t)=-f(-t), ak is zero. The Fourier
series becomes:
Then
f ( t ) = Favg + ak cos ( k 0t ) + bk sin ( k 0t )

k =1
0 = the fundamental frequency (k=1) in radians/sec.

k0 = the harmonic frequencies (k=2,3,4) in radians/sec.
k = denotes the fundamental (k=1) or harmonic frequencies
(k=2,3,4), not the wave number or propagation
constant
Favg = the average value of f(t), or the DC offset
Favg =
1
T
t0 +T
t0
f ( t ) dt
ak = twice the average value of f(t)cos(k0t)
ak =
2 t0 +T
f ( t ) cos k t dt
T t0
bk = twice the average value of f(t)sin(k0t)
bk =
2
T
t0 +T
t0
f ( t ) = Favg + bk sin ( k 0t )
k =1
If there is also half-wave

symmetry, then:
bk =
4
T
T /2
0
f ( t ) sin nt dt
When f(t) has half-wave

symmetry, i.e. f(t)=-f(tT/2), there
are only odd harmonics.
k=1, 3, 5,
4 t0 +T / 2
f ( t ) cos nt dt
T t0
4 t0 +T / 2
bk =
f ( t ) sin nt dt
T t0
ak =
f ( t ) sin k t dt
T
2
FOURIER SERIES, Polar Form
t0 = an arbitrary time
f ( t ) = Favg + Fk sin ( k 0t + k )
k =1
where
Fk = ak2 + bk2
k = tan 1
bk
ak
2 t0 +T
f ( t ) cos nt dt
T t0
2 t0 +T
bk =
f ( t ) sin nt dt
T t0
ak =
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 4 of 21
FOURIER SERIES OF A SQUARE WAVE
SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIERS
A 50% duty cycle square wave can be represented as

an infinite sum of a fundamental sine wave and
smaller odd harmonics.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER
4A
1
1
1
sin ( 0t ) + sin ( 30t ) + sin ( 50t ) + sin ( 70t ) + L

3
5
7
4A /
A
As the supply voltage begins it's positive sinusoidal

excursion, the diode conducts and current begins to
flow in the inductor. When the voltage crosses zero,
the current continues to flow through the inductor for a
short period due to its stored energy and the diode
conducts until the inductor current flow has halted.
This point is called extinction and occurs at the angle
, where < < 2. At this time vd, which has
followed the supply voltage into the negative region,
becomes zero (discontinuous). vd and the inductor
current remain at zero until the next cycle.
i (t)
L
+ vL -
+
Vm sin t ~
vd
RL
vL = L
di
dt
While current is flowing through the diode, there is zero

voltage across the diode. When current flow stops at angle
, the voltage across the diode becomes negative
(discontinuous). Since the average (dc) voltage at the
source is zero and the average voltage across an inductor is
zero, the average voltage across RL is the negative of the
average voltage across the diode.
Vdiode =
1 2
Vm sin d = VR avg
2
The average voltage across RL can also be expressed as

the product of the average (short circuit) current and RL.
Under short circuit conditions, the average voltage can be
found by integrating of a half-period.
VR avg = I sc RL
VR avg =
1
T
T /2
0
Vm sin t dt
Now there is enough information here to find iteratively.
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 5 of 21
BRIDGE RECTIFIER, CONSTANT LOAD

VOLTAGE
The current id begins to flow when the magnitude of
the supply voltage exceeds Vd. The current peaks
when the supply voltage magnitude returns to the
level of Vd. As the supply voltage magnitude
continues to fall, id rapidly returns to zero.
id
Vm sin t
L
+ vL -
+
Vd
u COMMUTATION INTERVAL
Commutation is the transfer of the electrical source
from one path to another. For bridge rectifiers, it
refers to the period of time when diodes from two
sources are on simultaneously, i.e. the delay interval
associated with a reverse-biased diode turning off.
The commutation interval is usually expressed as an
angle u.
The commutation interval is associated with rectifier
circuits having a constant current load (inductance
dominates load) and a finite inductance Ls in the
supply. The interval begins when the source voltage
crosses zero going positive or when the thyristor gate
is triggered.
No trigger:
Vd = Vm sin b
vL = L
0=
f
b
With trigger:
did
= Vm sin ( t ) Vd
dt
vs
2Ls I d
Vm
cos ( + u ) = cos
2Ls I d
Vm
= the supply frequency [rad./sec.]

