Jawaharlal Nehru - Biography

11/11/2015
JawaharlalNehruWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
JawaharlalNehru
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
JawaharlalNehru(/neru,nru/[1]
Hindustani:[darlalneru]14November
188927May1964)wasthefirstPrimeMinisterof
IndiaandacentralfigureinIndianpoliticsbeforeand
afterindependence.Heemergedastheparamount
leaderoftheIndianindependencemovementunder
thetutelageofMahatmaGandhiandruledIndiafrom
itsestablishmentasanindependentnationin1947
untilhisdeathin1964.Heisconsideredtobethe
architectofthemodernIndiannationstate:a
sovereign,socialist,secular,anddemocraticrepublic.
HewasalsoknownasPanditNehruduetohisroots
withKashmiriPanditcommunitywhilemanyIndian
childrenknewhimas"UncleNehru"(Chacha
Nehru).[2][3]
ThesonofMotilalNehru,aprominentlawyerand
nationaliststatesmanandSwaroopRani,Nehruwasa
graduateofTrinityCollege,CambridgeandtheInner
Temple,wherehetrainedtobeabarrister.Uponhis
returntoIndia,heenrolledattheAllahabadHigh
Court,andtookaninterestinnationalpolitics,which
eventuallyreplacedhislegalpractice.Acommitted
nationalistsincehisteenageyears,hebecamearising
figureinIndianpoliticsduringtheupheavalsofthe
1910s.Hebecametheprominentleaderoftheleft
wingfactionsoftheIndianNationalCongressduring
the1920s,andeventuallyoftheentireCongress,with
thetacitapprovalofhismentor,Gandhi.AsCongress
Presidentin1929,Nehrucalledforcomplete
independencefromtheBritishRajandinstigatedthe
Congress'sdecisiveshifttowardstheleft.
NehruandtheCongressdominatedIndianpolitics
duringthe1930sasthecountrymovedtowards
independence.Hisideaofasecularnationstatewas
seeminglyvalidatedwhentheCongress,underhis
leadership,sweptthe1937provincialelectionsand
formedthegovernmentinseveralprovincesonthe
otherhand,theseparatistMuslimLeaguefaredmuch
poorer.Buttheseachievementswereseriously
compromisedintheaftermathoftheQuitIndia
Movementin1942,whichsawtheBritisheffectively
crushtheCongressasapoliticalorganisation.Nehru,
whohadreluctantlyheededGandhi'scallfor
immediateindependence,forhehaddesiredto
supporttheAlliedwareffortduringtheSecondWorld
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru
Pandit
JawaharlalNehru
JawaharlalNehruin1947
1stPrimeMinisterofIndia
Inoffice
15August194727May1964
Monarch
GeorgeVI
(until26January1950)
President
RajendraPrasad
SarvepalliRadhakrishnan
Governor
General
TheEarlMountbattenofBurma
ChakravartiRajagopalachari
(until26January1950)
Deputy
VallabhbhaiPatel
Precededby Positionestablished
Succeededby GulzarilalNanda (Acting)
MinisterofDefence
Inoffice
31October196214November1962
Precededby V.K.KrishnaMenon
Succeededby YashwantraoChavan
Inoffice
30January195717April1957
Precededby KailashNathKatju
Succeededby V.K.KrishnaMenon
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War,cameoutofalengthyprisontermtoamuch
alteredpoliticallandscape.TheMuslimLeagueunder
hisoldCongresscolleagueandnowbtenoire,
MuhammadAliJinnah,hadcometodominate
MuslimpoliticsinIndia.NegotiationsbetweenNehru
andJinnahforpowersharingfailedandgavewayto
theindependenceandbloodypartitionofIndiain
1947.
NehruwaselectedbytheCongresstoassumeoffice
asindependentIndia'sfirstPrimeMinister,although
thequestionofleadershiphadbeensettledasfarback
as1941,whenGandhiacknowledgedNehruashis
politicalheirandsuccessor.AsPrimeMinister,heset
outtorealisehisvisionofIndia.TheConstitutionof
Indiawasenactedin1950,afterwhichheembarked
onanambitiousprogramofeconomic,socialand
politicalreforms.Chiefly,heoversawIndia's
transitionfromamonarchytoarepublic,while
nurturingaplural,multipartydemocracy.Inforeign
policy,hetookaleadingroleinNonAlignmentwhile
projectingIndiaasaregionalhegemoninSouthAsia.
UnderNehru'sleadership,theCongressemergedasa
catchallparty,dominatingnationalandstatelevel
politicsandwinningconsecutiveelectionsin1951,
1957,and1962.Heremainedpopularwiththepeople
ofIndiainspiteofpoliticaltroublesinhisfinalyears
andfailureofleadershipduringthe1962SinoIndian
War.InIndia,hisbirthdayiscelebratedasChildren's
Day.
Inoffice
10February195310January1955
Precededby N.GopalaswamiAyyangar
Succeededby KailashNathKatju
MinisterofFinance
Inoffice
13February195813March1958
Precededby TiruvelloreThattai
Krishnamachariar
Succeededby MorarjiDesai
Inoffice
24July195630August1956
Precededby ChintamanDwarakanathDeshmukh
Succeededby TiruvelloreThattai
Krishnamachariar
MinisterofExternalAffairs
Inoffice
15August194727May1964
Precededby Positionestablished
Succeededby GulzarilalNanda
Personaldetails
Born
14November1889
Allahabad,NorthWestern
Provinces,BritishIndia
(nowinUttarPradesh,India)
Died
27May1964(aged74)
NewDelhi,Delhi,India
Nationality
Indian
1 Earlylifeandcareer(18891912)
Political
party
IndianNationalCongress
2 StruggleforIndianIndependence(1912
47)
Spouse(s)
KamalaKaul
Children
IndiraGandhi
Parents
MotilalNehruandSwaruprani
Thussu
Contents
2.1 Homerulemovement
2.2 Noncooperation
2.3 Internationalisingthestruggle
2.4 Republicanism
Almamater TrinityCollege,Cambridge
InnsofCourt
Profession
2.5 DeclarationofIndependence
2.6 Civildisobedience
Barrister
writer
politician
Signature
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2.7 ArchitectofIndia
2.8 Electoralpolitics
2.9 WorldWarIIandQuitIndia
movement
3 PrimeMinisterofIndia(194764)
3.1 Assassinationattemptsandsecurity
3.2 Economicpolicies
3.3 Agriculturepolicies
3.4 Domesticpolicies
3.5 Socialpolicies
3.6 Foreignpolicies
4 SinoIndianWarof1962
5 Death
6 Religion
7 Personallife
8 Legacy
8.1 Commemoration
8.2 Inpopularculture
9 Writings
10 Awards
11 Seealso
12 References
13 Bibliography
14 Furtherreading
15 Externallinks
Earlylifeandcareer(18891912)
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JawaharlalNehruwasbornon14November1889inAllahabadinBritish
India.Hisfather,MotilalNehru(18611931),awealthybarristerwho
belongedtotheKashmiriPanditcommunity,[4]servedtwiceasPresidentof
theIndianNationalCongressduringtheIndependenceStruggle.His
mother,SwarupraniThussu(18681938),whocamefromawellknown
KashmiriBrahminfamilysettledinLahore,[5]wasMotilal'ssecondwife,
thefirsthavingdiedinchildbirth.Jawaharlalwastheeldestofthree
children,twoofwhomweregirls.[6]Theeldersister,VijayaLakshmi,later
becamethefirstfemalepresidentoftheUnitedNationsGeneral
Assembly.[7]Theyoungestsister,KrishnaHutheesing,becameanoted
writerandauthoredseveralbooksonherbrother.
TheNehrufamilyca.1890s
Nehrudescribedhischildhoodasa
"shelteredanduneventfulone".Hegrew
upinanatmosphereofprivilegeatwealthy
homesincludingalargepalatialestate
calledtheAnandBhawan.Hisfatherhad
Nehruinkhakiuniformas
himeducatedathomebyprivate
amemberofSevaDal.
