Exam #1 Review Questions

GEOL-BIOL 301
Fall 2013
The exam will consist of (1) some multiple-choice scantron questions (please bring a
scantron sheet and a No. 2 pencil), (2) a geologic time scale to fill in, and (3) some
short-answer and/or draw-a-sketch-type questions, and (4) possibly some matching
and/or fill-in-the-blank-type questions. Generally speaking, the review questions
listed below are more demanding than most of the exam questions will be, which is
to say that if you can answer all of these questions well, then the exam should be a
veritable walk in the park.
1. There are four general categories of fossils: body fossil, trace fossils,
organosedimentary structures, and biomarkers. Explain what type of objects occur
under each of these heading, giving an example of each.
Body fossils- are frozen mammonth, bone, clam shells, carbonized leaf (impressions
and remains)
Trace fossils- (ischnofossils)- burroughs, borings, footprints, nest, and dung.
Organosedimentary structures- Stromatolites and reefs - seafloors
Biomarkers- geologically stable molecules, mostly lipids, of know biosyntheiss origin;
also a distinctive ratio (usally involving carbon or sulfur isotopes)- has a reliable halflife
*organic chemicals that can be dated/traced
2. Fossils are useful for addressing scientific questions in at least four areas of
geology and biology. These are (1) biostratigraphy, (2) evolutionary biology,
(3) paleoecology, and (4) paleogeography. Give an example of how fossils
might be used in each of these fields.
Biostratigraphy- Dating the rocks to assist in study of fossils
Evolutionary Biology- Documentation of the history of life and evolutionary
processes.
Paleoecology- Reconstruction of paleoenvironments
Paleogeography- Reconstruction of plate positions.
3. Paleontology is a historical science. What does that mean? Name an
experimental science, and name another historical science, other than
paleontology. How does the methodology of historical scientists compare
with that of experimental scientists?
Another historical science is archeologist and geologist bases its conclusions on
fossils traces to map evolution while experimental sciences bases their results on
DNA and experimental results. Paleontology has implications for methodology and
the experimental
Experimental scientists- chemistry, physics, biology - study inherent
charecteristics of nature
Historical scientists- geology, archaeolgy, paleontology study configurational
changes in nature over time

4. Be prepared to write out the eons, eras, periods, and epochs of the geologic time
scale, as on the time scale quizzes.
5. Draw a horizontal line about 10 cm long, with a vertical tick mark every 2 cm.
Label
the tick marks 5 through 0, from left to right. Each two-cm segment represents
one billion years, with now being the right-hand end of the line.
on your line indicate the following:
a. Archean (4.6 bya) Proterozoic (2.5 bya) and Phanerozoic Eons (540 mya)
b. Origin of the earth - (4.8 bya)?
c. Oldest evidence of life on Earth (3.7 bya)
d. Oldest stromatolites & microfossils (3.5 bya)
f. Oldest biomarkers of eukaryotic cells (2.7 bya)
g. Time when O2 began to be present in the atmosphere (2.1 bya)
6. There are two main factors that determine whether a particular group of
organisms is well represented in the fossil record or poorly represented.
(For example, why do we have a much better fossil record of trilobites than of
butterflies?) Name these two main factors.
A.
Hard-part bias = any animal or plant that has hard parts (easier to get fossils
when teeth & bones/ hard parts are present)
B.
Environmental bias = a quick burial is the best way to get fossils to remain.
Exposure to air/water vs. not exposed will effect how well something fossilizes
Ex: Trilobites have more hard parts that can be preserved than butterflies, and live
on the sea floor where burial is rapid
7. On the exam, I will not ask you to write out definitions of terms. However, to
do well on the exam you should know what each of the following terms means. If
appropriate, give an example:
Taphonomy-the study of post-modern changes that occur to an organism after it
the state of burial/fossilization
Diagenesis- low-temperature, post-burial processes in sedimentary rock (e.g.,
compaction, chemical alteration, loss of organic material) = everything that happens
after the burial occurs
permineralization-a process of fossilization by which mineral material (most
commonly SiO 2) is deposited in the pore spaces of the original hard parts or woody
parts of an organism (e.g. petrified wood) mineral content changes, or
pores/cavities of wood get silica deposits
recrystallization-replacement of one mineral by anoter mineral that has the same
chemical compostion as the original mineral (e.g., aragonite calcite) (both are
CaCO3)
replacement- replacement of one mineral by another mineral that has a different
chemical composition than the original mineral (e.g., CaCO 3 SiO2)
carbonization- thin film of carbon remaining in bedding plane
biomineralization- different groups of organisms use different minerals for their
skeletons (silica, Ca5(PO4)3OH, calcite & aragonite = CaO3)