Ls = the supply inductance [H]
Id = the (constant) load current [A]
Vm = the peak input voltage [V]
Vm sin ( t ) Vd d ( t )
Equal
in area
cos u = 1
POWER AND COMMUTATION
Vd
In order to have power, the commutation interval must

not be zero.
2
id
Pd =
Id
b
p f

Vd = the voltage at the output [V]

b = the angle at which an increasing supply voltage
waveform reaches Vd and current begins to flow in the
inductor. [radians]
p = the angle at which id peaks [radians] p = -b
f = the angle at which the current id returns to zero. [radians]
VOLTAGE AND COMMUTATION

The average voltage output of a full wave bridge
rectifier is
Vd =
SINGLE-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

id
Vm sin t
L
+ vL -
Tom Penick
Vm
( cos u + 1)

iL
Vm
1 cos 2 u )
(
2Ls
RL
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 6 of 21
KIMBARK'S EQUATIONS (with )
THVENIN EQUIVALENT
The Thvenin equivalent for a single-phase full wave
bridge rectifier.
2Vm
2Ls
=
RTH
VTH =
RTH
VTH
Id
Vd

Vd = the average output voltage [V]
VLLp
cos cos ( + u )
2L
3VLLp
nd
2 : Vdc =
cos + cos ( + u )
2
st
1 :
When the trigger angle is included, Kimbark's

equations become:
rd
3 :
I DC =
Pdc =
3VLLp
cos 2 cos 2 ( + u )
4L
VLLp = peak line-to-line voltage [V]

= the angle t at which the thyristor is triggered [degrees]
L = the per phase inductance [H]
u = the commutation interval [degrees]
THREE-PHASE RECTIFIERS
THREE-PHASE RECTIFIER
This circuit is known as 3-phase, 6-pulse line
commutated converter. When the load is dominated
by inductance, it is modeled as a current source
(constant current) as shown below. If the load is
capacitive, it is modeled as a voltage source.
TRANSFORMER
La
+ Lb
+ Lc
+ -
A
B
D1
D3
D5
3-PHASE POWER AND COMMUTATION

In order to have power, the commutation interval must
not be zero. In commercial systems, the commutation
interval is typically 4 to 5 degrees but may be as high
as 20 in special high-power converters. The
theoretical maximum is u = 60.
3-PHASE VOLTAGE AND COMMUTATION

Idc
D4
D6
The average voltage output of a three-phase rectifier

can be found by integrating over the first 60. In the
formula below, the limits of integration have been
shifted to make the function fit the cosine function.
Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb
D2
V
3
2V
LLp
LLp
KIMBARK'S EQUATIONS
Kimbark's equations give the average current, voltage,
and power of a 3-phase rectifier as a function of the
commutation interval u.
st
1 :
nd
2 :
rd
3 :
I dc =
Vdc =
Pdc =
VLLp
(1 cos u )
2L
3VLLp
2
(1 + cos u )
2
(1 cos u )
4L
3VLLp
Vdc =
1 u 3
6
V
cos
+
0
VLLp cos d
LLp
u
/3
2
{
6
60

L = the load inductance [H]
u = the commutation interval [degrees]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 7 of 21
PLOTTING Vdc (constant current) WITH

Vdc is periodic at 60 intervals. During the
commutation interval (from to +u), Vdc follows the
3/2 Vbn curve. This curve is centered between the Vcb
and Vab curves. For the remainder of its period, Vdc
follows the Vab curve. A graph sheet is provided on
page 21 for practice.
60
Vab
3
2
VLLp
3
2 VLLp
Vbn
PLOTTING iA (constant current)

iA is the current through the A-phase supply of a 3phase rectifier. iA is periodic at 360 intervals. The
plot of iA consists of the plot of I1 and the inverse plot
of I4. A graph sheet is provided on page 21 for
practice.
0
180
+
INFLUENCE OF TRANSFORMER TYPE

ON iA WAVEFORM
u
iA is the current through the A-phase supply of a 3phase rectifier.

DELTA-WYE OR WYE-DELTA
TRANSFORMER
DELTA-DELTA OR WYE-WYE
TRANSFORMER
PLOTTING V1 (constant current)

V1 is the voltage across diode D1. V1 is more
complicated and is periodic at 360 intervals. Refer to
the circuit entitled Three-Phase Rectifier on page 7.
Plot Vdc first. While D1 is on, V1 is zero. When D1
goes off, V1 briefly follows Vab then -Vdc. After that, it
tracks Vac and then repeats the cycle. A graph sheet
is provided on page 21 for practice.
to 120 + + u
V1 is zero
120 + + u to 180 +
V1 tracks Vab
180 + to 300 + + u
V1 is -Vdc
300 + + u to
V1 tracks Vac
3-PHASE THVENIN EQUIVALENT

The Thvenin equivalent for a 3-phase full wave
bridge rectifier.
VTH =
RTH
The 0 reference is 30 before Vab peak voltage.
PLOTTING I1 (constant current)

I1 is the current through diode D1 of a 3-phase
rectifier. I1 is periodic at 360 intervals. A graph sheet
is provided on page 21 for practice.
to + u
I1 rises from 0 to I1 max
+ u to 120 +
I1 is constant
The curvature of the rising and falling diode current plots is

related to the trigger angle .
= 90
0
> 90
u
120 +
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
VTH
Vd
3-PHASE THVENIN EQUIVALENT

(with )
I1 falls to zero
The 0 reference angle is 30 before Vab peak voltage.
3Ls
=
Id