governessesandtutors.[8]Underthe
influenceofatutor,FerdinandT.Brooks,
hebecameinterestedinscienceandtheosophy.[9]Hewassubsequently
initiatedintotheTheosophicalSocietyatagethirteenbyfamilyfriend
AnnieBesant.However,hisinterestintheosophydidnotprovetobe
enduringandheleftthesocietyshortlyafterBrooksdepartedashis
tutor.[10]Hewrote:"fornearlythreeyears[Brooks]waswithmeandin
manywaysheinfluencedmegreatly".[9]
Nehru'stheosophicalinterestshadinducedhimtothestudyofthe
BuddhistandHinduscriptures.[11]AccordingtoB.R.Nanda,thesescriptureswereNehru's"first
introductiontothereligiousandculturalheritageof[India]....[they]providedNehrutheinitialimpulse
for[his]longintellectualquestwhichculminated...inTheDiscoveryofIndia."[11]
Nehrubecameanardentnationalistduringhisyouth.TheBoerWarandtheRussoJapaneseWar
intensifiedhisfeelings.Aboutthelatterhewrote,"[The]Japanesevictories[had]stirredupmy
enthusiasm...Nationalisticideasfilledmymind...ImusedofIndianfreedomandAsiaticfreedomfrom
thethraldomofEurope."[9]Laterwhenhehadbegunhisinstitutionalschoolingin1905atHarrow,a
leadingschoolinEngland,hewasgreatlyinfluencedbyG.M.Trevelyan'sGaribaldibooks,whichhe
hadreceivedasprizesforacademicmerit.[12]HeviewedGaribaldiasarevolutionaryhero.Hewrote:
"VisionsofsimilardeedsinIndiacamebefore,of[my]gallantfightfor[Indian]freedomandinmy
mindIndiaandItalygotstrangelymixedtogether."[9]
NehruwenttoTrinityCollege,CambridgeinOctober1907andgraduatedwithanhonoursdegreein
naturalsciencein1910.[13]Duringthisperiod,healsostudiedpolitics,economics,historyandliterature
desultorily.WritingsofBernardShaw,H.GWells,J.M.Keynes,BertrandRussell,LowesDickinsonand
MeredithTownsendmouldedmuchofhispoliticalandeconomicthinking.[9]
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Aftercompletinghisdegreein1910,NehruwenttoLondonandstayedtherefortwoyearsforlaw
studiesattheInnsofCourtSchoolofLaw(InnerTemple).[14]Duringthistime,hecontinuedtostudy
thescholarsoftheFabianSocietyincludingBeatriceWebb.[9]Hepassedhisbarexaminationsin1912
andwasadmittedtotheEnglishbar.[14]
AfterreturningtoIndiainAugust1912,NehruenrolledhimselfasanadvocateoftheAllahabadHigh
Courtandtriedtosettledownasabarrister.But,unlikehisfather,hehadonlyadesultoryinterestinhis
professionanddidnotrelisheitherthe
practiceoflaworthecompanyof
lawyers.Hewrote:"Decidedlythe
atmospherewasnotintellectually
stimulatingandasenseoftheutter
insipidityoflifegrewuponme."[9]His
involvementinnationalistpolitics
wouldgraduallyreplacehislegal
practiceinthecomingyears.[9]
StruggleforIndian
Independence(191247)
Nehrudressedincadet
uniformatHarrowSchoolin
England
NehruattheAllahabadHigh
Court
Nehruhaddevelopedaninterestin
Indianpoliticsduringhistimein
Britain.[15]WithinmonthsofhisreturntoIndiain1912hehadattended
anannualsessionoftheIndianNationalCongressinPatna.[16]Hewas
disconcertedwithwhathesawasa"verymuchanEnglishknowingupperclassaffair".[17]The
Congressin1912hadbeenthepartyofmoderatesandelites.[16]Nehruharboureddoubtsregardingthe
ineffectualnessoftheCongressbutagreedtoworkforthepartyinsupportoftheIndiancivilrights
movementinSouthAfrica.[18]HecollectedfundsforthecivilrightscampaignersledbyMohandas
Gandhiin1913.[16]Later,hecampaignedagainsttheindenturedlabourandothersuchdiscriminations
facedbyIndiansintheBritishcolonies.[19]
WhentheFirstWorldWarbrokeoutinAugust1914,sympathyinIndiawasdivided.Althougheducated
Indians"byandlargetookavicariouspleasure"inseeingtheBritishrulershumbled,therulingupper
classessidedwiththeAllies.Nehruconfessedthatheviewedthewarwithmixedfeelings.FrankMoraes
wrote:"If[Nehru's]sympathywaswithanycountryitwaswithFrance,whoseculturehegreatly
admired."[20]Duringthewar,NehruvolunteeredfortheStJohnAmbulanceandworkedasoneofthe
provincialsecretariesoftheorganisationinAllahabad.[16]Healsospokeoutagainstthecensorshipacts
passedbytheBritishgovernmentinIndia.[21]
Nehruemergedfromthewaryearsasaleaderwhosepoliticalviewswereconsideredradical.Although
thepoliticaldiscoursehadbeendominatedatthistimebyGopalKrishnaGokhale,[18]amoderatewho
saidthatitwas"madnesstothinkofindependence",[16]Nehruhadspoken"openlyofthepoliticsofnon
cooperation,oftheneedofresigningfromhonorarypositionsunderthegovernmentandofnot
continuingthefutilepoliticsofrepresentation".[22]HeridiculedtheIndianCivilService(ICS)forits
supportofBritishpolicies.HenotedthatsomeonehadoncedefinedtheIndianCivilService,"with
whichweareunfortunatelystillafflictedinthiscountry,asneitherIndian,norcivil,noraservice".[23]
MotilalNehru,aprominentmoderateleader,acknowledgedthelimitsofconstitutionalagitation,but
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counselledhissonthattherewasnoother"practicalalternative"toit.Nehru,however,wasnotsatisfied
withthepaceofthenationalmovement.Hebecameinvolvedwithaggressivenationalistsleaderswho
weredemandingHomeRuleforIndians.[24]
TheinfluenceofthemoderatesonCongresspoliticsbegantowaneafterGokhalediedin1915.[16]Anti
moderateleaderssuchasAnnieBeasantandLokmanyaTilaktooktheopportunitytocallforanational
movementforHomeRule.But,in1915,theproposalwasrejectedbecauseofthereluctanceofthe
moderatestocommittosucharadicalcourseofaction.Besantneverthelessformedaleaguefor
advocatingHomeRulein1916andTilak,onhisreleasefroma
prisonterm,hadinApril1916formedhisownleague.[16]Nehru
joinedbothleaguesbutworkedespeciallyfortheformer.[25]He
remarkedlater:"[Besant]hadaverypowerfulinfluenceonmein
mychildhood...evenlaterwhenIenteredpoliticallifeherinfluence
continued."[25]Anotherdevelopmentwhichbroughtaboutaradical
changeinIndianpoliticswastheespousalofHinduMuslimunity
withtheLucknowpactattheannualmeetingoftheCongressin
December1916.Thepacthadbeeninitiatedearlierintheyearat
AllahabadatameetingoftheAllIndiaCongressCommitteewhich
washeldattheNehruresidenceatAnandBhawan.Nehruwelcomed
andencouragedtherapprochementbetweenthetwoIndian
communities.[25]
Homerulemovement
Nehruin1918withwifeKamala
anddaughterIndira
Severalnationalistleadersbandedtogetherin1916underthe
leadershipofAnnieBesanttovoiceademandforselfgovernment,
andtoobtainthestatusofaDominionwithintheBritishEmpireas
enjoyedbyAustralia,Canada,SouthAfrica,NewZealandandNewfoundlandatthetime.Nehrujoined
themovementandrosetobecomesecretaryofBesant'sAllIndiaHomeRuleLeague.[25][26]InJune
1917BesantwasarrestedandinternedbytheBritishgovernment.TheCongressandvariousother
Indianorganisationthreatenedtolaunchprotestsifshewerenotsetfree.TheBritishgovernmentwas
subsequentlyforcedtoreleaseBesantandmakesignificantconcessionsafteraperiodofintenseprotest.
Noncooperation
ThefirstbignationalinvolvementofNehrucameattheonsetofthenoncooperationmovementin
1920.HeledthemovementintheUnitedProvinces(nowUttarPradesh).Nehruwasarrestedoncharges
ofantigovernmentalactivitiesin1921,andwasreleasedafewmonthslater.Intheriftthatformed
withintheCongressfollowingthesuddenclosureofthenoncooperationmovementaftertheChauri
Chauraincident,NehruremainedloyaltoGandhianddidnotjointheSwarajPartyformedbyhisfather
MotilalNehruandCRDas.
Internationalisingthestruggle
NehruplayedaleadingroleinthedevelopmentoftheinternationalistoutlookoftheIndian
independencestruggle.HesoughtforeignalliesforIndiaandforgedlinkswithmovementsfor
independenceanddemocracyallovertheworld.In1927,hiseffortspaidoffandtheCongresswas
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invitedtoattendthecongressofoppressednationalitiesinBrusselsinBelgium.Themeetingwascalled
tocoordinateandplanacommonstruggleagainstimperialism.NehrurepresentedIndiaandwaselected
totheExecutiveCounciloftheLeagueagainstImperialismthatwasbornatthismeeting.[27]
Duringthemid1930s,NehruwasmuchconcernedwithdevelopmentsinEurope,whichseemedtobe
driftingtowardanotherworldwar.HewasinEuropeinearly
1936,visitinghisailingwife,shortlybeforeshediedina
sanitariuminSwitzerland.Evenatthistime,heemphasisedthat,
intheeventofwar,India'splacewasalongsidethedemocracies,
thoughheinsistedthatIndiacouldonlyfightinsupportofGreat
BritainandFranceasafreecountry.
NehrucloselyworkedwithSubhashBoseindevelopinggood
relationswithgovernmentsoffreecountriesallovertheworld.
However,thetwosplitinthelate1930s,whenBoseagreedto
seekthehelpoffascistsindrivingtheBritishoutofIndia.Atthe
sametime,NehruhadsupportedtheRepublicanswhowere
fightingagainstFranciscoFranco'sforcesintheSpanishCivil
War.NehrualongwithhisaideV.K.KrishnaMenonvisited
SpainanddeclaredsupportfortheRepublicans.HErefusedto
meetBenitoMussolini,thedictatorofItalywhenthelatter
expressedhisdesiretomeethim.[28][29]
IndiraGandhi,JawaharlalNehru,
RajivGandhiandSanjayGandhi
Republicanism
Nehruwasoneofthefirstnationalistleaderstorealisethe
sufferingsofthepeopleinthestatesruledbyIndianPrinces.He
sufferedimprisonmentinNabha,aprincelystate,whenhewent
theretoseethestrugglethatwasbeingwagedbytheSikhs
againstthecorruptMahants.Thenationalistmovementhadbeen
confinedtotheterritoriesunderdirectBritishrule.Hehelpedto
makethestruggleofthepeopleintheprincelystatesapartofthe
nationalistmovementforindependence.TheAllIndiastates
people'sconferencewasformedin1927.Nehruwhohadbeen
supportingthecauseofthepeopleoftheprincelystatesformany
yearswasmadethePresidentoftheconferencein1935.He
openedupitsrankstomembershipfromacrossthepolitical
NehruandhisdaughterIndirain
spectrum.Thebodywouldplayanimportantroleduringthe
Britain,1930s
politicalintegrationofIndia,helpingIndianleadersVallabhbhai
PatelandV.P.Menon(towhomNehruhaddelegatedthetaskof
integratingtheprincelystatesintoIndia)negotiatewithhundredsofprinces.
InJuly1946,Nehrupointedlyobservedthatnoprincelystatecouldprevailmilitarilyagainstthearmyof
independentIndia.[30]InJanuary1947,hesaidthatindependentIndiawouldnotaccepttheDivineRight
ofKings,[31]andinMay1947,hedeclaredthatanyprincelystatewhichrefusedtojointheConstituent
Assemblywouldbetreatedasanenemystate.DuringthedraftingoftheIndianconstitution,many
Indianleaders(exceptNehru)ofthattimewereinfavourofallowingeachPrincelystateorCovenanting
StatetobeindependentasafederalstatealongthelinessuggestedoriginallybytheGovernmentofIndia
act(1935).Butasthedraftingoftheconstitutionprogressedandtheideaofformingarepublictook
concreteshape(becauseoftheeffortsofNehru),itwasdecidedthatallthePrincelystates/Covenanting
StateswouldmergewiththeIndianrepublic.Nehru'sdaughter,IndiraGandhi,derecognizedallthe
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rulersbyapresidentialorderin1969.ButthiswasstruckdownbytheSupremeCourtofIndia.
Eventually,thegovernmentbythe26thAmendmenttotheconstitutionwassuccessfulinabolishingthe
PrincelystatesofIndia.TheprocessbeganbyNehruwasfinallycompletedbyhisdaughterbytheend
of1971.