cladistics- is an approach to taxonomy based on branching patterns and the origin

of novel characteristics (called synapormorphies). The results of cladistics
analyses are expressed in cladograms. morphological similartities and differences
can be parced out using cladistics & genomics.
Cladogram-tree of life. Depicts relationships between groups (clades) of species
in relation to common ancestors
advanced vs. derived use derived rather than advanced (e.g. fur is derived
character that occurs only in mammals) present in common ancestor and
desendents.
parallel evolution- development of a similar trait in different species descending
from the same ancestor
homologous vs. analogoushomologous structures that are related to each other through common descent,
though now perhaps functioning differently. For example, the forelimbs of fish,
amphibians, mammals, (including whales), and birds are homologous structures.
Analogous structures that perform the same function in different groups, such as
the wings of bats and the wings of insects, but NO common underlying structure
( trait evolved separately multiple times, dont have same evolutionary origin, trait
wasnt present in common ancestor of the 2 groups)
Rubisco-enzyme used in all photosynthesis, which preferentially selects C-12 over
C-13. C-12 is much more abundant than C-13 in the first place, but rubisco causes
organic carbon to be even more depleted in C-13.
SSF- Small shelly fossils. Neoproteozoic and earliest Cambrian shell-secreting
animals (e.g., Cloudinia: the earliest oldest skelelal animal fossil, late Ediacaran in
age. These fossils occur in the Ediacaran Period, but they are not found in the same
deposits with the classic, soft-bodied Ediacaran fauna. Cloudinia represents the first
occurrence of small shelly fish, which became very diverse in the earliest pretribolite interval of the Cambrian Period (the Terreneuvian Epoch.)
Lagersttte (plural: Lagersttten) - is a fossiliferous sedimentary deposit in
which the fossils exhinit extraordinary preservation. This is a German noun, so it is
often (but not always) capitalized (as all German nouns are). It comes from the same
German root words as lager beer, meanin beer that is intended to be preserved for a
long time; in this case it is organisms that are preserved for a long time. Some
famous examples of Lagerstatten are:
Doushanto Formation of South China
Pound Quartzie of South Australia
Burgess Shale
Solnhofen Limestone
Extant-still in existence, surviving
Exaptation- the process by which a feature or trait that evolved because it served
one particular function, subsequently came to serve a different function. Bird feather
are classic example. Initially feathers probably evolved as a mechanism that helped
animals regulat their body temperature regulation; later they were exapted for flight.

Holotype- a holotype specimen must be identified and placed in an appropriate

repository. This rule applies to both extant and extinct species. The holotype is the
single specimen designated as the type specimen of a species or subspecies at the
time its original description.
Paratype- a paratype specimen, other than the holotype (if if you find more than 1
specimen from the start, you can use the other ones as paratypes) upon which the
original description of a species or subspecies is based. For example, if you are
describing a new species of triboloites, one specimen may have a beautifully
preserved head, but no thorax or pygidium (tail). You might choose to make this
specimen the holotype, because the head is the most taxonomically important part
of the animal. Then you might select another specimen with a will preserved thorax
and pygidium as a paratype specimen
**Paratype has other traits or features that are hard to see in the holotype, but the
holotype has the easiest seen main traits that match the description it was
published with
CaCO 3- calcite or aragonite (minerals) = limestone (rock) [calcium carbonate]
fractionation of isotopes-fractionation of sulfur isotopes and fractionation of
carbon isotopes. this is a partial separation of isotopes of the same element during
physical (e.g., evaporation) or chemical (e.g., precipitation) processes.
8. List the heirarchy of classification of organisms (kingdom, phylum, etc.), and
show the complete classification of humans and one additional species of your
choice.
Killer whale:
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Cetacea
Family Delphinidae
Genus Orcinus
Species orca