120 + to 120 + + u
< 90
RTH
3VLLp
The Thvenin equivalent for a 3-phase full wave

bridge rectifier.
VTH =
RTH
3VLLp
3Ls
=
RTH
cos
VTH
Id
+
Vd

8/18/2003 Page 8 of 21
PF POWER FACTOR IN A 3-PHASE
L MINIMUM INDUCTANCE
RECTIFIER
REQUIREMENT
For continuous operation, the inductor should be sized
so that under minimum current conditions it does not
fully discharge before reaching the end of the period
T.
in all 3
phases
}
Pavg
PF =
3VLN rms I L rms

{
current in
each line
di
di charging
di
di discharging
Iavg
The term 3/ below is the reduction in power factor

due to the current Id not being a sine wave.
3 Id
cos + cos ( + u )
2 I L rms
3 cos + cos ( + u )
=
PF =
continuous operation
In the plot above, the inductor discharges fully just as the
period ends. In this case, 2Iavg is the peak current. So the
peak current is both the product of the charging slope and
the charging interval as well as of the discharging slope
(absolute) and discharging interval.
DC-DC CONVERTERS
dichg.
D DUTY CYCLE
dt
The duty cycle is the fractional portion of the period T

in which the inductor is charging. Practical values for
D range from about 0.2 to 0.8. The plot below shows
discontinuous operation; i.e. there is a period of time
when the inductor is neither charging nor discharging.
DT
DT =
didischg.
dt
(1 D ) T = 2 I avg
The values for di/dt are found by using Kirchoffs Voltage

Law for both the on and off states.
iL
t
DT
T
discontinuous operation
It is preferable that the converter operate in continuous

mode in order to reduce ripple.
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 9 of 21
STEP-DOWN CONVERTER
STEP-UP (BOOST) CONVERTER
The step-down converter or buck converter can

produce an output voltage as much as ~80% below
the input voltage.
iL
io
Vd
Voi
Duty Cycle:
+ vL -
RL
Vo
+ vL -
+
C
Ripple voltage: When choosing C, we want RC

Another consideration is the ripple voltage. For
continuous operation this is
Vo =
D=
Ripple voltage:
?T .
VoT 2 (1 D)
8 LC
Vo Vd
Vo
Minimum inductance:
Vd Vo
DT
L
RL
Duty Cycle:
I L =
Vo
V
D= o
Vd
Vo
(1 D ) T
2I L
io
Vd
Minimum inductance: In choosing L, We want to avoid

discontinuous operation. Select Lmin using the minimum
expected current IL.
Lmin =
iL
L
+
+
C
The step-up converter produces an output voltage up

to ~5X the input voltage.
Vo =
Minimum capacitance:
Lmin =
TVo
2
D (1 D )
2I o
Vo DT
RL C
C=
Vout DT
Vo RL
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER 1
Minimum Capacitance: The expressions for finding the

value of the filter capacitor are derived from the relation
V = Q/C, where Q is current time.
The buck-boost converter provides a reversed polarity

output and enables the output voltage to be above or
below the input voltage.
I T
C= L
8 Vo
iL
L vL
-
Vd
D = duty cycle [no units]

Vo = output voltage (average) [V]
Vo = output ripple voltage (peak to peak) [V]
Vd = input voltage [V]
T = period 1/f [s]
Lmin = minimum inductance for continuous operation [H]
IL = the difference between the maximum and minimum
current in the inductor. For continuous operation, this is
twice the average load current. [A]
L = inductance [H]
C = capacitance [F]
Vo
RL
+
io
Duty Cycle:
D=
Vo
Vo + Vd
Minimum inductance:
Lmin =
TVo
TV
2
(1 D ) = o (1 D )
2I o
2I L
Ripple voltage:
Vo =
Vo DT
RL C
Vd = supply voltage [V]

Vo = average output voltage [V]
IL = average current through the inductor [A]
Io = average output current [A]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 10 of 21
DC-AC INVERTERS
BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER 2
This version was given to us by Dr. Grady.
L 1 iL1
C1
+ vC1-
+
Vd
iL2
+
D=
RL
Vo
CL
L2
Duty Cycle:
SINGLE-PHASE, FULL-BRIDGE,
SQUARE-WAVE INVERTER
For a square-wave inverter operating an induction

motor with inductance L:
Square wave function (Fourier series):
4Vdc
v (t ) =
Vo
, assuming vc1 = Vd
Vo + Vd
1
1
sin 0t + 3 sin 30t + 5 sin 50t + L
Peak value, fundamental waveform:
CK CONVERTER
Ripple voltage:
The Ck converter also provides a reversed polarity

output. Capacitor C1 is the primary storage device for
transferring energy from input to output. The
advantage of this circuit is its low input and output
ripple currents; the disadvantage is the requirement of
the large capacitor C1.
iL1
L1
iL2
C1
+ + vL1 -
+ vC1 -
L2
- vL2 +
Vo
Vd
where
vo1 =
v1rms 2 =
4Vdc
vripple ( t ) = vo 0 vo1 ( t )
4Vdc
sin 0t
is the fundamental waveform
and vo0 is the square wave.
Ripple current:
1 t
vripple ( ) d
L 0
1
= iripple ( t ) , at t =
2
iripple ( t ) =
iripple peak
RL
+
io
Duty Cycle:
D=
Vo
Vo + Vd
FULL BRIDGE CONVERTER