DeclarationofIndependence
NehruwasoneofthefirstleaderstodemandthattheCongressPartyshouldresolvetomakeacomplete
andexplicitbreakfromalltieswiththeBritishEmpire.Heintroducedaresolutiondemanding"complete
nationalindependence"in1927,whichwasrejectedbecauseofGandhi'sopposition.[32]
In1928,GandhiagreedtoNehru'sdemandsandproposedaresolutionthatcalledfortheBritishtogrant
dominionstatustoIndiawithintwoyears.IftheBritishfailedtomeetthedeadline,theCongresswould
calluponallIndianstofightforcompleteindependence.Nehruwasoneoftheleaderswhoobjectedto
thetimegiventotheBritishhepressedGandhitodemandimmediateactionsfromtheBritish.Gandhi
brokeredafurthercompromisebyreducingthetimegivenfromtwoyearstoone.Nehruagreedtovote
forthenewresolution.
DemandsfordominionstatuswasrejectedbytheBritishin1929.Nehruassumedthepresidencyofthe
CongresspartyduringtheLahoresessionon29December1929andintroducedasuccessfulresolution
callingforcompleteindependence.
NehrudraftedtheIndiandeclarationofindependence,whichstated:
"WebelievethatitistheinalienablerightoftheIndianpeople,asofanyotherpeople,to
havefreedomandtoenjoythefruitsoftheirtoilandhavethenecessitiesoflife,sothatthey
mayhavefullopportunitiesofgrowth.Webelievealsothatifanygovernmentdeprivesa
peopleoftheserightsandoppressesthemthepeoplehaveafurtherrighttoalteritor
abolishit.TheBritishgovernmentinIndiahasnotonlydeprivedtheIndianpeopleoftheir
freedombuthasbaseditselfontheexploitationofthemasses,andhasruinedIndia
economically,politically,culturallyandspiritually.Webelievetherefore,thatIndiamust
severtheBritishconnectionandattainPurnaSwarajorcompleteindependence."[33]
AtmidnightonNewYear'sEve1929,NehruhoistedthetricolourflagofIndiauponthebanksofthe
RaviinLahore.Apledgeofindependencewasreadout,whichincludedareadinesstowithholdtaxes.
Themassivegatheringofpublicattendingtheceremonywasaskediftheyagreedwithit,andthevast
majorityofpeoplewerewitnessedtoraisetheirhandsinapproval.172Indianmembersofcentraland
provinciallegislaturesresignedinsupportoftheresolutionandinaccordancewithIndianpublic
sentiment.TheCongressaskedthepeopleofIndiatoobserve26JanuaryasIndependenceDay.Theflag
ofIndiawashoistedpubliclyacrossIndiabyCongressvolunteers,nationalistsandthepublic.Plansfora
masscivildisobediencewerealsounderway.
AftertheLahoresessionoftheCongressin1929,Nehrugraduallyemergedastheparamountleaderof
theIndianindependencemovement.Gandhisteppedbackintoamorespiritualrole.AlthoughGandhi
didnotofficiallydesignateNehruhispoliticalheiruntil1942,thecountryasearlyasthemid1930ssaw
inNehruthenaturalsuccessortoGandhi.
Civildisobedience
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NehruandmostoftheCongressleaderswereinitiallyambivalentaboutGandhi'splantobegincivil
disobediencewithasatyagrahaaimedattheBritishsalttax.Aftertheprotestgatheredsteam,they
realisedthepowerofsaltasasymbol.Nehruremarkedabouttheunprecedentedpopularresponse,"it
seemedasthoughaspringhadbeensuddenlyreleased".[34]Hewasarrestedon14April1930while
entrainingfromAllahabadforRaipur.Hehadearlier,afteraddressingahugemeetingandleadingavast
procession,ceremoniouslymanufacturedsomecontrabandsalt.Hewaschargedwithbreachofthesalt
law,triedsummarilybehindprisonwallsandsentencedtosixmonthsofimprisonment.Henominated
GandhitosucceedhimasCongressPresidentduringhisabsenceinjail,butGandhideclined,andNehru
thennominatedhisfatherashissuccessor.WithNehru'sarrestthecivildisobedienceacquiredanew
tempo,andarrests,firingoncrowdsandlathichargesgrewtobeordinaryoccurrences.
TheSaltSatyagrahasucceededindrawingtheattentionoftheworld.Indian,British,andworldopinion
increasinglybegantorecognisethelegitimacyoftheclaimsbytheCongresspartyforindependence.
NehruconsideredthesaltsatyagrahathehighwatermarkofhisassociationwithGandhi,[35]andfeltthat
itslastingimportancewasinchangingtheattitudesofIndians:
"OfcoursethesemovementsexercisedtremendouspressureontheBritishGovernmentand
shookthegovernmentmachinery.Buttherealimportance,tomymind,layintheeffectthey
hadonourownpeople,andespeciallythevillagemasses....Noncooperationdragged
themoutofthemireandgavethemselfrespectandselfreliance....Theyacted
courageouslyanddidnotsubmitsoeasilytounjustoppressiontheiroutlookwidenedand
theybegantothinkalittleintermsofIndiaasawhole....Itwasaremarkable
transformationandtheCongress,underGandhi'sleadership,musthavethecreditfor
it."[36]
ArchitectofIndia
NehruelaboratedthepoliciesoftheCongressandafutureIndian
nationunderhisleadershipin1929.Hedeclaredthattheaimsof
thecongresswerefreedomofreligion,righttoformassociations,
freedomofexpressionofthought,equalitybeforelawforevery
individualwithoutdistinctionofcaste,colour,creedorreligion,
protectiontoregionallanguagesandcultures,safeguardingthe
interestsofthepeasantsandlabour,abolitionofuntouchability,
introductionofadultfranchise,impositionofprohibition,
nationalisationofindustries,socialism,andestablishmentofa
secularIndia.Alltheseaimsformedthecoreofthe
"FundamentalRightsandEconomicPolicy"resolutiondraftedby
Nehruin192931andwereratifiedbytheAllIndiaCongress
CommitteeunderGandhi'sleadership.[37]However,some
Congressleadersobjectedtotheresolutionanddecidedto
opposeNehru.
GandhiandNehruin1942
TheespousalofsocialismastheCongressgoalwasmostdifficulttoachieve.Nehruwasopposedinthis
bytherightwingCongressmenSardarPatel,Dr.RajendraPrasadandChakravarthiRajagopalachari.He
hadthesupportoftheleftwingCongressmenMaulanaAzadandSubhasChandraBose.Thetrio
combinedtooustDr.PrasadasCongressPresidentin1936.Nehruwaselectedinhisplaceandheldthe
presidencyfortwoyears(193637).[38]HewasthensucceededbyhissocialistcolleaguesBose(1938
39)andAzad(194046).AfterthefallofBosefromthemainstreamofIndianpolitics(becauseofhis
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supportofviolenceindrivingtheBritishoutofIndia),thepowerstrugglebetweenthesocialistsand
conservativesbalancedout.However,SardarPateldiedin1950,leavingNehruasthesoleremaining
iconicnationalleader,andsoonthesituationbecamesuchthatNehruwasabletoimplementmanyofhis
basicpolicieswithouthindrance.TheconservativerightwingoftheCongress(composedofIndia's
upperclasselites)wouldcontinueopposingthesocialistsuntilthegreatschismin1969.Nehru's
daughter,IndiraGandhi,wasabletofulfillherfather'sdreambythe42ndamendment(1976)ofthe
IndianconstitutionbywhichIndiaofficiallybecame"socialist"and"secular".[39]
DuringNehru'ssecondtermasgeneralsecretaryoftheCongress,heproposedcertainresolutions
concerningtheforeignpolicyofIndia.[40]Fromthattimeonwards,hewasgivencarteblanchein
framingtheforeignpolicyofanyfutureIndiannation.Hedevelopedgoodrelationswithgovernments
allovertheworld.HefirmlyplacedIndiaonthesideofdemocracyandfreedomduringatimewhenthe
worldwasunderthethreatoffascism.[29]Hewasalsogiventheresponsibilityofplanningtheeconomy
ofafutureIndia.HeappointedtheNationalPlanningCommissionin1938tohelpinframingsuch
policies.[41]However,manyoftheplansframedbyNehruandhiscolleagueswouldcomeundonewith
theunexpectedpartitionofIndiain1947.
Electoralpolitics
NehruvisittoEuropein1936provedtobethewatershedinhis
politicalandeconomicthinking.Nehru'srealinterestinMarxism
andhissocialistpatternofthoughtstemfromthattour.His
subsequentsojournsinprisonenabledhimtostudyMarxismin
moredepth.Interestedinitsideasbutrepelledbysomeofits
methods,hecouldneverbringhimselftoacceptKarlMarx's
writingsasrevealedscripture.Yetfromthenon,theyardstickof
hiseconomicthinkingremainedMarxist,adjusted,where
necessary,toIndianconditions.
JawaharlalNehruandRabindranath
WhentheCongresspartyunderNehruchosetocontestelections
Tagore
andacceptpowerundertheFederationscheme,Gandhiresigned
frompartymembership.GandhididnotdisagreewithNehru's
move,butfeltthatifheresigned,hispopularitywithIndianswouldceasetostifletheparty's
membership.Whentheelectionsfollowingtheintroductionofprovincialautonomy(underthe
governmentofIndiaact1935)broughttheCongresspartytopowerinamajorityoftheprovinces,
Nehru'spopularityandpowerwasunmatched.TheMuslimLeagueunderMohammedAliJinnah(who
wastobecomethecreatorofPakistan)hadfaredbadlyatthepolls.Nehrudeclaredthattheonlytwo
partiesthatmatteredinIndiaweretheBritishRajandCongress.JinnahstatementsthattheMuslim
Leaguewasthethirdand"equalpartner"withinIndianpoliticswaswidelyrejected.Nehruhadhopedto
elevateMaulanaAzadasthepreeminentleadersofIndianMuslims,butinthis,hewasunderminedby
Gandhi,whocontinuedtotreatJinnahasthevoiceofIndianMuslims.
WorldWarIIandQuitIndiamovement
WhenWorldwarIIstarted,ViceroyLinlithgowhadunilaterallydeclaredIndiaabelligerentontheside
oftheBritain,withoutconsultingtheelectedIndianrepresentatives.Nehruhurriedbackfromavisitto
China,announcingthat,inaconflictbetweendemocracyandFascism,"oursympathiesmustinevitably
beonthesideofdemocracy....IshouldlikeIndiatoplayitsfullpartandthrowallherresourcesintothe
struggleforaneworder."
