SPE 98292

Mechanism of Fluid Invasion in Naturally Fractured Reservoirs: Experimental Study

S. Salimi and R. Alikarami, Norwegian U. of Science and Technology

Copyright 2006, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2006 SPE International Symposium and
Exhibition on Formation Damage Control held in Lafayette, LA, 1517 February 2006.
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Abstract
This paper describes the experimental study of formation
damage in naturally fractured reservoir during conventional
drilling operations. Dynamic formation damage (DFD)
apparatus of NTNU is designed to simulate the drilling fluid
circulation process at the formation face in the well bore face
under bottom hole condtions.Chalk core samples are selected
to study as a representative of very fine-grained limestone
formations. A uniform fracture was made entirely along the
conventional core. A series of overbalanced leak-off test were
conducted with different drilling fluids under different
reservoir conditions on the samples. Dynamic leak-off test was
performed on the core samples for 4 hours and then it was
followed by static leak-off test for 16 hours. Cummulative
invasion of mud into the core during leak-off test is measured
and then return permeability test and drawdown pressure
effects are employed. The experiment results clearly show that
drilling moods can cause large irreversible damage to
fractured formation and dramatically reduce the productivity
of wells producing from natural fracture network. The results
present the significant impact of overbalanced pressure on
invasion profile. The use of bridging agent such as CaCO3 and
polymer play key role in reduction of solid and filtrate
invasion in fractured core sample. Return permeability test
indicates that cleanup and remove all solids and particles
during production is not completed as well.Therfore the
experiments recommend the use of drawdown pressure effects
to clean-up of solids and particles during production.
Introduction
The presence of high permeability features in a formation,
such as large naturally occurring fractures or extensive
interconnected vugular porosity system; represent a significant
challenge for overbalanced drilling operations with respect to
rapid and deep invasion and significant, often permanent
permeability impairment. In most situations, the high

permeability of theses fractures and vug systems act as

conduits to feed gas or oil from a tight producing source
matrix to the wellbore for production. This being the case, the
preservation of the high permeability fractures and vugs is of
prime importance.
The best way to evaluate damage potential is to test
representative field fluids and core samples under simulated
downhole conditions, as is possible with dynamic formation
damage (DFD) test apparatus.
Unfortunately, there is very little work reported in the
literature investigating formation damage in fractured
reservoirs.
Jiao et al1. described the use of two different bridging agent
CaCO3 and acid soluble fibers to reduce solid and filtration
into Berea fractured core sample. Their result is recommend
the use of fibrous additives are much more effective than
granular additives such as CaCO3.
Ali et al2. reported successful field application of a mixture of
different sizes of fiber particles to prevent lost circulation is
severely depleted unconsolidated reservoirs.
Leopakke et al3. studied single- and two particle bridging at a
fracture face. They found that if the particle size is not
compatible with the fracture width, a stable bridge cannot be
performed and a tailored particle size distribution has the best
plugging capabilities. Their experimental results show that a
mixture of granular partiucles provides the best plug at
fracture entrances.
The main objective of this study is the experimental study of
fluid nvasion in carbonates fractured reservoirs during
overbalanced drilling. For this purpose, chalk samples are
selected as a representative of very fine-grained limestone
formations to simulate in core flood testing. Mud Invasion
behavior under different conditions is discussed which
infuences by many key parameters such as overbalanced
pressure and bridging additives and mud composition (XCpolymer), fracture size, and pore size distribution of carbonate
rock.
Experimental Set-up
A Hassler type core holder (Figure1) was used in the
experiment. This stainless steel core holder can accommodate