HUMAN:
Eukarya
Animalia
Chordata
mammilia
primates
Homindae
Homo
Sapien

9. Who was Carolus Linnaeus? In what century did he live? What is he most
famous for?
Carolus Linnaeus (mid-eighteenth century) is known as the Father of Taxonomy and
created binomial nomenclature getting closer to God's mind (order of
species/heiarchical system of classification reflects structure of gods forethought)
Swedish botanist, binomial nomenclature
10. One way of inferring the presence of life in ancient rocks, even in the
absence of
actual fossils, is through the use of carbon isotopes. Explain how carbon isotopes
are used to infer the former presence of life. In your explanation use the word
fractionation. How old are the oldest sedimentary rocks with carbon that

carries a distinctive signature of photosynthesis. Where are these rocks

located geographically?
There are mainly 2 types of carbon isotopes; 12 and 13, 13 being the heavier one.
Since Rubisco, the enzyme used in photosynthesis, prefers the carbon 12 this
isotope is way more abundant in organic matter made by photosynthetic bacteria
that make CO2. Most of the carbonate minerals made in the same environment at
the same time will contain C13. The ratio of 13 to 12 made by the different
processes quantifies this information and is known as fractionation.
From the Proterozoic era and found in Spitzbergen rocks. The more organic material
becomes sequestered inanoxic basins, the higher the delta 13C value is left behind
in the atmosphere-ocean system
11. Another way of inferring the presence of life in ancient rocks, in the absence of
actual fossils, is through the use of sulfur isotopes. Explain how sulfur isotopes
are used to infer the former presence of life.
Sulfate reducing bacteria play a key role in completing the marine carbon cycle by
using sulfate ions (SO4^2-) to respire organic molecules. The sulfate is converted to
hydrogen sulfide that combines with iron to to ever the sedimentary record as pyrite
(FeS2). This biological sulfate reduction shows a preference for sulfer32, just as
rubisco chooses Carbon12. Therefore, sedimentary pyrite is rich in S32 relative to
Gypsum formed in the same body of water.
Spitzbergen rocks show that the essential biological components of the sulfur and
carbon cycles were in place when the gray rocks of this artic island accumulated.
12. On page 49 of Life on a Young Planet, Knoll says: . . . the fingerprints of
biology are all over the Proterozoic rocks of Spitzbergen. Explain what he
means, with regard to both sulfur and carbon isotopes.
Both the carbon and sulfer cycles need biological organisms for the cycle to work,
there is evidence that these processes occured back then showing that the there are
still fingerprints of life even all the way back to the Proterozoic era.
sulfur & carbon isotopes are the fingerprints of biology, showing that
photosynthesis was occurring, thus showing that the former presence of life was
there. Sulfate reducing bacteria were present.
13. Biologists recognize three basic domains of living things. Name each of
these three domains, and briefly describe how they are distinguished from one
another. What is the name of the biologist most closely associated with
developing the concept of these three domains of life?
Eukarya have internal organelles
Prokarya no internal organelles (bacteria)
*both have cell membranes
Archaea like bacteria but genetically distinct, singular circular chromosome, no cell
membrane
Carl Woese
14. What are the key differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic
organisms?
Eukaryotes have no cell way, cells are not able to live separately from the organism,
have cholesterol in membrane.

Prokaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells

Small cells (< 5 J.m)

Larger cells (> 10 J.m)

Always unicellular

Often multicellular

No nucleus or any membrane-bound

organelles, such as mitochondria
DNA is circular, without proteins
Ribosomes are small (70S)

Always have nucleus and other membranebound organelles

DNA is linear and associated with proteins
to form chromatin
Ribosomes are large (80S)

No cytoskeleton

Always has a cytoskeleton

Motility by rigid rotating flagellum (made of Motility by flexible waving cilia or flagellae
flagellin)
(made of tubulin)
Cell division is by binary fission
Cell division is by mitosis or meiosis
Reproduction is always asexual