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AftermuchdeliberationtheCongressunderNehruinformedthegovernmentthatitwouldcooperate
withtheBritishbutoncertainconditions.First,Britainmustgiveanassuranceoffullindependencefor
Indiaafterthewarandallowtheelectionofaconstituentassemblytoframeanewconstitutionsecond,
althoughtheIndianarmedforceswouldremainundertheBritishCommanderinChief,Indiansmustbe
includedimmediatelyinthecentralgovernmentandgivenachancetosharepowerandresponsibility.
WhenNehrupresentedLordLinlithgowwiththedemands,hechosetorejectthem.Adeadlockwas
reached."Thesameoldgameisplayedagain",NehruwrotebitterlytoGandhi,"thebackgroundisthe
same,thevariousepithetsarethesameandtheactorsarethesameandtheresultsmustbethesame".
On23October1939,theCongresscondemnedtheViceroy'sattitudeandcalledupontheCongress
ministriesinthevariousprovincestoresigninprotest.Beforethiscrucialannouncement,Nehruurged
JinnahandtheMuslimLeaguetojointheprotestbutthelatterdeclined.
InMarch1940Jinnahpassedwhatwouldcometobeknownasthe"PakistanResolution",declaring
"Muslimsareanationaccordingtoanydefinitionofanation,andtheymusthavetheirhomelands,their
territoryandtheirState."ThisstatewastobeknownasPakistan,meaning"LandofthePure".Nehru
angrilydeclaredthat"alltheoldproblems...paleintoinsignificancebeforethelateststandtakenbythe
MuslimLeagueleaderinLahore".LinlithgowmadeNehruanofferon8October1940.Itstatedthat
DominionstatusforIndiawastheobjectiveoftheBritishgovernment.However,itreferredneithertoa
datenormethodofaccomplishment.OnlyJinnahgotsomethingmoreprecise."TheBritishwouldnot
contemplatetransferringpowertoaCongressdominatednationalgovernmenttheauthorityofwhich
was"deniedbylargeandpowerfulelementsinIndia'snationallife".
InOctober1940,GandhiandNehru,abandoningtheiroriginalstandofsupportingBritain,decidedto
launchalimitedcivildisobediencecampaigninwhichleadingadvocatesofIndianindependencewere
selectedtoparticipateonebyone.Nehruwasarrestedandsentencedtofouryears'imprisonment.After
spendingalittlemorethanayearinjail,hewasreleased,alongwithotherCongressprisoners,three
daysbeforethebombingofPearlHarborinHawaii.
WhentheJapanesecarriedtheirattackthroughBurma(now
Myanmar)tothebordersofIndiainthespringof1942,theBritish
government,facedbythisnewmilitarythreat,decidedtomakesome
overturestoIndia,asNehruhadoriginallydesired.PrimeMinister
WinstonChurchilldispatchedSirStaffordCripps,amemberofthe
warCabinetwhowasknowntobepoliticallyclosetoNehruandalso
knewJinnah,withproposalsforasettlementoftheconstitutional
problem.AssoonashearrivedhediscoveredthatIndiawasmore
deeplydividedthanhehadimagined.Nehru,eagerforacompromise,
washopeful.Gandhiwasnot.Jinnahhadcontinuedopposingthe
Congress."Pakistanisouronlydemand",declaredtheMuslim
Leaguenewspaper"Dawn"andbyGodwewillhaveit."
Cripps'smissionfailedasGandhiwouldacceptnothinglessthan
independence.RelationsbetweenNehruandGandhicooledoverthe
lattersrefusaltocooperatewithCrippsbutthetwolaterreconciled.
On15January1941Gandhihadstated:"SomesayPanditNehruand
Iwereestranged.Itwillrequiremuchmorethandifferenceofopinion
toestrangeus.Wehaddifferencesfromthetimewebecameco
workersandyetIhavesaidforsomeyearsandsaysonowthatnot
RajajibutJawaharlalwillbemysuccessor."[42]
NehruandJinnahwalktogether
atSimla,1946
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GandhicalledontheBritishtoleaveIndiaNehru,thoughreluctanttoembarrassthealliedwareffort,
hadnoalternativebuttojoinGandhi.FollowingtheQuitIndiaresolutionpassedbytheCongressparty
inBombay(nowMumbai)on8August1942,theentireCongressworkingcommittee,includingGandhi
andNehru,wasarrestedandimprisoned.Nehruemergedfromthishisninthandlastdetentiononly
on15June1945.
DuringtheperiodwherealloftheCongressleadershipwereinjail,theMuslimLeagueunderJinnah
grewinpower.InApril1943,theLeaguecapturedthegovernmentsofBengaland,amonthlater,thatof
theNorthWestFrontierProvince.InnoneoftheseprovinceshadtheLeaguepreviouslyhadamajority
onlythearrestofCongressmembersmadeitpossible.WithalltheMuslimdominatedprovincesexcept
thePunjabunderJinnah'scontrol,theartificialconceptofaseparateMuslimStatewasturningintoa
reality.However,by1944,Jinnah'spowerandprestigewereonthewane.Ageneralsympathytowards
thejailedCongressleaderswasdevelopingamongMuslims,andmuchoftheblameforthedisastrous
Bengalfamineof194344duringwhichtwomilliondied,hadbeenlaidontheshouldersofthe
province'sMuslimLeaguegovernment.ThenumbersatJinnah'smeetings,oncecountedinthousands
soonnumberedonlyafewhundreds.Indespair,JinnahleftthepoliticalsceneforastayinKashmir.His
prestigewasrestoredunwittinglybyGandhi,whohadbeenreleasedfromprisononmedicalgroundsin
May1944andhadmetJinnahinBombayinSeptember.ThereheofferedtheMuslimleaderaplebiscite
intheMuslimareasafterthewartoseewhethertheywantedtoseparatefromtherestofIndia.
Essentially,itwasanacceptanceoftheprincipleofPakistanbutnotinsomanywords.Jinnah
demandedthattheexactwordsbesaidGandhirefusedandthetalksbrokedown.Jinnahhoweverhad
greatlystrengthenedhisownpositionandthatoftheLeague.ThemostinfluentialmemberofCongress
hadbeenseentonegotiatewithhimonequalterms.OtherMuslimLeagueleaders,opposedbothto
JinnahandtothepartitionofIndia,loststrength.
PrimeMinisterofIndia(194764)
NehruandhiscolleagueshadbeenreleasedastheBritish
CabinetMissionarrivedtoproposeplansfortransferofpower.
Onceelected,Nehruheadedaninterimgovernment,whichwas
impairedbyoutbreaksofcommunalviolenceandpolitical
disorder,andtheoppositionoftheMuslimLeagueledby
MuhammadAliJinnah,whoweredemandingaseparateMuslim
stateofPakistan.Afterfailedbidstoformcoalitions,Nehru
reluctantlysupportedthepartitionofIndia,accordingtoaplan
releasedbytheBritishon3June1947.Hetookofficeasthe
PrimeMinisterofIndiaon15August,anddeliveredhis
inauguraladdresstitled"TrystwithDestiny".
NehrusigningtheIndianConstitution
c.1950
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TeenMurtiBhavan,Nehru's
residenceasPrimeMinister,nowa
museuminhismemory.
LordMountbattenswearsinJawaharlalNehruas
thefirstPrimeMinisteroffreeIndiaatthe
ceremonyheldat8:30amISTon15August1947
"Longyearsagowemadeatrystwith
destiny,andnowthetimecomeswhen
weshallredeemourpledge,notwholly
orinfullmeasure,butvery
substantially.Atthestrokeofthe
midnighthour,whentheworldsleeps,
Indiawillawaketolifeandfreedom.A
momentcomes,whichcomesbutrarely
inhistory,whenwestepoutfromthe
oldtothenew,whenanageends,and
whenthesoulofanation,long
suppressed,findsutterance.Itisfitting
thatatthissolemnmomentwetakethe
pledgeofdedicationtotheserviceof
Indiaandherpeopleandtothestill
largercauseofhumanity."[43]
On30January1948,Gandhiwasshotwhilehewaswalkingtoa
platformfromwhichhewastoaddressaprayermeeting.The
assassin,NathuramGodse,wasaHindunationalistwithlinksto
theextremistHinduMahasabha,whoheldGandhiresponsible
forweakeningIndiabyinsistinguponapaymenttoPakistan.
Nehruaddressedthenationthroughradio:[44]
"Friendsandcomrades,thelighthasgoneoutofour
lives,andthereisdarknesseverywhere,andIdonot
quiteknowwhattotellyouorhowtosayit.Our
belovedleader,Bapuaswecalledhim,thefatherof
thenation,isnomore.PerhapsIamwrongtosay
thatnevertheless,wewillnotseehimagain,aswe
haveseenhimforthesemanyyears,wewillnotrun
tohimforadviceorseeksolacefromhim,andthat
isaterribleblow,notonlyforme,butformillions
andmillionsinthiscountry."JawaharlalNehru's
addresstoGandhi[45]
NehruwithAlbertEinsteinat
PrincetonUniversity,1949
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YasminKhanarguedthatGandhi'sdeathandfuneralhelped
consolidatetheauthorityofthenewIndianstateunderNehruand
Patel.TheCongresstightlycontrolledtheepicpublicdisplaysof
griefoveratwoweekperiodthefuneral,mortuaryritualsand
distributionofthemartyr'sashesasmillionsparticipatedand
hundredsofmillionswatched.Thegoalwastoassertthepower
ofthegovernment,legitimisetheCongressparty'scontroland
suppressallreligiousparamilitarygroups.NehruandPatel
suppressedtheRSS,theMuslimNationalGuards,andthe
Khaksars,withsome200,000arrests.Gandhi'sdeathandfuneral
linkedthedistantstatewiththeIndianpeopleandmademore
understandtheneedtosuppressreligiouspartiesduringthe
transitiontoindependencefortheIndianpeople.[46]
PresidentHarryTrumanand
JawaharlalNehru,withNehru'ssister,
MadamePandit,duringNehru'svisit
totheUnitedStates,October1949
Inlateryearsthereemergedarevisionistschoolofhistorywhich
soughttoblameNehruforthepartitionofIndia,mostlyreferring
tohishighlycentralisedpoliciesforanindependentIndiain1947,whichJinnahopposedinfavourofa
moredecentralisedIndia.[47][48]SuchviewshasbeenpromotedbytheHindunationalistBharatiyaJanata
Party(BJP),whichfavoursadecentralisedcentralgovernmentinIndia.[49]
Intheyearsfollowingindependence,NehrufrequentlyturnedtohisdaughterIndiratolookafterhim
andmanagehispersonalaffairs.Underhisleadership,theCongresswonanoverwhelmingmajorityin
theelectionsof1952.IndiramovedintoNehru'sofficialresidencetoattendtohimandbecamehis
constantcompanioninhistravelsacrossIndiaandtheworld.IndirawouldvirtuallybecomeNehru's
chiefofstaff.