SPE 98292

up to 12 cm-long and 3.8-cm-diameter Cores. The core is

mounted inside the rubber sleeve and subjected to overburden
(confining) pressure. One end piece of the core holder was
fabricated to have two ports and referred to as invasion end.
These ports were used to circulate the drilling fluids across the
face of the core and to inject oil and brine as well. The other
end piece, known as production end, had only one port to
collect the filtrate/oil/brine, pumped from the invasion end.
A stainless steel spacer 1 cm in length was placed between the
core face and the injection end to allow the mud to circulate
and form cake on the core face. A transfer cylinder is
employed to deliver mud, oil and brine to the core holder.
A Quizix pump is connected to the transfer cylinder to deliver
the fluids (mud, oil and brine) at desired flow rate and
pressure. The distilled water is used as transferring fluid in the
pump. Quizix pump can deliver the fluid at a maximum flow
rate of 50 cm3/min and pressure of 10,000 psia. Back pressure
regulators (BPR), at each end, were installed to control and
maintain the desired pressure in the system by mean of
pressurized nitrogen gas. The differential pressure transducer
is mounted over the core holder for measurement of
differential pressure across the core.
An electronic balance is used to collect the produced fluids.
All the transducers and electronic balance are connected to
data acquisition card. This card sends all signals to Labview
software for process and plotting the data.
Experimental Procedure
1. Core preparation
The Chalk core samples used are 1.5 in. in diameter and 5-8
cm in long. 10 samples were used from a block of Denmark
oucrop.The average Exxsol-D60 permeability of the in
fractured cores is 3.86 mD and the average porosity is 44 %.
To make the fracture in the sample, it was cut along the core
and a uniform fracture was created entirely along the core.
Then proper confining pressure is applied to keep two fracture
faces together and created a sample with matrix and small
fracture along the core (Figure 2). Following equation was
used to calculate the fracture width (fracture aperture) :
3
A.W f
Kf =
...................................................................................(1)
12.h f
K f = effective permeability of the frcature ,cm 2
A = the cross sectional area of the core , cm2
h f = The frcature height , cm
W f = The fracture width (openning fracture ), cm

By substituting of A =

.D 2
and h f = D , the following
4

equation for calculating of the fracture width is used:

Wf
...................................................................(2)
3. .D
K f = The effcetive permeability of the fracture, cm 2
Kf =

W f = the fracture width , cm

D = The diameter od the sample , cm
Table 1 shows the fracture properties of samples, which are
used in this experiments study.
2. Mud Circulation
Drilling fluid was circulated across the saturated core at a
constant flow rate of 0.5 cc/min under different overbalanced
pressure. A backpressure regulator at the drilling fluid outlet
was used for this purpose. The mud was provided to the core
through the transfer cylinder and collected in another cylinder
at the outlet end of the core continuously. As the circulation
starts, a mud cake begins to form on the face of the core and
the filtrate also starts invading the core. The core is allowed to
develop a pressure gradient equal to the degree of
overbalanced expected during conventional drilling. Mud flow
is regualated to simulated expected rates while drilling. As the
invading filtrate pushed the brine or Exxsol-D60, the effluent
was collected from the production end at desired time intervals
(in our test is 1 minute).The filtrate had to pass through a 0-15
bar backpressure (as pore pressure) before accumulating in the
collector. The drilling fluid is circulated under different
overbalanced pressure. As this point, the core assumed to be
damage with invaded filtrates and mud particles. The fluid loss
profile during test is used to calcuted the effective
permeability to filtrate during invasion, which includes the
dynamic effect of the mud invasion.
3. Return Permeability measurement
The permeability of the damaged core was determined by the
flowing Exxsol-D60 in the opposite direction at constant flow
rate until steady state was achieved. This permeability ExxsolD60 is referred to as return permeability after the
damage.during return permeability test ,the mud cake lift-off
pressure is measured
4. Dynamic and static leak-off test
All of invasion test are performed with dynamic condition for
240 minutes and then followed by static conditions for 16
hours. In dynamic leak-off test .Quizix pump is set on constant
rate mood and is injected the drilling fluid into the core. In
static leak-off test which follows the dynamic test, Quizix
pump is set to hold a constant pressure and provides stable
overbalanced pressure (OBP) conditions in this test.
Experimental results
A set of experiments were carried out on 10 chalk-samples
using different conditions. Only the results for two samples are
presented here, due to many tables and figures. The results of
all samples are included in the discussion section of this paper.
Chalk-sample#1
Table 3 provides the test and core sample No. 1 parameters.
During the leak-off test with this core sample 15 bar
overbalanced pressure has been applied and after 4 hours

SPE 98292

dynamic condition the status has been changed to static

condition (no mud circulation) with the same overbalanced
pressure for 16 hours.

during drilling process while fluid is circulating as dynamic

condition in well . Then after stop the drilling, the fluid can
invade the formation in static condition.