The full bridge converter has the additional
capabilities of reverse current flow, e.g. a motor
connected to the load could generate a current flow
back to the source, and reversible output polarity.
id
+
TA+
DA+
TB+
DB+
io
A
Vd
B
SINGLE-PHASE, PULSE WIDTH

MODULATED, BIPOLAR INVERTER
MOTOR
Ra
This requires the introduction of two new terms, mf

and ma. Refer to the next two boxes.
Vo
La
Peak value, fundamental waveform:
- ea
th
k harmonic:
N T
A-
DA+
TB-
v1rms
DB+
ma
v1rms 2 = maVdc
( value from table ) = vk rms
using the table for Generalized Harmonics on page 13.
Ripple current:
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
iripple peak =
v1rms 2
0 L
k >1
vk rms
k
???
8/18/2003 Page 11 of 21
mf FREQUENCY MODULATION RATIO

The ratio of the switching frequency to the modulating
control frequency in an inverter circuit.
mf =
fs
f1
When mf is small (mf 21) it should be an odd integer in

order to avoid subharmonics. In the figure below, mf = 15.
Note the symmetry of the triangle wave and control signal.
This is called synchronous pulse width modulation.
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION IN BIPOLAR

INVERTERS
The relationship between the triangle wave, the
control waveform, and the output waveform for an
inverter operating in the linear range is shown below.
The square wave output can be produced using a
comparator to compare the triangle wave with the sine
wave.
triangle
wave
t
t
control
waveform
V
output
waveform
fs = switching frequency [rad./s or Hz]

f1 = control frequency or modulating frequency [rad./s or Hz]
ma AMPLITUDE MODULATION RATIO

The ratio of the control signal amplitude to the triangle
wave amplitude in an inverter circuit.
ma =
Vcontrol
Vtri
When ma < 1, the inverter is operating in the linear range as

shown in the figure below. When in the linear range, the
frequency harmonics are in the area of the switching
frequency and its multiples. A drawback is that the
maximum available amplitude of the fundamental frequency
is limited due to the notches in the output waveform (see the
next box).
When ma 1, the inverter is in overmodulation. This causes
more side harmonics in the output waveform.
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION IN

UNIPOLAR INVERTERS
The relationship between the triangle wave, the
control waveform, and the output waveform for a
unipolar inverter operating in the linear range is shown
below. The square wave output can be produced
using a comparator to compare the triangle wave with
the sine wave.
triangle
wave
inverted
control
waveform
t
t
control
waveform
Vcontrol
output
waveform
= peak amplitude of the control signal. The signal
has a frequency of f1 [V]
Vtri
= peak amplitude of the triangle wave [V]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 12 of 21
vh rms RMS HARMONIC VOLTAGE

The magnitude of the fundamental frequency and
major harmonics for single-phase PWM inverters may
be calculated using the following formula and values
from the Generalized Harmonics table in the next box.
It is assumed that mf is an odd integer greater than or
equal to 9.
Half-bridge or
one-leg, singlephase:
vh rms
1
2 = Vdc ( GH h )
2 123
vh rms = v1rms
or
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
mf
1.242
1.15
1.006
0.818
0.601
mf 2
0.016
0.061
0.131
0.220
0.318
0.018
0.190
2mf 3
0.326
0.370
0.314
0.181
0.024
0.071
0.139
0.212
0.013
0.033
2mf 5
wave frequency to the control waveform frequency [no

units]
h = the harmonic (integer)
Vdc = dc supply voltage [V]
(GHh) = value from the generalized harmonics table for the
th
h harmonic
(GHh=1) = value from the generalized harmonics table for
the h = 1 (fundamental) harmonic. In the case of singlephase, this is the same as ma.
1.0
0.2
2mf 1
( GH h )
( GH h =1 )
tom@tomzap.com
0.2
mf 4
mf = frequency modulation ratio, the ratio of the triangle
Tom Penick
ma:
1
value
from table
Full bridge,
single-phase:
The values in the generalized harmonics table are the

ratio of the peak-to-peak harmonic voltages to the dc
voltage. It is assumed that mf is an odd integer
greater than or equal to 9. See previous box.
value
from table
vh rms 2 = Vdc ( GH h )
123
GENERALIZED HARMONICS IN
SINGLE-PHASE PWM INVERTERS
3mf
0.335
0.123
0.083
0.171
0.113
3mf 2
0.044
0.139
0.203
0.176
0.062
0.012
0.047
0.104
0.157
0.016
0.044
3mf 4
3mf 6
4mf 1
0.163
0.157
0.008
0.105
0.068
4mf 3
0.012
0.070
0.132
0.115
0.009
0.034
0.084
0.119
0.017
0.050
4mf 5
4mf 7
8/18/2003 Page 13 of 21
THREE-PHASE, SQUARE WAVE