Reproduction is asexual or sexual

Huge variety of metabolic pathways

Common metabolic pathways

15. Lynn Margulis persuasively demonstrated that eukaryotes represent symbiotic

relationships among former prokaryotes. Explain what this means. Name one
organelle (other than the nucleus) in eukaryotic cells that has its own DNA.
Developed the Symbiotic Theory = A cell, like mitochondria, has its own DNA and
nucleus. Mitochondria was probably a bacterial cell that fused with another cell and
become the first organelle. - mitochondria was once a separate organism
(prokaryote). This is supported by the double cell membrane and the presence if its
own DNA.
16. On page 12 of Life on a Young Planet, Knoll writes that eukaryotes are
everywhere optional. Explain what that means.
Bacteria is the only domain that can live on their own without needing archaea or
eukaryotes: Bacteria like cyanobacteria that fix CO2 into organic material and make
O2 while other bacteria that respire O2 make CO2 that is all that is required to
complete a simple carbon cyle.
Eukaryotes need O2 to survive so we are just optional beings roaming the earth.
Animals are the icing of the cake whereas bacteria are the cake. There are limits to
where eukaryotic metabolism can occur, and not necessary to keep the oxygen cycle
going = not essential
17. Write chemical reactions for photosynthesis and respiration. Referring to
these reactions, explain the conditions under which oxygen would accumulate in
the atmosphere of Earth.
Oxygen would accumulate in the absence of aerobic organisms and from the
microbes that make o2 as waste products.
light
Photosynthesis
H20 + CO2 _----->. CH20 + 02
Respiration

H20+ CO2 *----- CH20 02

release
of energy

18. Draw a sketch of a columnar stromatolite and associated sediment.

19. Explain how stromatolites form, with special attention to the tiny
laminae. Draw a series of sketches to illustrate your explanation.

In daylight, Cyanobacteria remove CO2 from environment, this raises the PH of the
water (becomes more alkaline), and the lime stone mud grains stick the the sheet of
cyanobacteria forming a film of CaCO3 (the laminae) because the water is basic,
the CaCO3 wants to precipitate out. At night this process pauses, so just very thin
layers are deposited each day.
Stromatolites only grow in intertidal zones and we can use them to
determine water height at a certain period.

Filamentous cyanobacteria grains of lime mud/CaCO3 get

gelatinous layer
embedded in bacterial layer
lime mud
layer

formation of a
that forms at night,
stays stuck in

20. What group of organisms is most important in the formation of

stromatolites?
Cyanobacteria
21. Why are stromatolites very common in the Proterozoic Eon and much less
common in the Phanerozoic Eon?
herbivorous eukaryotes, perhaps including the first animals, evolved at about this
time and began feeding extensively on growing stromatolites.
Cambrian explosion occurred in the Phanerozoic Eon, and there was more
competition for resources.

So many stromatolites in proteozoic time because there is little or no

disruption of the sea floor or mats from other organisms. No
organisms present could burrow beneath the mats, so limestone was
able to be precipitated and form stromatalites
Phanerozoic , organisms had evolved shells and hard parts that
allowed them to disrupt the stromatolite formation, stirring up the
sediment,and preventing precipitation
Presense of burrowing animals prevent the microbial mat to
trap lime mud and thus create stromatolites.

Ediacaran
Cambrian
22. Be sure you understand the basic elements of carbon isotope
fractionation as discussed on pages 20-23 of the lecture outline.
Fractionation = separates isotopes of the same element
What does it mean if a limestone sample has a 13C value of 0 ?
Carbonate carbon [for example, inorganic calcite CaCO3 precipitated on the
sea
Floor and has Delta C13 value of 0/00
What type of 13C value occurs in CO 2 from volcanoes?
Volcanic Degassing has a Delta C13 of about [-6 0/00]
What type of 13C value occurs in methane?
Methane can have values as low as [-45 0/00] such methane is produced
by
Methanogens that live in the soil where there is no O2.
What type of 13C is typical of mass extinctions? Why?
During mass extinction we would see a strong negative 13C excursion
recorded in
Shallow water limestones. Much of the biomass (depeted in C13) of dead
organisms
Would quickly recyce into the atmosphere ocean system returning all C12.
Meanwhile, volcanic degassing would continue releasing strong negative
C13
If you collect a sample of limestone and measure its 13C value, and you
get
a value of +10. What does that mean in terms of organic carbon
burial
during that interval of geologic time. Explain with a sketch.