Following exposure to mud, effective permeability to oil flow

in the reverse direction is measured again, under progressively
increasing drawdown conditions.Mud cake lift-off occurs at
5.6 bar of drawdown as show in Figure 3. In this case ,
exposure to mud has caused a total reduction 83% in
permeability of the sample with the rate as same as for the
initial permeability measurement. The behavior under
increasing production flow rate can be used to assess fines
migration or non-darcy effects on permeability. With the
different production rates the return permeability is being
changed, which the flow rate increases. Therfore, this
improving in return permeability, illustrates the possibility of
the filter cake removal and solids from the damaged core. The
final permeability can be reported as permanent damage,
which can be casued by several diffrenet mechanismas
incuding soild invasion.

In one test mud is injected as static of 10 bar OBP into the

sample core No.3 The result of the static test and the dynamic
test is compared and is shown as Fig.3.

Chalk-sample#2
Table 2 presents the sample No. 2 properties and the test
conditions. 10 bar overbalanced pressure have been applied
during the leak-off test with this core sample. The test status
was 4 hours for dynamic condition and then 16 hours static
condition (no mud circulation) with the same overbalanced
pressure. During dynamic leak-off test the rate of invasion was
increased in a period of time because the overbalanced
pressure was increased some, and then the overbalanced
pressure decreases and for about 30 minutes the rate of
invasion reach to zero.

Following exposure to mud, effective permeability to oil flow

in the reverse direction is measured again. Mud cake lift-off
occurs at 5.6 bar of drawdown as show in Figure 3.
Return permeability test indicates that only 32 % of initial
permeability is restored. When increasing the rate, at the
beginning, no change in permeability was observed, because
the pressure was not enough to remove the filter cake from the
face of the core. Then it was increasing to about 48% of the
initial permeability when the back flow rate reaches to highest
value. The fine migration is not observed in this carbonate
chalk sample as steadily increasing permeability profile when
flow rate (interstitial velocity) continues to increae.
Discussion of results
Dynamic and static conditions and flow invasion
Two types of filtration are involved in drilling an oil or gas
well:
1. Static filtration, which takes place when the mud is
not being circulated and the filter cake grows
undistributed
2. Dynamic filtration when the mud is being circulated
and the growth of the filter cake is limited by the
erosive action of the mud stream.
All of tests are carried out first by dynamic condition for 240
minutes and then it followed by static conditions for 16 hours.
In fact this case indicates the performance of drilling fluid

The spurt loss is static test is 0.1 cc while in dynamic test is

0.55 cc. After 240 min., the cumulative invasion in static test
2.6 cc is measured in compare with 5.3 cc in dynamic test. In
the end of the test, the cumulative invasion is measured 12.33
in the dynamic test and 9.3 cc in the static test. The
observations confirm (Figure 4) that drilling fluid filtration
rates show strong sensitivity towards the filtration regime
(static or dynamic) that is used. The static filtration after
dynamic filtration is significantly different from static
filtration alone, when comparing the invasion profile for both
cases.
Results show that there was alteration in return permeability
for dynamic and static leak-off test. The mean values observed
for dynamic test was 33% and for static test was 39%.It also
shows that invasion of water-based filtrate contributes
substantially to overall permeability damage and the fracture
width. The fracture sizes are measured 6.7 m in static test and
14.7 m in dynamic test.
The effect of overbalanced pressure (OBP) on profile of
invasion
Examination of the Results (Figure 5) indicates that
increasing in OBP increases the filtration of drilling fluid to
the core. The cumulative filtration are measured 3.6 cc , 3.7 cc
, 5.46 cc and 6.2 cc for OPB 1, 5 , 10 and 15 bar respectively
at 240 min. of dynamic condition. It is not sufficiently
difference between OBP 1 and 5 bar in this conditions. In the
end of static leak-off test which follow the dynamic test the
values of 5 bar OBP is much more than of 1 bar OBP. It
results that the time of mud application is important in
different OBP conditions. The difference between final
filtration of minimum OBP and maximum OBP is measured 5
cc.
In this set, the mean values observed for fracture size are
almost same within the limits of 80% confidence. So it can not
indicate the effect of fracture and OBP on the filtration. The
filtration curve for all of samples also shows that the mud cake
is formed in early time of invasion into the fracture. Using the
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) as bridging agent is the main
reason for this early build-up of the cake. It illustrates that
CaCO3 acts to prevent and invasion of solids and particles as
well as.
The effect of overbalanced pressure (OBP) on return
permeability
Results of return permeability test are given as Table 4.
The damage analyze is showed that in fractured core the
damage potential is depends on overbalanced pressure
conditions. In the case with 15 bar OBP return permeability
was measured 16.76 % of initial permeability while in case of