INVERTER
DC-AC voltage relationship: vLL rms
1
THREE-PHASE PWM INVERTER

The relationship between the fundamental of the lineto-line rms output voltage and the dc input voltage is
2 4Vdc
=
2
3
vLL1 rms
Inverter voltage:
4V
1
1
V
vAN = dc sin 0t + sin 30t + sin 50t + L + dc
2
3
5
2
{
To find the rms values of the harmonic components
vh rms =
dc
offset
(The factor of 2 in the amplitude is due to the dc voltage

being only positive.)
Motor neutral (fictional) to system neutral voltage:

4V 1
1
1
V
vnN = dc sin 30 t + sin 60t + sin 90t + L + dc
2 3
6
9
2
{
dc
offset
Voltage, system to motor neutral (fictional):
harmonic [V]
ma = amplitude modulation ratio, the ratio of the control

waveform to the triangle wave [no units]
h = the harmonic (integer)
vh rms = the rms voltage of the hth harmonic [V]
(GHh) = value from the generalized harmonics table for the
th
2Vdc
1
1
sin 0t + sin 50t + sin 70t + L dt

L
5
7
2Vdc
1
1
=
cos 0t + 2 cos 50t + 2 cos 70t + L
0 L
5
7
i (t ) =
Ripple current, composed of the harmonicsall peak

simultaneously:
This series can be created from other series:
1 1 1
+ 2 + 2 +L =
2
3 5 7
8
GENERALIZED HARMONICS IN
THREE PHASE PWM INVERTERS
1+
2)
1
1 1 1
1
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + L = 2
2
3 3 5 7
3 8
1) 2) =
1 1
1
1 2 2
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + L = 1 2 = 2
5 7 11
3 8 3
and
ma:
h
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.122
0.245
0.367
0.490
0.612
mf 2
0.010
0.037
0.080
0.135
0.195
0.005
0.011
0.192
0.111
0.008
0.020
mf 4
0.116
0.200
0.227
2mf 5
2
so that
The values in the generalized harmonics table are the

ratio of the line-to-line harmonic voltages to the dc
voltage. It is assumed that mf is a large odd integer
and a multiple of 3. See previous box.
2mf 1
1)
( GH h )
( GH h =1 )
vLL1 rms = the line-to-line rms voltage of the fundamental
Current, line-to-neutral:
iripple peak
vLL1 rms
h harmonic
(GHh=1) = value from the generalized harmonics table for
the h = 1 (fundamental) harmonic
v An = vAN vnN
2V
1
1
= dc sin 0t + sin 50t + sin 70t + L

5
7

2Vdc 1 1
1
=
+
+
+ L
2
2
2
0 L 5 7 11
2 1
= maVdc
3 2
3mf 2
0.027
3mf 4
4mf 1
0.100
0.085
0.124
0.108
0.038
0.007
0.029
0.064
0.096
0.096
0.005
0.064
0.042
0.021
0.051
0.073
0.010
0.030
4mf 5
4mf 7
1 1
1
2
+ +
+L =
1
52 7 2 112
9
iripple peak =
2Vdc 2
1
0 L 9
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 14 of 21
INDUCTION MOTORS
P POWER [W]
T TORQUE [Nm]
The electromechanical power equals the air gap

power minus the power lost in the rotor winding
resistance.
Torque.
Tem =
3Vs2 Rr
Pem = Pag Pr = 3
R
2
ss Rs + r + ( X s + X r )
s
Tem =
Pem
r
Tem =
Pag = 3
Pag
s
For applications such as centrifugal pumps and fans, torque

is proportional to the square of the motor speed by some
constant of proportionality k1.
Torque ; k1 ( speed )
f
Rr I r2
f sl
For applications such as centrifugal pumps and fans, power

is proportional to the cube of the motor speed by some
constant of proportionality k2.
Power ; k1 ( speed )
The 3-phase induction motor consists of 3 stationary

stator windings arranged 120 apart. The squirrelcage rotor consists of a stack of insulated laminations
with conducting bars inserted through it close to the
circumference and electrically connected at the ends.
Per-phase Model
Is
Rs
Xs
Ir
+
Tstart STARTING TORQUE [Nm]
f sl rated = sf
Tstart =
3Vs2
s s
In the design of the induction motor, there is a tradeoff

between starting torque (also called pull out) and motor
efficiency. A higher rotor resistance produces a higher
starting torque but hurts the efficiency.
Pem = electromechanical power [W]

Pag = air gap power, the power crossing the air gap [W]
s = synchronous speed [rad./sec.]
r = rotor speed [rad./sec.]
Vs = line-to-neutral supply voltage [V]
s = slip; the fractional amount of rotational speed lost due to
rotor loading and other factors [rad./rad.]
f = rated frequency [Hz]
fsl = slip frequency sf [Hz]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
Xr
Rr
Im
1-s
s
Rr(
Xm
A higher torque may be desired for starting. This is

accomplished by raising the frequency and increasing the
rotor current Ir by an amount proportional to its value at
100% rated torque.
Tstart
I
= r
Trated I r rated
INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL 1
Eag
Tstart
f sl rated
Trated
Pr = 3Rr I r2
Pem = electromechanical power [W]