NehruhadledtheCongresstoamajorvictoryinthe1957elections,buthisgovernmentwasfacing
risingproblemsandcriticism.Disillusionedbyallegedintrapartycorruptionandbickering,Nehru
contemplatedresigningbutcontinuedtoserve.TheelectionofhisdaughterIndiraasCongressPresident
in1959arousedcriticismforallegednepotism,althoughactuallyNehruhaddisapprovedofherelection,
partlybecauseheconsidereditsmackedof"dynastism"hesaid,indeeditwas"whollyundemocratic
andanundesirablething",andrefusedherapositioninhiscabinet.[50]Indiraherselfwasatloggerheads
withherfatheroverpolicymostnotably,sheusedhisoftstatedpersonaldeferencetotheCongress
WorkingCommitteetopushthroughthedismissaloftheCommunistPartyofIndiagovernmentinthe
stateofKerala,overhisownobjections.[50]Nehrubegantobefrequentlyembarrassedbyher
ruthlessnessanddisregardforparliamentarytradition,andwas"hurt"bywhathesawasanassertiveness
withnopurposeotherthantostakeoutanidentityindependentofherfather.[51]
Inthe1962elections,NehruledtheCongresstovictoryyetwithadiminishedmajority.Communistand
socialistpartieswerethemainbeneficiariesalthoughsomerightwinggroupslikeBharatiyaJanaSangh
alsodidwell.
Assassinationattemptsandsecurity
TherewerefourknownassassinationattemptsonNehru.Thefirstattemptonhislifewasduring
partitionin1947whilehewasvisitingNorthWestFrontierProvince(nowinPakistan)inacar.[52]The
secondonewasbyaknifewieldingrickshawpullerinMaharashtrain1955.[53][54][55][56]Thethirdone
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happenedinBombay(nowMaharashtra)in1956.[57][58][59]Thefourthonewasafailedbombingattempt
ontraintracksinMaharashtrain1961.[60]Despitethreatstohislife,Nehrudespisedhavingtoomuch
securityaroundhimanddidnotliketodisrupttrafficduetohismovement.[61]
Economicpolicies
NehrumeetingwithChancellor
KonradAdenauerandDeutscheBank
chairmanHermannJosefAbsduring
astatevisittoWestGermanyinJune
1956.
Nehruimplementedpoliciesbasedonimportsubstitution
industrialisationandadvocatedamixedeconomywherethe
governmentcontrolledpublicsectorwouldcoexistwiththe
privatesector.[62]Hebelievedthattheestablishmentofbasicand
heavyindustrywasfundamentaltothedevelopmentand
modernisationoftheIndianeconomy.Thegovernmenttherefore
directedinvestmentprimarilyintokeypublicsectorindustries
steel,iron,coal,andpowerpromotingtheirdevelopmentwith
subsidiesandprotectionistpolicies.[63]
ThepolicyofnonalignmentduringtheColdWarmeantthat
Nehrureceivedfinancialandtechnicalsupportfrombothpower
blocsinbuildingIndia'sindustrialbasefromscratch.[64]Steel
millcomplexeswerebuiltatBokaroandRourkelawith
assistancefromtheSovietUnionandWestGermany.Therewas
substantialindustrialdevelopment.[64]Industrygrew7.0percentannuallybetween1950and1965
almosttreblingindustrialoutputandmakingIndiatheworld'sseventhlargestindustrialcountry.[64]
Nehru'scritics,however,contendedthatIndia'simportsubstitutionindustrialisation,whichwas
continuedlongaftertheNehruera,weakenedtheinternationalcompetitivenessofitsmanufacturing
industries.[65]India'sshareofworldtradefellfrom1.4percentin19511960to0.5percentover1981
1990.[66]Ontheotherhand,India'sexportperformanceisarguedtohaveactuallyshowedsustained
improvementovertheperiod.Thevolumeofexportswentupatanannualrateof2.9percentin1951
1960to7.6percentin19711980.[67]
GDPandGNPgrew3.9and4.0percentannuallybetween195051and196465.[68][69]Itwasaradical
breakfromtheBritishcolonialperiod.[70]But,incomparisontootherindustrialpowersinEuropeand
EastAsia,thegrowthrateswereconsideredanaemicatbest.[66][71]Indialaggedbehindthemiracle
economies(Japan,WestGermany,France,andItaly).[72]Stateplanning,controls,andregulationswere
arguedtohaveimpairedeconomicgrowth.[73]WhileIndia'seconomygrewfasterthanboththeUnited
KingdomandtheUnitedStateslowinitialincomeandrapidpopulationincreasemeantthatgrowth
wasinadequateforanysortofcatchupwithrichincomenations.[71][72][74]
Agriculturepolicies
UnderNehru'sleadership,thegovernmentattemptedtodevelopIndiaquicklybyembarkingonagrarian
reformandrapidindustrialisation.Asuccessfullandreformwasintroducedthatabolishedgiant
landholdings,buteffortstoredistributelandbyplacinglimitsonlandownershipfailed.Attemptsto
introducelargescalecooperativefarmingwerefrustratedbylandowningruralelites,whoformedthe
coreofthepowerfulrightwingoftheCongressandhadconsiderablepoliticalsupportinopposingthe
effortsofNehru.Agriculturalproductionexpandeduntiltheearly1960s,asadditionallandwasbrought
undercultivationandsomeirrigationprojectsbegantohaveaneffect.Theestablishmentofagricultural
universities,modelledafterlandgrantcollegesintheUnitedStates,contributedtothedevelopmentof
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theeconomy.Theseuniversitiesworkedwithhighyieldingvarietiesofwheatandrice,initially
developedinMexicoandthePhilippines,thatinthe1960sbegantheGreenRevolution,aneffortto
diversifyandincreasecropproduction.Atthesametimeaseriesoffailedmonsoonswouldcause
seriousfoodshortagesdespitethesteadyprogressandincreaseinagriculturalproduction.[75]
Domesticpolicies
Seealso:StatesReorganisationAct
TheBritishIndianEmpire,whichincludedpresentdayIndia,
PakistanandBangladesh,wasdividedintotwotypesof
territories:theProvincesofBritishIndia,whichweregoverned
directlybyBritishofficialsresponsibletotheGovernorGeneral
ofIndiaandprincelystates,undertheruleoflocalhereditary
rulerswhorecognisedBritishsuzeraintyinreturnforlocal
autonomy,inmostcasesasestablishedbytreaty.Between1947
andabout1950,theterritoriesoftheprincelystateswere
politicallyintegratedintotheIndianUnionunderNehruand
Nehru'sstudyinTeenMurtiBhavan.
SardarPatel.Mostweremergedintoexistingprovincesothers
wereorganisedintonewprovinces,suchasRajputana,Himachal
Pradesh,MadhyaBharat,andVindhyaPradesh,madeupofmultipleprincelystatesafew,including
Mysore,Hyderabad,Bhopal,andBilaspur,becameseparateprovinces.TheGovernmentofIndiaAct
1935remainedtheconstitutionallawofIndiapendingadoptionofanewConstitution.
ThenewConstitutionofIndia,whichcameintoforceon26January1950,madeIndiaasovereign
democraticrepublic.Nehrudeclaredthenewrepublictobea"UnionofStates".Theconstitutionof
1950distinguishedbetweenthreemaintypesofstates:PartAstates,whichweretheformergovernors'
provincesofBritishIndia,wereruledbyanelectedgovernorandstatelegislature.ThePartBstates
wereformerprincelystatesorgroupsofprincelystates,governedbyarajpramukh,whowasusuallythe
rulerofaconstituentstate,andanelectedlegislature.TherajpramukhwasappointedbythePresidentof
India.ThePartCstatesincludedboththeformerchiefcommissioners'provincesandsomeprincely
states,andeachwasgovernedbyachiefcommissionerappointedbythePresidentofIndia.Thesole
PartDstatewastheAndamanandNicobarIslands,whichwereadministeredbyalieutenantgovernor
appointedbythecentralgovernment.
InDecember1953,NehruappointedtheStatesReorganisationCommissiontoprepareforthecreation
ofstatesonlinguisticlines.ThiswasheadedbyJusticeFazalAliandthecommissionitselfwasalso
knownastheFazalAliCommission.TheeffortsofthiscommissionwereoverseenbyGovindBallabh
Pant,whoservedasNehru'sHomeMinisterfromDecember1954.Thecommissioncreatedareportin
1955recommendingthereorganisationofIndia'sstates.UndertheSeventhAmendment,theexisting
distinctionbetweenPartA,PartB,PartC,andPartDstateswasabolished.ThedistinctionbetweenPart
AandPartBstateswasremoved,becomingknownsimplyas"states".Anewtypeofentity,theunion
territory,replacedtheclassificationasaPartCorPartDstate.Nehrustressedcommonalityamong
IndiansandpromotedpanIndianism.Herefusedtoreorganisestatesoneitherreligiousorethniclines.
WesternscholarshavemostlypraisedNehrufortheintegrationofthestatesintoamodernrepublicbut
theactwasnotaccepteduniversallyinIndia.
Socialpolicies
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JawaharlalNehruwasapassionateadvocateofeducationforIndia'schildrenandyouth,believingit
essentialforIndia'sfutureprogress.Hisgovernmentoversawtheestablishmentofmanyinstitutionsof
higherlearning,includingtheAllIndiaInstituteofMedical
Sciences,theIndianInstitutesofTechnology,theIndian
InstitutesofManagementandtheNationalInstitutesof
Technology.Nehrualsooutlinedacommitmentinhisfiveyear
planstoguaranteefreeandcompulsoryprimaryeducationtoall
ofIndia'schildren.Forthispurpose,Nehruoversawthecreation
ofmassvillageenrolmentprogrammesandtheconstructionof
thousandsofschools.Nehrualsolaunchedinitiativessuchasthe
provisionoffreemilkandmealstochildrentofightmalnutrition.
Adulteducationcentres,vocationalandtechnicalschoolswere
Nehruwithschoolchildrenatthe
alsoorganisedforadults,especiallyintheruralareas.
DurgapurSteelPlant.Durgapuralong
withRourkelaandBhilaiwerethe
threeintegratedsteelplantssetup
underIndia'sSecondFiveYearPlan
inthelate1950s.