1 bar OBP was 55.88 %. But in the case of 10 and 5 OBP the
difference is only 4 %. The fracture size in 1 OBP and 15 bar
OBP is equal. In other words, the fracture size has not affected
the damage permeability and only OBP conditions controls the
impact on the damage.
The impact of fracture aperture on damage
The fracture aperture can strongly control effective
permeability in the open natural fracture system. Effective
fracture permeability is approximately a cubic function of
fracture aperture (Equation 2). That is a 100 micron diameter
fracture will have about 1000 times the effective permeability
of a 10 micron diameter fracture. It becomes evident from this
simple analysis that the penetration of only a few large
fractures by the wellbore will result in theses features
dominating both the potential inflow and fluid loss character
of the well.
The effect of XC polymer on invasion
The result of adding XC-polymer in mud system is presented
as Figure 6. It clearly demonstrates that using only 0.39 %w
XC-polymer to based-mud formulation ( 4.76 %w Bentonite)
can reduce the filtration volume 50% approximately after
exposure time of 1000 min into the core. During back-flood
test the regain permeability of mud with using XC and without
XC are measured 28% and 18% respectively. Thus the solid
and mud damage is not removed from the core perfectly.
The effect of bridging agent (Calcium carbonate) on
filtration
Figure 7 shows the particle distribution of CaCO3 particles
used as fluid-loss additives (bridging agents) in our
experiments. It illustrates that percentage of particle below 2
m is 13.26 % Vol. and percentage below 6 m is 34.43 %
Vol. While above 75 m the percentage is 0%.As we
discussed in chalk reservoir characterization section, the
ranges of pore size in chalk core is 1-20 m and is usually less
than 5 m. Figure 8 is showed the results of adding 1.3 w% of
CaCO33 particles to the mud as a bridging additive. A
comparison of two curves in this figure indicates that the
bridging agent can prevent of mud invasion into the core
effectively. Back-flood test on those samples showed that the
initial permeability is not restored. The change of permeability
for mud with bridging agent 32 % and for without using
bridging additive 18% is measured. Therefore, it illustrates
that the solids and particles did not removed from the core
during back-flow test.
The effect of injection rate on return permeability (Fine
migration test)
Although fines migration is classically associated with high
rate injection and production operations, it may also occur
during drilling operations in conjunction with high spurt losses
of water or oil-based filtrate into the formation. The severity
of migration and damage depends on the specific formation
under consideration, fluid loss rate and wettability. Fines
migration tests are designed to attempt to evaluate the
potential for permeability reduction in the near wellbore
region caused by a loss of a given fluid filtrate (drilling mud
filtrate in the case of overbalanced drilling operations).

SPE 98292

Wettability of the formation also strongly controls fines

migration. A proper knowledge of wettability is essential for
proper evaluation of fines migration potential.
High fluid loss rates of a water-based drilling filtration in a
strongly water wet system will exhibit the maximum potential
for fines mobilization. Figure 9 Provides comparisons of the
fine migration test by performing different injection rate
during back-flood test on the samples as example.
This illustrates the permeability of the core is increases as the
injection rate increased. In all of tests that we have done on
injection rate sensitivity, this increasing is observed. This may
be characterized by some factors such as fracture size and
residual oil saturation and wettability of system.
When the flow rate and corresponding capillary pressure are
increased, this may result in reduction in the residual oil or
water saturation present in the sample. (depending on whether
water or oil is being used as the displacing phase). This causes
a change in relative permeability characteristics of the porous
media, which generally causes an increase in the permeability.
Also in the fractured-core, high flow rate can expel the fines
from this area into the pore body and then they expel from the
pore system. The wettability can have strong impact on the
potential for fines migration in porous media.
In a strongly water-wet oil reservoir, fines migration problem
are minimized unless mobile water is present, or the oil flow
rate is so extreme that it exerts a sufficient capillary drawdown
gradient to mobilize a portion of the previously immobile
water saturation. For an oil-wet reservoir, the possibility of the
migration of fines upon the initiation of production may be an
issue.
Clean-up performance by drawdown effect
Clean-up of the damaged formation after drilling process is an
issue during production by natural drawdown ( pressure
difference applied
between core face
and wellbore
face).When the drawdown is large enough, the external cake
can be lifted off and flow is initialized to remove particles in
the region occupied by internal cake and solids.