It indicates that at the time the rock was deposited, organic carbon was being buried
quickly because the carbonate carbon is being precipitated out of the seawater
without fractionation happening. Carbon is depleted from the water/system, by
being deposited in anoxic (oxygen deificient) basins. Anoxic basin where organic
carbon is being sequestered.
The more organic material becomes sequestered in anoxic basins (removed
from the water), the higher the delta 13C value.

Not much ocean circulation occurs here

because the bacteria in the basin consume
the 02 & O2 creating plants.

23. According to geologic evidence, when did O2 become present in Earths

atmosphere? What are banded iron formations (BIFs), and what do they tell us
about the availability, or lack of availability, of oxygen?
O2 became present in the Earths atmosphere about 2.1bya (Ga).
BIFs- they are alternating thin layers of iron-rich and iron-poor sedimentary
rock.
o The iron-rich layers contain oxidized iron (mostly hematite Fe2O3),
which implies the periodic presence of oxygen. The oxygen combine
with dissolved iron in the ocean to form insoluble iron oxides.
o The iron-poor intervals presumably represent intervals of time during
which oxygen was absent, and iron entering the ocean dissolved and
accumulated in the water column; so sediments deposited during that
interval are poor in iron.

24. Where is the Doushantuo Formation exposed? What is its age (in terms of
the geologic time scale? What sorts of fossils is it most famous for yielding?
South China, in the Edicaran. Doushantuo fossils are all aquatic, microscopic, and
well preserved .
Phosphatized spore and eggs/embryos of metazoans

25. What is the relationship between the Doushantuo Formation and the Nantuo
Tillite? Why is the Nantuo Tillite important in the history of life?
Nantuo Tillite lies at the base of the Doushantuo Formation and marks a glaciation
period that preceded the emergence of Ediacaran fauna. Both are evidence of
Snowball Earth.
26. Describe the Ediacaran fauna. What is its age? What sorts of animals
characterize this fauna? What sorts of body plans did they have? On what
continents has this fauna been found? Name one genus and draw a sketch of it. Be
able to recognize Dickinsonia.
Ediacaran fauna marks the first appearance of large, anatomically complex
organisms in Earth history. They are pre-Cambrian organisms that occur just prior to
the Cambrian radiation. Small shelly animals characterize this fauna and they are
found South Australia, the White Sea coast of northern Russia, and Newfoundland.

Frondlike forms, radially symettrical jellyfish-like forms, annelid worm-like forms, &
bilaterian, ribbonlike forms (e.g., Dickinsonia)
27. Draw a sketch of Cloudina. What is important about this fossil? If you
found a fossil Cloudina, what would it tell you about the rocks in which it
occurs?
Cloudina represents the first occurrence of "small shelly fossils or SSF and are not
are not found in the same deposits with the classic, soft-bodied Ediacaran fauna.
Tube dwelling polyp that secreted CaCO3

it is the oldest skeletal animal fossil, late Ediacaran in age. Looks like a
stack of ice cream cones.

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28. What aspect of the pre-Phanerozoic world is thought to have allowed these nonskeletonized animals to be preserved, and why is this condition no longer present?
Explain.
Microbial mats are thought to have allowed non-skeletonized animals to be
preserved. The microbial mats are no longer present due to the agronomic
revolution (burrowers disturbed the ocean floor).
29. Describe how a newly discovered fossil gets its scientific name. What
processes does the paleontologist who is naming it have to go through? Why do
scientific names
sometimes change over time?
1. Following a workshop in 1998, this group developed a naming system called
Phylocode, which is a set of rules for naming organisms based on their
phylogenetic position on the tree of life.
2. Description and new name must be published in a widely circulated,
scientific publication (preferably well illustrated), usually a scientific
journal. A PhD dissertation or Master's thesis doesn't qualify.
A holotype specimen must be identified and placed in an
appropriate repository. This rule applies to both extant and
extinct species.
3. Holotypes and paratypes
the holotype is the single specimen designated as the type
specimen of a species or subspecies at the time its original
description is published.
4. Sometimes the names change because the rule of priority, (when for
some reason there are 2 publications of the same fossil, it takes the
first name it was given.)
30. What happens if a fossil is given a name, and it is later discovered that this
name has already been used for a different fossil or living animal? What
happens if the fossil had already been named by someone else? Give an
example of such an occurrence. What is the rule of priority.
The rule of priority refers to giving the name to the one that had it first.
Ex. Brontosaurous and Apatosaurus.
Apatosaurus had priority and became the accepted name, even though the name
Brontosaurus was much better known among the general public.
31. Who discovered the Burgess Shale, when was it discovered (approximately),
and
where is it located geographically?
Charles Walcott, 1909. located in Western Canada near Canadian rockies
32. What is the age of the Burgess Shale (not the age in millions of years, but the
age in
terms of the geologic time scale)?
Dates to middle of Cambrian
33. Describe the Burgess Shale fauna. What types of organisms are most
common?