Pag = air gap power, the power crossing the air gap [W]
Vs = line-to-neutral supply voltage [V]
s = slip; the fractional amount of rotational speed lost due to
rotor loading and other factors [rad./rad.]
f = rated frequency [Hz]
f start =
f f sl
Rr I r2
f sl
Is = stator current [A]

Rs = stator resistance []
Xs = stator reactance []
Ir = rotor current [A]
Rr = rotor resistance []
Xr = rotor reactance []
Im = magnetizing current [A]
Xm = magnetizing reactance []
INDUCTION MOTOR MODEL 2

The 3-phase induction motor may also be modeled
with a Thvenin equivalent.
Per-phase Model
R TH
X TH
+
VAn
-
ETH
VAn = system to motor neutral (fictional) voltage [V]

RTH = Thvenin equivalent resistance []
XTH = Thvenin equivalent reactance []
ETH = fundamental frequency back-EMF [V]
8/18/2003 Page 15 of 21
ns SYNCHRONOUS SPEED [rpm]
ag AIR GAP FLUX [Wb]
The magnetic field within the motor (air gap flux ag)
rotates at a rate called the synchronous speed and is
proportional to the frequency of the supply voltage.
Under no-load conditions, the squirrel cage rotor turns
at approximately this speed, and when loaded, at a
somewhat slower speed.
The air gap flux is generated by the magnetizing

current Im and rotates in the air gap between the stator
and rotor at the synchronous speed ns.
ns = 60
s 120
=
f
p
2
For example, the ns of a 2-pole motor operating at 60 Hz is

3600 rpm, for a 4-pole motor, its 1800 rpm.
ns = synchronous speed [rpm]

f = frequency of the applied voltage [Hz]
p = number of poles in the motor [integer]
k3ag =
Eag
f
The ratio of voltage to hertz is generally kept constant in

order to maintain the air gap flux constant under varying
motor speeds. So the supply voltage and frequency are
adjusted to keep Eag/f constant. See the next box,
CONSTANT VOLTZ/Hz OPERATION.
Ns = the equivalent number of turns per phase of the stator

winding
s SLIP [rad./rad.]
The difference between the synchronous speed and
the rotor speed, normalized to be unitless. The slip
can range from near 0 under no-load conditions to 1
at locked rotor. In other words, the slip is the
fractional loss of rotation speed experienced by the
rotor in relation to the speed of the rotating magnetic
field. If the rotor is moving at the speed of the
magnetic field, then the slip is .
s=
N s ag = Lm im
Lm = magnetizing inductance [H]

im = magnetizing current [A]
k3 = some constant
f = frequency of the applied voltage [Hz]
Eag = air gap voltage, voltage across the magnetizing
inductance Lm [V]
s r
s
sl Slip Speed: The difference between the synchronous

speed and the rotor speed (unnormalized) is the slip speed.
sl = s r
fsl Slip Frequency: Induced voltages in the rotor will be at
the slip frequency, proportional to the slip
f sl = sf
sl = slip speed [rad./sec.]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 16 of 21
CONSTANT VOLTS/Hz OPERATION

For variable frequency motor drives, the air gap flux is
generally maintained constant as described in the
previous box. This type of operation results in the
following properties:
The electromechanical torque is proportional to the
slip frequency
Tem f sl
which implies that for constant torque operation, the
slip is inversely proportional to the synchronous
frequency
1
fs
The magnetizing current remains constant
I m = constant
The starting torque is inversely proportional to the
synchronous speed
Tstart
1
s
The maximum torque is a constant
Tmax = constant
The change in torque with respect to the slip speed is
a constant
Tmech
= constant
sl
sl = slip speed [rad./sec.]
T = torque [J/rad.]
s = slip [rad./rad.]
EFFICIENCY
The efficiency is the power delivered divided by the
power supplied.
Pmech
Psupplied
1 s
Rr
=
; 1 s
R
Rs + r
s s 0
Rr = rotor resistance []
Rs = stator resistance []
s = slip [rad./rad.]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 17 of 21
GENERAL MATHEMATICAL
PHASOR NOTATION
x + j y COMPLEX NUMBERS
Im
y
When the excitation is sinusoidal and under steadystate conditions, we can express a partial derivative in
phasor notation, by replacing with j . For
example, the Telegrapher's equation V = L I

z
t
V
becomes
= LjI . Note that V ( z , t ) and
z
I ( z , t ) are functions of position and time (space-time
Re
x + jy = Ae = A cos + jA sin
Re{ x + jy} = x = A cos
functions) and V ( z ) and I ( z ) are functions of position
Im{ x + jy} = y = A sin
only.
Magnitude { x + jy} = A = x 2 + y 2
Phase { x + jy} = = tan 1
j=e
Sine and cosine functions are converted to