In core, the region near to wellbore face regained permeability

is caused by the combined effect of partial removal of solid
particles and reduction of filtration saturation. In the region of
the core which is far from the wellbore face only the filtrate
saturation reduction is considered. In the fractured-core
depending on the fracture size, solid invasion can be seen in
fracture region even far from wellbore face. Figure 10 is
indicated the clean-up process by drawdown effect. The
sample first was damaged by mud leak-off test and then
drawdown test is applied on the core to remove the damage. It
is illustrated that increasing of drawdown from 2 bar until 7
bar is increased the permeability of the damaged core from 2
mD to 4.1 mD. It shows the clean-up process by drawdown
was succeeded in this core and most of initial permeability is
restored. After 7 bar drawdown, the permeability is almost
constant and more drawdown application does not increase the
permeability.

SPE 98292

7.

Test repeatability during performance of leak-off test

Figure 11 provides a description of the repeatability and error
in our experiments. Two different runs with same conditions
of leak-off test are presented in this figure. It clearly
demonstrates that there is same behavior for invasion profile
for two samples at exposure time less than 400 min. After this
time, there is little difference between two tests. As general, it
can be seen from the comparison that the repeatability of our
experimental study is in the acceptable range and the data of
this study is reliable.

While drilling in a fractured reservoir overbalanced,

pressure should be minimized to reduce, the potential
for formation damage. It means that core flood testing
of underbalanced pressure conditions must be tested
for fractured reservoir to reduce the mud invasion.

Acknowledgment
The Petroleum Engineering Department of Norwegian
University of Science and Technology (NTNU) is highly
acknowledged to provide and support the experimental set-up
and facilities.

Conclusions
1. The results of this study confirm that reservoir
conditions core flood testing is an essential tool in
identifying and quantifying damage prior to the
drilling of a well operations.
2. Experiments were conducted to investigate the
influence of overbalance pressure (OBP) on fluid
invasion into the formation during drilling operations.
The depth of invasion starts increasing with the
overbalanced pressure.
3. The use of bridging agents such as CaCO3 can reduce
the volume of particle and filtrate invasion into the
core effectively.
4. Applying drawdown effect has been shown that it has
a significant effect on the return permeability and
restoring the initial permeability of the core in Chalksamples.
5. Drilling through a fractured reservoir without
bridging additives in overbalanced drilling will cause
severe permeability damage to the fracture system.
The fracture can be filled by mud and the
permeability reduction is not reversed during flow
back.
6. The effect of high flow rate (injection rate potential
for clean up) on the return permeability is presented
that fine migration can bee seen and the return
permeability is increased.

Nomenclature
A= Cross sectional area of the core, cm2
D = the diameter of the sample, cm
h = fracture height, cm
K = the effective permeability of the fractured-core
w = fracture width, cm
Subscripts
f = fracture
References
1. Di Jiao, M.Sharma, U. of Texas, Mud-Induced Formation
Damage in Fractured Reservoirs, SPE Drilling and
Completion, March 1996.
2. Ali, A.Kallo, C.L, and Sing, U.B, Preventing Lost
Circulation in Severely Depleted Unconsolidated sandstone
Reservoirs, SPEDC, March 1994.
3. Leoppke, G.E., Glowka, D.A, and Wright, E.K, Design
and Evaluation of Lost Circulation Materials for Severe
Environments. , JPT, March 1990, Trans., AIME, 289.
4. Browns,S. and Smith,P. Mud cake Cleanup to enhance
Productivity of High Angle wells paper SPE 27350,
presented at SPE Symposium on formation Damage,
Lafayette.Februray 7-10 1994.

Table-1 the Fracture Properties in the Formation Damage Tests

Sample no.