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Tropical, soft-part organisms that dwelled on sea floor. Unique looking lineages that
became extinct
Be able to recognize the following four genera by name: Anomalocaris,

Hellucigenia, Opabinia, Anomalocaris

Hellucigenia

Opabinia

Pikaia

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The fauna is composed of a range of soft bodied organisms; creatures with hard,
mineralised skeletons are rare, although trilobites are quite commonly found.
Anomalocaris: huge predatory arthropod; various partd from this animal were
originally misidentified as separate organisms. (pinapple ring mouth)
Hellucigenia: seven pairs of spikes
Opabinia: five eyes long snout
Pikaia: our ancestor..our story of contingency; the direct connection between
burgess declimination and eventual human evolution
34. The United Nations has declared the Burgess Shale to be a World
Heritage Site. Why is it considered to be so important?
It is well know for its very preserved fossil remains of soft-bodied marine animals,
and can give us insight and information that we have found many other places.
35. What are the circumstances that allowed the soft-bodied Burgess Shale
animals to be
preserved?
The steep escarpment (slope) due to sediment being transported to the
Burgess Shale by currents that flowed parallel to a steep slope (rather than
from above and down the slope). This mud may have deprived them of
oxygen to further help fossilization. Sediment also accumulated rapidly at the
base of the escarpment, effectively sealing the undecayed Burgess animals
in mud.
36. In 1989 Stephen Jay Gould published a book about the Burgess Shale titled
Wonderful Life. In his book Gould argued that in the first half of the 20th century
(and before), when the Burgess Shale was discovered and first studied,
paleontologists, and biologists generally, pictured the history of life as one of
inexorably increasing diversity through time. A common metaphor for the
history of life was a tree-like, upward branching cone of ever-widening
width. Gould argues that a more appropriate metaphor for the history of
life is a pruned bush with a few unpruned stalks. Sketch each of these two
metaphors.

Right: Gould is arguing that in the Cambrian there are lots of weird animals that do
not belong in any modern phylum. (Opebenia and helluceginia). This is reflected in
the fossil record
Left: has now been discredited by gould.
37. Gould titled his book Wonderful Life to draw a parallel with the 1946 movie Its a
Wonderful Life, directed by Frank Capra and starring Jimmy Stewart. What are the

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parallels between Gould's view of the history of life and the movie It's a Wonderful
Life?
1. If you were to rewind back to the time when pikaia was present and replay
history without it being present/alive, every step in the progression of life would
have been different. Humans as we know it wouldnt be like they are now. Our
literal presence is dependant on everything else that came before =
contingency.
a. Similar to the movie in that the guardian angel replayed what life would
be like if the main character didnt exist to show how different/negative
things would have turned out.
2. Burgess Shale is a wonderful explosion of life in the Cambrian
38. One aspect of Goulds interpretation of the Burgess Shale is his
principle of contingency in the history of life. Summarize what that
means.
What Gould means by contingency is that everything that is created is
contingent upon everything else
If you change the contingencies everything will come out differently
o Without pikaia there wouldnt be any vertebrates because pikaia is the
ancestor of vertebrates, this means there may not have been any
chordates or verts.
Pikaia is the missing and final link in our story of contingency
the direct connetion between Burgess decimation and eventual
human evolution.

39. Below are two quotes by Gould in the video that we watched on the Burgess
Shale. Briefly explain the context and significance of each quote. As part of your
explanation, tell how the Burgess Shale fauna relates to the quote.