exponentials in the phasor domain.
y
x
Example:
v v
E ( r , t ) = 2 cos ( t + 3 z ) x + 4sin ( t + 3 z ) y
j
2
The magnitude of a complex number may be written as the

absolute value.
Magnitude { x + jy} = x + jy
The square of the magnitude of a complex number is the
product of the complex number and its complex conjugate.
The complex conjugate is the expression formed by
reversing the signs of the imaginary terms.
x + jy = ( x + jy )( x + jy ) * = ( x + jy )( x jy )
2
= Re{2e j3 z e jt x + ( j) 4e j3 z e jt y }
v v
E ( r ) = 2e j3 z x j4e j3 z y
TIME-AVERAGE
When two functions are multiplied, they cannot be
converted to the phasor domain and multiplied.
Instead, we convert each function to the phasor
domain and multiply one by the complex conjugate of
the other and divide the result by two. The complex
conjugate is the expression formed by reversing the
signs of the imaginary terms.
For example, the function for power is:
P (t ) = v ( t ) i (t )
watts
Time-averaged power is:
P (t ) =
1
T
v ( t ) i ( t ) dt watts
T
For a single frequency:
P (t ) =
1
Re{V I * } watts
2
T = period [s]
V = voltage in the phasor domain [s]
I* = complex conjugate of the phasor domain current [A]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 18 of 21
RMS
e
rms stands for root mean square.

root
mean
square
f ( t )rms =
p 2
f (t )
The plot below shows a sine wave and its rms value, along
with the intermediate steps of squaring the sine function and
taking the mean value of the square. Notice that for this
type of function, the mean value of the square is the peak
value of the square.
+ j
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
+ e j = 2 cos
e+ j e j = j 2 sin
e j = cos j sin
1
sin 2 = sin cos
cos 2 = 1 2 sin 2
2
sin ( a b ) = sin a cos b cos a sin b
CALCULUS - DERIVATIVES
v u u v
d u
d u
u
=
dx e = u e
dx
2
v
v
x
x
u
d
d
x
dx a = a ln a
dx a = u a ln a
u
u
d
dx cos u = u sin u
1
x
d
dx sin u = u cos u
d
dx
In an electrical circuit, rms terms are associated with heating

or power. Given a voltage or current waveform, the rms
value is obtain by 1) squaring the waveform, 2) finding the
area under the waveform (integrating) over the length of one
cycle, 3) dividing by the period, and 4) taking the square root
of the result.
f ( t )rms =
ln x =
ax
xe dx =
eax
( ax 1) + C
a2
x dx = ln x + C
DT
+C
cos u dx = u sin u
u du = 12 u 14 sin 2u + C
u du = 12 u + 14 sin 2u + C
Integration by parts:
sin u dx = u cos u
sin
cos
a dx = ln a a
RMS OF A SQUARE WAVE

Vp
Vrms
ln u =
CALCULUS - INTEGRATION
x n +1
n
dx
=
x
+
C
x
dx
=
+C
n +1
1 u
u
x
x
e dx = u e + C xe dx = ( x 1) e + C
1 t0 +T 2
f ( t ) dt
T t0
The rms value differs from the average or dc value in that

the dc value is the average of the original waveform and the
rms value is the square root of the average of the square of
the waveform.
d
dx
u dv = uv v du
Vrms = V p D
EULER'S EQUATION
e j = cos + j sin
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
8/18/2003 Page 19 of 21
CALCULUS LHPITOLS RULE
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
j sin = sinh ( j )
If the limit of f(x)/g(x) as x approaches c produces the

indeterminate form 0/0, / , or / , then the
derivative of both numerator and denominator may be
taken
j cos = cosh ( j )
j tan = tanh ( j )
f ( x)
f ( x)
lim
= lim
x c g ( x )
x c g ( x )
provided the limit on the right exists or is infinite. The

derivative may be taken repeatedly provided the
numerator and denominator get the same treatment.
To convert a limit to a form on which L'Hpital's Rule
can be used, try algebraic manipulation or try setting y
equal to the limit then take the natural log of both
sides. The ln can be placed to the right of lim. This
is manipulated into fractional form so L'Hpital's Rule
can be used, thus getting rid of the ln. When this
limit is found, this is actually the value of ln y where
y is the value we are looking for.
Other indeterminate forms (which might be
0
0
convertible) are 1 , , 0 , 0 , and . Note that
0 =0
LINEARIZING AN EQUATION
Small nonlinear terms are removed. Nonlinear terms
include:
variables raised to a power
variables multiplied by other variables
values are considered variables, e.g. t.
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS
Maxwell's equations govern the principles of guiding
and propagation of electromagnetic energy and
provide the foundations of all electromagnetic
phenomena and their applications. The timeharmonic expressions can be used only when the
wave is sinusoidal.
STANDARD FORM
(Time Domain)
SERIES
1+ x ; 1+
1
x , x =1
2
Faraday's
Law
1
x 3 x 2 5 x 3 35 x 4
; 1 +
+
L , 12 < x < 12
2
8
16
128
1+ x
Gauss'
Law
no name
law
1
; 1 + x 2 + x 4 + x 6 + L , 12 < x < 12
1 x2
1
; 1 + 2 x + 3x 2 + 4 x 3 + L , 12 < x < 12
2
(1 x )
1
; 1 x + x 2 x 3 + L , 12 < x < 12
1+ x
1
; 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + L , 12 < x < 12
1 x
(1 + x )
= 1 + mx +
2!
x +L +
2
m ( m 1)( m 2 )L ( m n + 1)
n!
x +L
n
SPHERE
Area = d = 4r
Volume = 16 d 3 = 43 r 3
2
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
v
v
E = -jB
v
v
v D
H = J +
t
v
v v
H = jD + J
v
D = v
v
B=0
v
D = v
v
B =0
*Maxwell added the D term to Ampere's Law.