Wf (mm)

Wf (m)

Kt=Km+Kf

Kf (mD)

(mD)
CH#1

0.0126

12.6

9.63

5.77

CH#2

0.0129

12.9

9.95

6.09

CH#3

0.0147

14.7

13

9.14

CH#4

0.00882

8.82

5.8

1.94

CH#5

0.0117

11.7

8.5

4.64

CH#6

0.00349

3.492

3.98

0.12

CH#7

0.00835

8.347

5.5

1.64

CH#8

0.00668

6.678

4.7

0.84

SPE 98292

Table-2 Core sample 2, Test and Core Parameters

Length
Diameter
Bulk Volume
Porosity
Matrix Permeability
Circulation Rate
Test Temperature
Back Pressure
Confining Pressure
Net Overbalance Pressure
Injected Fluid
Mud Type
Initial Permeability to Oil
Return Permeability to Oil
Invasion Depth after 240 minute
Invasion Depth after 1200 minute

8.05 (cm)
3.8 (cm)
91.3 (cc)
0.44
3.86 (mD)
0.5 (cc/min)
Room Condition
0 (bar)
30 (bar)
15 (bar)
Exxol-D60
Polymer Mud
9.9 (mD)
1.66 (mD)
1.24 (cm)
2.58 (cm

Table-3 Core sample 1, Test and Core Parameters

Length
Diameter
Bulk Volume
Porosity
Matrix Permeability
Circulation Rate
Test Temperature
Back Pressure
Confining Pressure
Net Overbalance Pressure
Injected Fluid
Mud Type
Initial Permeability to Oil
Return Permeability to Oil
Invasion Depth after 240 minute
Invasion Depth after 1200 minute

7.14 (cm)
3.79 (cm)
80.3 (cc)
0.44
3.86 (mD)
0.5 (cc/min)
Room Condition
0(bar)
30 (bar)
10 (bar)
Exxol-D60
Polymer Mud
13.1 (mD)
4.2 (mD)
1.1 (cm)
2.4 (cm)

Table-4 the effect of overbalanced pressure (OBP) on return permeability

Overbalance Pressure

Return Permeability

1
5
10
15

55.88
28.78
32.08
16.76

SPE 98292

Figure-1 NTNU formation damage apparatus

Wf

Lcore

Figure-2 The configuration of the fractured core sample

SPE 98292

Diffrerentional Pressure (bar)

Chalk-sample#1
Chalk-Sample#2

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time (min)

Figure 3. Lift-off pressure for water based mud , Chalk core samples

Cummulative Invasion (cc)

15

12.5

10

7.5

2.5

sample#3 ,Dynamic+Static

Sample# 9, Static

0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

Time (min)

Figure 4. Comparison between static and dynamic invasion

1200

SPE 98292

16

Cumm ulative Invasion (cc)

14
12
10
8
6

Sample#2-15 OBP
Sample#3-OBP=10 bar
Sample#4, OBP = 5 bar
Sample#5-OBP=1 bar

4
2
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Time (min)

Figure 5. The effect of overbalanced pressure (OBP) on profile of invasion

30
27

Cummulative Invasion (cc)

24
21

Without XC-Ploymer

18
15
12
9
6
with XC-Ploymer

3
0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Time (min)

Figure 6. The impact of XC-polymer on the invasion profile

900

1000

10

SPE 98292

Figure 7. CaCo3 particle-size distribution

30

Cummulative Invasion (cc)

25

20

Without bridging agent

15

10

with bridging agent

0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

Time (min)

Figure 8. The effect of CaCO3 (bridging agent) on fluid-loss behavior

1000

SPE 98292

11

8
7
Sample#6-OBP=10 bar

Permeability (mD)

Sample#7-OBP=10 bar

Sample#4-OBP=5 bar

5
4

2
1
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

Rate (cc/min)

Figure 9. The effect of injection rate on return Permeability

Effective Permeability to Oil (mD)

4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2

Sample#10-OBP=10 bar

1.5
1
0.5
0
0

Drawdown (bar)

Figure 10. The effect of drawdown on permeability of damaged- core

Cummulative Invasion (cc)

15

12.5

10

run-1

7.5

run-2
5

2.5

0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

Time (min)

Figure 11. Repeatability of the test

1200

1400