UnderNehru,theIndianParliamentenactedmanychangesto
Hindulawtocriminalisecastediscriminationandincreasethe
legalrightsandsocialfreedomsofwomen.[76][77][78][79]Asystem
ofreservationsingovernmentservicesandeducational
institutionswascreatedtoeradicatethesocialinequalitiesand
disadvantagesfacedbypeoplesofthescheduledcastesandscheduledtribes.Nehrualsochampioned
secularismandreligiousharmony,increasingtherepresentationofminoritiesingovernment.
NehruspecificallywroteArticle44oftheIndianconstitutionundertheDirectivePrinciplesofState
Policywhichstates:'TheStateshallendeavourtosecureforthecitizensauniformcivilcodethroughout
theterritoryofIndia.'ThearticlehasformedthebasisofsecularisminIndia.[80]However,Nehruhas
beencriticisedfortheinconsistentapplicationofthelaw.Mostnotably,NehruallowedMuslimstokeep
theirpersonallawinmattersrelatingtomarriageandinheritance.AlsointhesmallstateofGoa,acivil
codebasedontheoldPortugueseFamilyLawswasallowedtocontinue,andMuslimPersonallawwas
prohibitedbyNehru.ThiswastheresultoftheannexationofGoain1961byIndia,whenNehru
promisedthepeoplethattheirlawswouldbeleftintact.Thishasledtoaccusationsofselective
secularism.
WhileNehruexemptedMuslimlawfromlegislationandtheyremainedunreformed,hedidpassthe
SpecialMarriageActin1954.TheideabehindthisactwastogiveeveryoneinIndiatheabilitytomarry
outsidethepersonallawunderacivilmarriage.AsusualthelawappliedtoallofIndia,exceptJammu
andKashmir(againleadingtoaccusationsofselectivesecularism).Inmanyrespects,theactwasalmost
identicaltotheHinduMarriageActof1955,whichgivessomeideaastohowsecularisedthelaw
regardingHindushadbecome.TheSpecialMarriageActallowedMuslimstomarryunderitandthereby
retaintheprotections,generallybeneficialtoMuslimwomen,thatcouldnotbefoundinthepersonal
law.Undertheactpolygamywasillegal,andinheritanceandsuccessionwouldbegovernedbythe
IndianSuccessionAct,ratherthantherespectiveMuslimPersonalLaw.Divorcealsowouldbe
governedbythesecularlaw,andmaintenanceofadivorcedwifewouldbealongthelinessetdownin
thecivillaw.
NehruledthefactionoftheCongresspartywhichpromotedHindiasthelinguafrancaoftheIndian
nation.AfteranexhaustiveanddivisivedebatewiththenonHindispeakers,Hindiwasadoptedasthe
officiallanguageofIndiain1950withEnglishcontinuingasanassociateofficiallanguageforaperiod
offifteenyears,afterwhichHindiwouldbecomethesoleofficiallanguage.EffortsbytheIndian
GovernmenttomakeHindithesoleofficiallanguageafter1965werenotacceptabletomanynonHindi
Indianstates,whowantedthecontinueduseofEnglish.TheDravidaMunnetraKazhagam(DMK),a
descendantofDravidarKazhagam,ledtheoppositiontoHindi.Toallaytheirfears,Nehruenactedthe
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OfficialLanguagesActin1963toensurethecontinuinguseofEnglishbeyond1965.ThetextoftheAct
didnotsatisfytheDMKandincreasedtheirscepticismthathisassurancesmightnotbehonouredby
futureadministrations.TheissuewasresolvedduringthepremiershipofLalBahadurShastri,whounder
greatpressurefromNehru'sdaughter,IndiraGandhi,wasmadetogiveassurancesthatEnglishwould
continuetobeusedastheofficiallanguageaslongthenonHindispeakingstateswanted.TheOfficial
LanguagesActwaseventuallyamendedin1967bytheCongressGovernmentheadedbyIndiraGandhi
toguaranteetheindefiniteuseofHindiandEnglishasofficiallanguages.Thiseffectivelyensuredthe
current"virtualindefinitepolicyofbilingualism"oftheIndianRepublic.
Foreignpolicies
Seealso:RoleofIndiainNonAlignedMovement
NehrulednewlyindependentIndiafrom1947to1964,duringits
firstyearsofindependencefromBritishrule.BoththeUnited
StatesandtheSovietUnioncompetedtomakeIndiaanally
throughouttheColdWar.Nehrualsomaintainedgoodrelations
withtheBritishEmpire.UndertheLondonDeclaration,India
agreedthat,whenitbecamearepublicinJanuary1950,itwould
jointheCommonwealthofNationsandaccepttheBritish
NehruwithOttoGrotewohl,the
monarchasa"symbolofthefreeassociationofitsindependent
PrimeMinisterofEastGermany
membernationsandassuchtheHeadoftheCommonwealth."
TheothernationsoftheCommonwealthrecognisedIndia's
continuingmembershipoftheassociation.Thereactionbackhomewasfavourableonlythefarleftand
thefarrightcriticisedNehru'sdecision.
Ontheinternationalscene,NehruwasachampionofpacifismandastrongsupporteroftheUnited
Nations.HepioneeredthepolicyofnonalignmentandcofoundedtheNonAlignedMovementof
nationsprofessingneutralitybetweentherivalblocsofnationsledbytheUSandtheUSSR.
RecognisingthePeople'sRepublicofChinasoonafteritsfounding(whilemostoftheWesternbloc
continuedrelationswiththeRepublicofChina),NehruarguedforitsinclusionintheUnitedNations
andrefusedtobrandtheChineseastheaggressorsintheirconflictwithKorea.[81]Hesoughttoestablish
warmandfriendlyrelationswithChinain1950,andhopedtoactasanintermediarytobridgethegulf
andtensionsbetweenthecommuniststatesandtheWesternbloc.
Nehruhadpromisedin1948toholdaplebisciteinKashmirundertheauspicesoftheUN.Kashmirwas
adisputedterritorybetweenIndiaandPakistan,thetwohavinggonetowarwitheachotheroverthe
statein1948.However,asPakistanfailedtopullbacktroopsinaccordancewiththeUNresolutionand
asNehrugrewincreasinglywaryoftheUN,hedeclinedtoholdaplebiscitein1953.Hispolicieson
KashmirandtheintegrationofthestateintoIndiawasfrequentlydefendedinfrontoftheUnited
Nationsbyhisaide,KrishnaMenon,abrilliantdiplomatwhoearnedareputationinIndiaforhis
passionatespeeches.
Nehru,whileapacifist,wasnotblindtothepoliticalandgeostrategicrealityofIndiain1947.While
layingthefoundationstoneoftheNationalDefenceAcademy(India)in1949,hestated:"We,whofor
generationshadtalkedaboutandattemptedineverythingapeacefulwayandpractisednonviolence,
shouldnowbe,inasense,glorifyingourarmy,navyandairforce.Itmeansalot.Thoughitisodd,yetit
simplyreflectstheoddnessoflife.Thoughlifeislogical,wehavetofaceallcontingencies,andunless
wearepreparedtofacethem,wewillgounder.Therewasnogreaterprinceofpeaceandapostleofnon
violencethanMahatmaGandhi,theFatheroftheNation,whomwehavelost,butyet,hesaiditwas
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bettertotaketheswordthantosurrender,failorrunaway.Wecannotlivecarefreeassumingthatweare
safe.Humannatureissuch.Wecannottaketherisksandriskourhardwonfreedom.Wehavetobe
preparedwithallmoderndefencemethodsandawellequippedarmy,navyandairforce."[82][83]
NehruenvisionedthedevelopingofnuclearweaponsandestablishedtheAtomicEnergyCommissionof
India(AEC)in1948.[84]NehrualsocalledDr.HomiJ.Bhabha,anuclearphysicist,whowasentrusted
withcompleteauthorityoverallnuclearrelatedaffairsandprogramsandansweredonlytoNehru
himself.[84]IndiannuclearpolicywassetbyunwrittenpersonalunderstandingbetweenNehruand
Bhabha.[84]NehrufamouslysaidtoBhabha,"ProfessorBhabha
takecareofPhysics,leaveinternationalrelationtome".[84]
Fromtheoutsetin1948,Nehruhadhighambitiontodevelopthis
programtostandagainsttheindustrialisedstatesandthebasisof
thisprogramwastoestablishanIndiannuclearweapons
capabilityaspartofIndia'sregionalsuperioritytootherSouth
Asianstates,mostparticularlyPakistan.[84]
NehrualsotoldBhabha,andlateritwastoldbyBhabhatoRaja
Rammannathat,
"Wemusthavethecapability.Weshouldfirst
proveourselvesandthentalkofGandhi,non
violenceandaworldwithoutnuclear
weapons.[84]"
NehrureceivingUSPresidentDwight
D.EisenhoweratParliamentHouse,
1959
Nehruwashailedbymanyforworkingtodefuseglobaltensionsandthethreatofnuclearweaponsafter
theKoreanwar(19501953).[85]Hecommissionedthefirststudyofthehumaneffectsofnuclear
explosions,andcampaignedceaselesslyfortheabolitionofwhathecalled"thesefrightfulenginesof
destruction".Healsohadpragmaticreasonsforpromotingdenuclearisation,fearingthatanucleararms
racewouldleadtoovermilitarisationthatwouldbeunaffordablefordevelopingcountriessuchashis
own.[86]
NehruorderedthearrestoftheKashmiripoliticianSheikhAbdullahin1953,whomhehadpreviously
supportedbutnowsuspectedofharbouringseparatistambitionsBakshiGhulamMohammadreplaced
him.