All you got in those early days was a ticket in the biggest lottery that was
ever held.
pikaia is the winning ticket, it is just chance and luck that caused the
pikaia to survive and be the common ancestor
The greatest mystery of the Burgess Shale is that the motor of innovation

was
turned off, and we really dont know why.

Changing and innovation of body plans appears in the Cambrian, but do not
really come up in the rest of geologic time. Diversity occurs after this point,
but it is only diversity & modifications of a common theme of the body plans
that appear in the cambrian
o Why did all this diversity/innovation occur only in the Cambrian time?
This is a mystery

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40. One of the people who has worked with the Burgess Shale fauna is Simon
Conway Morris. Conway Morriss PhD dissertation was a study of the nonarthropods (the worms) of the Burgess Shale. As expressed in his book
Lifes Solution: inevitable humans in a lonely universe, Conway Morris has a very
different interpretation from Gould concerning the philosophical significance of the
Burgess Shale fossil assemblage. While the key concept in Goulds interpretation is
contingency, the key concept in Conway Morriss interpretation is evolutionary
determinism. Conway Morris places great emphasis on the importance of
convergent evolution. Succinctly contrast these two views of evolution. If we
could rewind the history of life back to the time of the Burgess Shale,
how would it play out again, according to each of these views?
For Goulds view, the pikaia would be the lucky taxa that would survive, and
eventually evolve and diverge into land, water, and air animals. If the pikaia did not
survive, everything in the world will change because of this one event, and humans
and many other animals may not exist.
For Morriss view, the extinction of the pikaia would only mean a different taxa
thriving and evolving into a different variation of living things (theres so much
convergence in evolution, theres multiple ways to survive and thrive). Living things
would be different, but exist nonetheless. Some form of human-like organism would
have eventually occurred without paikia.
41. Francis Collins, the director of the National Institutes of Health, has a view of the
history of life that is very different from the views of both Gould and Conway
Morris. The key concept in Collinss view is theistic evolution. If you dont
know what this means, I suggest that you read the Wikipedia definition of
theistic evolution. Succinctly explain this view of the history of life, and
contrast it with the views of Gould and Conway Morris.
Collins view is that evolution is Gods way of evolving humans.
Goulds and Morriss are very different since their views rely on natural selection and
evolution of nature, not it being planned by a divine power or god.
42. Of these three interpretations of the history of life (especially the
inevitability of Homo sapiens), which (if any of them) do you think is
correct? Is there any way to rigorously test these three conflicting views about
the history of life?
I agree with Gould. There is a huge dependance on chance and happenstance in
evolution, and although convergent evolution does happen, most evolution occurs in
a way if you have some trait that helps you survive, you have a better chance of
passing on your genes and that must have occurred in a way that no thought or
planning went into it.
43. On page 33 of the lecture outline is a drawing from a 1999 paper by Dolf
Seilacher.
Be sure you understand what Seilacher was trying to show in this diagram
concerning the differences between sediments and biotas in the Ediacaran Period
and those in the Cambrian (and younger) periods. Summarize the essence of it.
What does he mean by the term agronomic revolution? What is the genus
depicted in the upper right of the figure? What kind of animal (with three lobes and
two antennae) is depicted burrowing across the sediment surface, just below and to
the left of the big animal in the upper right of the figure?