t
Also called binomial expansion. When m is a positive

integer, this is a finite series of m+1 terms. When m is
not a positive integer, the series converges for -1<x<1.
m ( m 1)
v
v
B
E = t
E = electric field [V/m]

B = magnetic flux density [Wb/m2 or T] B = 0H
t = time [s]
D = electric flux density [C/m2] D = 0E
= volume charge density [C/m3]
H = magnetic field intensity [A/m]
J = current density [A/m2]
BINOMIAL THEOREM
Ampere's
Law*
TIME-HARMONIC
(Frequency Domain)
GRAPHING TERMINOLOGY
With x being the horizontal axis and y the vertical, we have
a graph of y versus x or y as a function of x. The x-axis
represents the independent variable and the y-axis
represents the dependent variable, so that when a graph
is used to illustrate data, the data of regular interval (often
this is time) is plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding
data is dependent on those values and is plotted on the yaxis.
8/18/2003 Page 20 of 21
Van
Vab
Vbn
Vac
60
Tom Penick
120
Vbc
Vcn
Vba
180
tom@tomzap.com
Vca
240
Vcb
300
360
8/18/2003 Page 21 of 21

PowerElectronics - BAsic Consepts

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POWER ELECTRONICS EE 362L

root mean square ............... 19

8. S.S. INDUCTOR PRINCIPLE

9. S.S. CAPACITOR PRINCIPLE

10. FOURIER SERIES

v ( t ) = Vavg + ak cos ( k 0t ) + bk sin ( k 0t )

The voltage to current relationship in a resistor.

Distortion is the degree to which a signal differs from

The voltage to current relationship in a capacitor.

RMS value of harmonics for k > 1

The voltage to current relationship in a inductor.

Use the polar form of the Fourier Series, see p4.

6. AVERAGE (DC) AND RMS

Vdis = rms voltage distortion [V]

CREST FACTOR [no units]

p(t) = instantaneous power [W]

PF POWER FACTOR [no units]

FOURIER SERIES and Symmetry

The Fourier Series is a method of describing a

When the function f(t) is symmetric, certain shortcuts

If there is also half-wave

When f(t) is an odd function, i.e.

f ( t ) = Favg + ak cos ( k 0t ) + bk sin ( k 0t )

0 = the fundamental frequency (k=1) in radians/sec.

ak = twice the average value of f(t)cos(k0t)

bk = twice the average value of f(t)sin(k0t)

If there is also half-wave

When f(t) has half-wave

FOURIER SERIES, Polar Form

FOURIER SERIES OF A SQUARE WAVE

A 50% duty cycle square wave can be represented as

sin ( 0t ) + sin ( 30t ) + sin ( 50t ) + sin ( 70t ) + L

As the supply voltage begins it's positive sinusoidal

While current is flowing through the diode, there is zero

The average voltage across RL can also be expressed as

Now there is enough information here to find iteratively.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER, CONSTANT LOAD

= the supply frequency [rad./sec.]

POWER AND COMMUTATION

In order to have power, the commutation interval must

= the supply frequency [rad./sec.]

Vd = the voltage at the output [V]

VOLTAGE AND COMMUTATION

SINGLE-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

= the supply frequency [rad./sec.]

KIMBARK'S EQUATIONS (with )

= the supply frequency [rad./sec.]

When the trigger angle is included, Kimbark's

VLLp = peak line-to-line voltage [V]

3-PHASE POWER AND COMMUTATION

3-PHASE VOLTAGE AND COMMUTATION

The average voltage output of a three-phase rectifier

Vab Vac Vbc Vba Vca Vcb

VLLp = peak line-to-line voltage [V]

PLOTTING Vdc (constant current) WITH

PLOTTING iA (constant current)

INFLUENCE OF TRANSFORMER TYPE

iA is the current through the A-phase supply of a 3phase rectifier.

PLOTTING V1 (constant current)

3-PHASE THVENIN EQUIVALENT

The 0 reference is 30 before Vab peak voltage.

PLOTTING I1 (constant current)

I1 rises from 0 to I1 max