In1954NehrusignedwithChinatheFivePrinciplesofPeacefulCoexistence,knowninIndiaasthe
Panchsheel(fromtheSanskritwords,panch:five,sheel:virtues),asetofprinciplestogovernrelations
betweenthetwostates.TheirfirstformalcodificationintreatyformwasinanagreementbetweenChina
andIndiain1954.Theywereenunciatedinthepreambletothe"Agreement(withexchangeofnotes)on
tradeandintercoursebetweenTibetRegionofChinaandIndia",whichwassignedatPekingon29
April1954.NegotiationstookplaceinDelhifromDecember1953toApril1954betweentheDelegation
ofthePRCGovernmentandtheDelegationoftheIndianGovernmentontherelationsbetweenthetwo
countrieswithrespecttothedisputedterritoriesofAksaiChinandSouthTibet.Thetreatywas
disregardedinthe1960s,butinthe1970s,theFivePrinciplesagaincametobeseenasimportantin
SinoIndianrelations,andmoregenerallyasnormsofrelationsbetweenstates.Theybecamewidely
recognisedandacceptedthroughouttheregionduringthepremiershipofIndiraGandhiandthe3year
ruleoftheJanataParty(19771980).[87]
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In1956NehruhadcriticisedthejointinvasionoftheSuezCanalbytheBritish,FrenchandIsraelis.The
roleofNehru,bothasIndianPrimeMinisterandaleaderoftheNonAlignedMovementwassignificant
hetriedtobeevenhandedbetweenthetwosides,whiledenouncingEdenandcosponsorsofthe
invasionvigorously.NehruhadapowerfulallyintheUSpresidentDwightEisenhowerwho,if
relativelysilentpublicly,wenttotheextentofusingAmerica'scloutintheIMFtomakeBritainand
Francebackdown.TheepisodegreatlyraisedtheprestigeofNehruandIndiaamongstthethirdworld
nations.DuringtheSuezcrisis,Nehru'srighthandman,Menonattemptedtopersuadearecalcitrant
GamalNassertocompromisewiththeWest,andwasinstrumentalinmovingWesternpowerstowards
anawarenessthatNassermightprovewillingtocompromise.
In1957,MenonwasinstructedtodeliveranunprecedentedeighthourspeechdefendingIndia'sstandon
Kashmirtodate,thespeechisthelongesteverdeliveredintheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil,
coveringfivehoursofthe762ndmeetingon23January,andtwohoursandfortyeightminutesonthe
24th,reportedlyconcludingwithMenon'scollapseontheSecurityCouncilfloor.Duringthefilibuster,
NehrumovedswiftlyandsuccessfullytoconsolidateIndianpowerinKashmir(thenundergreatunrest).
Menon'spassionatedefenceofIndiansovereigntyinKashmirenlargedhisbaseofsupportinIndia,and
ledtotheIndianpresstemporarilydubbinghimthe'HeroofKashmir'.Nehruwasthenatthepeakofhis
popularityinIndiatheonly(minor)criticismcamefromthefarright.[88][89]
TheUSAhadhopedtocourtNehruafteritsinterventioninfavourofNasserduringtheSuezcrisis.
However,ColdWarsuspicionsandtheAmericandistrustofNehruviansocialismcooledrelations
betweenIndiaandtheUS,whichsuspectedNehruoftacitlysupportingtheSovietUnion.Nehru
maintainedgoodrelationswithBritainevenaftertheSuezCrisis.Nehruacceptedthearbitrationofthe
UKandWorldBank,signingtheIndusWaterTreatyin1960withPakistanirulerAyubKhantoresolve
longstandingdisputesaboutsharingtheresourcesofthemajorriversofthePunjabregion.
AlthoughthePanchaSila(FivePrinciplesofPeacefulCoexistence)wasthebasisofthe1954Sino
Indianbordertreaty,inlateryears,Nehru'sforeignpolicysufferedthroughincreasingChinese
assertivenessoverborderdisputesandNehru'sdecisiontograntpoliticalasylumtothe14thDalaiLama.
Afteryearsoffailednegotiations,NehruauthorisedtheIndianArmytoinvadePortuguesecontrolled
Goain1961,andthenheformallyannexedittoIndia.ItincreasedhispopularityinIndia,buthewas
criticisedbythecommunistoppositioninIndiafortheuseofmilitaryforce.Theuseofmilitaryforce
againstPortugalearnedhimgoodwillamongsttherightwingandfarrightgroups.
SinoIndianWarof1962
From1959,inaprocessthatacceleratedin1961,Nehruadoptedthe"ForwardPolicy"ofsettingup
militaryoutpostsindisputedareasoftheSinoIndianborder,includingin43outpostsinterritorynot
previouslycontrolledbyIndia.[90]Chinaattackedsomeoftheseoutposts,andthustheSinoIndianWar
began,whichIndialost,andChinawithdrewtoprewarlinesineasternzoneatTawangbutretained
AksaiChinwhichwaswithinBritishIndiaandwashandedovertoIndiaafterindependence.Later,
PakistanhandedoversomeportionofKashmirnearSiachencontrolledbyPakistansince1948toChina.
ThewarexposedtheunpreparednessofIndia'smilitarywhichcouldsendonly14,000troopstothewar
zoneinoppositiontothemanytimeslargerChinesearmy,andNehruwaswidelycriticisedforhis
government'sinsufficientattentiontodefence.Inresponse,NehrusackedthedefenceministerKrishna
MenonandsoughtUSmilitaryaid.Nehru'simprovedrelationswithUSAunderJohnF.Kennedy
provedusefulduringthewar,asin1962,PresidentofPakistan(thencloselyalignedwiththe
Americans)AyubKhanwasmadetoguaranteehisneutralityinregardstoIndia,whowasthreatenedby
"communistaggressionfromRedChina".[91]TheIndianrelationshipwiththeSovietUnion,criticisedby
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rightwinggroupssupportingfreemarketpolicieswasalsoseeminglyvalidated.Nehruwouldcontinue
tomaintainhiscommitmenttothenonalignedmovementdespitecallsfromsometosettledownonone
permanentally.
TheaftermathofthewarsawsweepingchangesintheIndianmilitarytoprepareitforsimilarconflicts
inthefuture,andplacedpressureonNehru,whowasseenasresponsibleforfailingtoanticipatethe
ChineseattackonIndia.UnderAmericanadvice(byAmericanenvoyJohnKennethGalbraithwho
madeandranAmericanpolicyonthewarasallothertoppolicymakersinUSAwereabsorbedin
coincidentCubanMissileCrisis)Nehrurefrained,notaccordingtothebestchoicesavailable,fromusing
theIndianairforcetobeatbacktheChineseadvances.TheCIAlaterrevealedthatatthattimethe
ChinesehadneitherthefuelnorrunwayslongenoughforusingtheirairforceeffectivelyinTibet.
IndiansingeneralbecamehighlyscepticalofChinaanditsmilitary.ManyIndiansviewthewarasa
betrayalofIndia'sattemptsatestablishingalongstandingpeacewithChinaandstartedtoquestion
Nehru'susageoftheterm"HindiChinibhaibhai"(meaning"IndiansandChinesearebrothers").The
waralsoputanendtoNehru'searlierhopesthatIndiaandChinawouldformastrongAsianAxisto
counteracttheincreasinginfluenceoftheColdWarblocsuperpowers.[92]
TheunpreparednessofthearmywasblamedonDefenceMinisterMenon,who"resigned"his
governmentposttoallowforsomeonewhomightmoderniseIndia'smilitaryfurther.India'spolicyof
weaponisationviaindigenoussourcesandselfsufficiencybeganinearnestunderNehru,completedby
hisdaughterIndiraGandhi,wholaterledIndiatoacrushingmilitaryvictoryoverrivalPakistanin1971.
TowardtheendofthewarIndiahadincreasedhersupportforTibetanrefugeesandrevolutionaries,
someofthemhavingsettledinIndia,astheywerefightingthesamecommonenemyintheregion.
NehruorderedtheraisingofaneliteIndiantrained"TibetanArmedForce"composedofTibetan
refugees,whichservedwithdistinctioninfuturewarsagainstPakistanin1965and1971.[93]
Duringtheconflict,NehruwrotetwodesperateletterstoUSPresidentJohnF.Kennedy,requesting12
squadronsoffighterjetsandamodernradarsystem.ThesejetswereseenasnecessarytobeefupIndian
airstrengthsothatairtoaircombatcouldbeinitiatedsafelyfromtheIndianperspective(bombing
troopswasseenasunwiseforfearofChineseretaliatoryaction).Nehrualsoaskedthattheseaircraftbe
mannedbyAmericanpilotsuntilIndianairmenweretrainedtoreplacethem.Theserequestswere
rejectedbytheKennedyAdministration(whichwasinvolvedintheCubanMissileCrisisduringmostof
theSinoIndianWar),leadingtoacooldowninIndoUSrelations.AccordingtoformerIndiandiplomat
GParthasarathy,"onlyafterwegotnothingfromtheUSdidarmssuppliesfromtheSovietUnionto
Indiacommence".[94]PerTimeMagazine's1962editorialonthewar,however,thismaynothavebeen
thecase.Theeditorialstates,'WhenWashingtonfinallyturneditsattentiontoIndia,ithonouredthe
ambassador'spledge,loaded60USplaneswith$5,000,000worthofautomaticweapons,heavymortars
andlandmines.TwelvehugeC130Herculestransports,completewithUScrewsandmaintenance
teams,tookoffforNewDelhitoflyIndiantroopsandequipmenttothebattlezone.Britainweighedin
withBrenandStenguns,andairlifted150tonsofarmstoIndia.Canadapreparedtoshipsixtransport
planes.AustraliaopenedIndiancreditsfor$1,800,000worthofmunitions'.[95]
Death
Nehru'shealthbegandecliningsteadilyafter1962,andhespentmonthsrecuperatinginKashmir
through1963.SomehistoriansattributethisdramaticdeclinetohissurpriseandchagrinovertheSino
IndianWar,whichheperceivedasabetrayaloftrust.[96]UponhisreturnfromDehradunon26May
1964hewasfeelingquitecomfortableandwenttobedatabout23:30asusual,hehadarestfulnighttill
about06:30soonafterhereturnedfrombathroom,Nehrucomplainedofpainintheback.Hespoketo
thedoctorswhoattendedonhimforabriefwhileandalmostimmediatelyNehrucollapsed.He
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remainedunconsciousuntilhedied.HisdeathwasannouncedtoLokSabhaat14:00localtimeon27
May1964(sameday)causeofdeathisbelievedtobeheartattack(dissectinganeurysmoftheaorta).[97]
DrapedintheIndiannationalTricolourflagthebodyofJawaharlalNehruwasplacedforpublic
viewing."RaghupatiRaghavaRajaram"waschantedasthebodywasplacedontheplatform.On28
May,NehruwascrematedinaccordancewithHinduritesattheShantivanonthebanksoftheYamuna
River,witnessedbymanyhundredsofthousandsofmournerswhohadflockedintothestreetsofDelhi
andthecremationgrounds.
Nehru,themanandpoliticianmadesuchapowerfulimprinton
Indiathathisdeathon27May1964,leftIndiawithnoclear
politicalheirtohisleadership(althoughhisdaughterwaswidely
expectedtosucceedhimbeforesheturneditdowninfavourof
Shastri).IndiannewspapersrepeatedNehru'sownwordsofthe
timeofGandhi'sassassination:"Thelighthasgoneoutofour
livesandthereisdarknesseverywhere."
Religion
PrimeMinisterNehrutalkswith
UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly
PresidentRomulo(October1949).
DescribedasHinduAgnostic,[98]Nehruthoughtthatreligious
tabooswerepreventingIndiafromgoingforwardandadaptingto
modernconditions:"Nocountryorpeoplewhoareslavesto
dogmaanddogmaticmentalitycanprogress,andunhappilyour
countryandpeoplehavebecomeextraordinarilydogmaticand
littleminded."[99]
Thespectacleofwhatiscalledreligion,oratanyrateorganisedreligion,inIndiaand
elsewhere,hasfilledmewithhorrorandIhavefrequentlycondemneditandwishedto
makeacleansweepofit.Almostalwaysitseemedtostandforblindbeliefandreaction,
dogmaandbigotry,superstition,exploitationandthepreservationofvestedinterests.
Inhisautobiography,heanalysedChristianity,and[100]Islam,[101]andtheirimpactonIndia.Hewanted
tomodelIndiaasasecularcountryhissecularpoliciesremainasubjectofdebate.[102][103]
Personallife
AmemberoftheNehruGandhifamily,NehrumarriedKamala
Kaulin1916.TheironlydaughterIndirawasbornayearlaterin
1917.KamalagavebirthtoaboyinNovember1924,buthe
livedonlyforaweek.[104]IndiraGandhiwasmarriedtoFeroze
Gandhiin1942.IndiraandFerozehadtwosonsRajiv(b.
1944)andSanjay(b.1946).
NehruwasallegedtohavehadrelationshipswithShraddha
Mata,[105]PadmajaNaidu[106][107]andEdwinaMountbatten.[108]
Edwina'sdaughterPamelaacknowledgedNehru'splatonic
relationshipwithEdwina.[109]
NehruwithEdwinaMountbatten
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Legacy
AsIndia'sfirstPrime
ministerandexternal
affairsminister,
JawaharlalNehruplayed
amajorroleinshaping
modernIndia's
governmentandpolitical
culturealongwithsound
foreignpolicy.Heis
praisedforcreatinga
systemproviding
universalprimary
education,[110]reaching
childreninthefarthest
cornersofruralIndia.
Nehru'seducationpolicy
isalsocreditedforthe
BustofNehruatAldwych,London
developmentofworld
classeducational
institutionssuchastheAllIndiaInstituteofMedical
Sciences,[111]IndianInstitutesofTechnology,[112]andtheIndian
InstitutesofManagement.
In
StatueofNehruatParkStreet,
Kolkata
"Nehruwasagreatman...NehrugavetoIndiansanimageofthemselves
thatIdon'tthinkothersmighthavesucceededindoing."SirIsaiah
Berlin[113]
addition,Nehru'sstanceasanunfailingnationalistledhimtoalsoimplementpolicieswhichstressed
commonalityamongIndianswhilestillappreciatingregionaldiversities.Thisprovedparticularly
importantaspostIndependencedifferencessurfacedsinceBritishwithdrawalfromthesubcontinent
promptedregionalleaderstonolongerrelatetooneanotherasalliesagainstacommonadversary.While
differencesofcultureand,especially,languagethreatenedtheunityofthenewnation,Nehruestablished
programssuchastheNationalBookTrustandtheNationalLiteraryAcademywhichpromotedthe
translationofregionalliteraturesbetweenlanguagesandalsoorganisedthetransferofmaterialsbetween
regions.Inpursuitofasingle,unifiedIndia,Nehruwarned,"Integrateorperish."[114]
HistorianRamachandraGuhawrites,"[had]Nehruretiredin1958hewouldberememberedasnotjust
India'sbestprimeminister,butasoneofthegreatstatesmenofthemodernworld."[115]Nehru,thus,left
behindadisputedlegacy,being"eitheradoredorreviledforIndia'sprogressorlackofit".[116]
Commemoration
Inhislifetime,JawaharlalNehruenjoyedaniconicstatusinIndiaandwaswidelyadmiredacrossthe
worldforhisidealismandstatesmanship.Hisbirthday,14NovemberiscelebratedinIndiaasBalDivas
("Children'sDay")inrecognitionofhislifelongpassionandworkforthewelfare,educationand
developmentofchildrenandyoungpeople.ChildrenacrossIndiarememberhimasChachaNehru
(UncleNehru).NehruremainsapopularsymboloftheCongressPartywhichfrequentlycelebrateshis
memory.Congressleadersandactivistsoftenemulatehisstyleofclothing,especiallytheGandhicap
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andthe"NehruJacket",andhismannerisms.Nehru'sidealsandpoliciescontinuetoshapetheCongress
Party'smanifestoandcorepoliticalphilosophy.Anemotionalattachmenttohislegacywasinstrumental
intheriseofhisdaughterIndiratoleadershipoftheCongressPartyandthenationalgovernment.
Nehru'spersonalpreferenceforthesherwaniensuredthatitcontinuestobeconsideredformalwearin
NorthIndiatodayasidefromlendinghisnametoakindofcap,theNehrujacketisnamedinhishonour
becauseofhispreference
forthatstyle.
Numerouspublic
institutionsand
memorialsacrossIndia
arededicatedtoNehru's
memory.TheJawaharlal
NehruUniversityinDelhi
isamongthemost
Nehrudistributessweetsamong
prestigiousuniversitiesin
childrenatNongpoh,Meghalaya
India.TheJawaharlal
NehruPortnearthecity
ofMumbaiisamodernportanddockdesignedtohandleahuge
cargoandtrafficload.Nehru'sresidenceinDelhiispreservedas
theTeenMurtiHousenowhasNehruMemorialMuseumand
Library,andoneoffiveNehruPlanetariumsthatweresetin
Mumbai,Delhi,Bangalore,AllahabadandPune.Thecomplex
alsohousestheofficesofthe'JawaharlalNehruMemorialFund',
JawaharlalNehruona1989USSR
establishedin1964undertheChairmanshipofDrS.
commemorativestamp
Radhakrishnan,thenPresidentofIndia.Thefoundationalso
givesawaytheprestigious'JawaharlalNehruMemorial
Fellowship',establishedin1968.[117]TheNehrufamilyhomesatAnandBhavanandSwarajBhavanare
alsopreservedtocommemorateNehruandhisfamily'slegacy.
Inpopularculture
ManydocumentariesaboutNehru'slifehavebeenproduced.Hehasalsobeenportrayedinfictionalised
films.ThecanonicalperformanceisprobablythatofRoshanSeth,whoplayedhimthreetimes:in
RichardAttenborough's1982filmGandhi,ShyamBenegal's1988televisionseriesBharatEkKhoj,
basedonNehru'sTheDiscoveryofIndia,andina2007TVfilmentitledTheLastDaysoftheRaj.[118]
InKetanMehta'sfilmSardar,NehruwasportrayedbyBenjaminGilani.GirishKarnad'shistoricalplay,
Tughlaq(1962)isanallegoryabouttheNehruvianera.ItwasstagedbyEbrahimAlkaziwithNational
SchoolofDramaRepertoryatPuranaQila,Delhiinthe1970sandlaterattheFestivalofIndia,London
in1982.[119][120]
Writings
NehruwasaprolificwriterinEnglishandwroteanumberofbooks,suchasTheDiscoveryofIndia,
GlimpsesofWorldHistory,andhisautobiography,TowardFreedom.Hehadwritten30letterstohis
daughterIndiraGandhi,whenshewas10yearsoldandwasinaboardingschoolinMussoorie,teaching
aboutnaturalhistoryandthestoryofcivilisations.Thecollectionoftheseletterswaslaterpublishedasa
bookLettersfromaFathertoHisDaughter.[121]
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Awards
In1955NehruwasawardedBharatRatna,India'shighestcivilianhonour.[122]
Seealso
Listofpoliticalfamilies
Nehrujacket
Scientifictemper,asystemofscientificthinkingintroducedbyNehru
Trystwithdestiny,thehistoricspeechmadebyJawaharlalNehru,consideredinmodernIndiato
bealandmarkorationabouttheIndianindependencemovement.
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Furtherreading
ATrystWithDestinyhistoricspeechmadebyJawaharlalNehruon14August1947
Nehru:TheInventionofIndiabyShashiTharoor(November2003)ArcadeBooksISBN155970
697X
JawaharlalNehru(EditedbyS.GopalandUmaIyengar)(July2003)TheEssentialWritingsof
JawaharlalNehruOxfordUniversityPressISBN0195653246
Autobiography:Towardfreedom,OxfordUniversityPress
JawaharlalNehru:LifeandworkbyM.ChalapathiRau,NationalBookClub(1January1966)
JawaharlalNehrubyM.ChalapathiRau.[NewDelhi]PublicationsDivision,Ministryof
InformationandBroadcasting,Govt.ofIndia[1973]
LettersfromafathertohisdaughterbyJawaharlalNehru,Children'sBookTrust
(http://www.childrensbooktrust.com/index.htm)
Nehru:APoliticalBiographybyMichaelBrecher(1959).London:OxfordUniversityPress.
AfterNehru,WhobyWellesHangen(1963).London:RupertHartDavis.
Nehru:TheYearsofPowerbyGeoffreyTyson(1966).London:PallMallPress.
IndependenceandAfter:AcollectionofthemoreimportantspeechesofJawaharlalNehrufrom
September1946toMay1949(http://www.questia.com/read/2379634?
title=Independence%20and%20after%3a%20A%20Collection%20of%20Speeches%2c%201946
%201949)(1949).Delhi:ThePublicationsDivision,GovernmentofIndia.
28/29
11/11/2015
JosephStanislawandDanielA.Yergin(1988)."CommandingHeights"(PDF).NewYork:Simon
&Schuster,Inc.
"TheChallengetoIndianNationalism."bySeligS.HarrisonForeignAffairsvol.34,no.2(1956):
620636.
"Nehru,Jawaharlal."byAinslieT.Embree,ed.,andtheAsiaSociety.EncyclopediaofAsian
History.Vol.3.CharlesScribner'sSons.NewYork.(1988):98100.
Externallinks
IndiaToday'sprofileofNehru(http://www.india
today.com/itoday/millennium/100people/nehru.html)
Nehru'slegacytoIndia
(http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2120/stories/20041008000307600.htm)
NehruonCommunalism(https://books.google.com/books?id=sI_I
jk8YWsC&dq=nehru+communalism&printsec=frontcover)
JawaharlalNehrumaterialsintheSouthAsianAmericanDigitalArchive(SAADA)
(http://www.saadigitalarchive.org/search/jawaharlal%20nehru)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jawaharlal_Nehru&oldid=689751026"
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