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The ediacaran fauna ( Phanerozoic era) nothing living under the surface of the sea
floor, just mat scrtachers and mat stickers, but no burrowing occurred. Microbial
mats essentially in tact. (sealing of sea floor occurred)
When the Cambrian period started, animals that got down into the sea floor and
burrowing/mixing sediments arrived. Shelled organisms that could cause vertical
bioturbation and mixing of nutrients under the soil arrived. This is why it is called an
agronomic evolution, ground began being plowed by organisms.
Three lobe, 2-antenne animal burrowing across the sediment surface is a trilobite.
44. What are trace fossils? How does the naming of trace fossils compare
to the naming of body fossils?
= burrows, borings, footprints, nests, dung. Records behavior of an animal.Body
fossils can tell us structure and possibly function but not behavior
45. In my discussion of the trace fossil Psammichnites, I explored the idea of
recognizing fundamental types of behavioral responses to stimuli. How
might you distinguish between random wandering, internally programmed
steering, and responses to external stimuli in a trace fossil?
Random wandering- equal # of left and right turns, but w/o development of distinct
patterns
Internally Programmed Steering- tight U-turns, paths never cross. (1) burrow parallel
to an adjacent burrow, X body lengths, or until a previously grazed or processed
area is encountered, (2) make a tight U-turn to left, (3) go back in the other
direction, X body lengths or until a previously processed area is encountered, (4)
make a tight U-turn to the right, (5) repeat. The result is a trace with an equal
number of right and left turns, and a distinctive pattern. It knew it wanted to go
in a certain direction
Responses to external stimuli- resulting path does not have equal # of left and right
turns. Path is not geometrical and less chaotic, movement due to chemical or some
other gradient
46. I concluded that the Psammichnites tracemaker was guided by
chemoclinotaxis. Explain what that means in your own words.
chemoklinotaxis: klinotaxis in which the external stimulus is a chemical gradient.
Moving about while getting cues from the environment on where to go next.
Sequentially gathering data to guide you to the desired location. Siphon may have
helped in picking up info from the environment.
47. What is a GSSP, and what are the desirable features in selecting a GSSP?
GSSP= Global Stratotype Section and Point= an internationally agreed upon
reference point on a stratigraphic section which defines the lower boundary of a
stage on the geologic time scale, very best representation of that boundary
1. Accessibility = easy to access
2. Datable Volcanic Rock = for radiocarbon dating. A layer above and layer
below is ideal

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3. Fosiliferous with variety = large concentration of fossils of diff types present,

include trace fossils
4. Other Datable methods available = ex: pole reversals
48. In the early 1990s a global boundary stratotype section and point (GSSP) was
chosen
for the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary. In what country is this GSSP and how is the
boundary defined? In what way did this decision change the actual thickness of
sedimentary rocks included within the Cambrian System? How is this horizon
correlated to other continents?
What country?: eastern Newfoundland, Canada
Boundary defined by: Cambrian = 555 Ma 543 Ma, Cambrian base moves much
lower/ younger/more recent
Change thickness of sedimentary rocks included in Cambrian? Abandon 3 part
division in favor of 4 part subdivision.
49. In Stephen Jay Gould's essay "Was the Cambrian explosion a sigmoid fraud?,"
what is meant by the term Cambrian explosion? Why is it called a sigmoid fraud
(explain both the sigmoid" part and the "fraud" part)?
Cambrian explosion = complex life had a rapid appearance. steep rise of most major
animal phyla, as demonstrated in the fossil record. accompanied by major
diversification of other organisms
Sigmoid represents the shape of the curve showing the pattern of Cambrian
explosion, at first increase in populations is slow (lag phase), followed by steep
acceleration of growth (log phase), then a slow leveling off period where theres a
limit of more growth.
Fraud this explosion may be nothing more than the log phase of this continuous
process that was more inevitable than significant or extraordinary. Gould believes
this was indeed a true explosion though.
50. Gould and his colleagues used spindle diagrams to test the hypothesis that the
Cambrian explosion represents the filling of ecological niches in the world ocean.
Draw an example of a spindle diagram, explain what one is, and discuss how Gould
and his colleagues used such diagrams to test their hypothesis.
Each clade is depicted as a spindle diagram, the width of the diagram tells you the
number of species living during that given time frame. Widest area represents
where the clade is most diverse. Taxa in lower Paleozoic had low center of gravity,
those after the Cambrian with explosion had higher gravity (closer to the very
middle).

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TI
M
E

The right represents the same pattern as a sigmoid curve to depict the Cambrian
explosion, where species arose during times of rapid diversification, but died out
during times of slower origin and extinction. Max diversity occurred early in their
history due to unrestrained growth, but then leveled off as pops increased.
51. Draw three sketches that approximate the spindle diagrams of (1)
trilobites, (2) gastropods (snails), and (3) cephalopods (ammonites,
nautiloids, squids, etc.). Characterize in words how these three spindle
diagrams compare with one another. What was the impact of the PermoTriassic extinction event on each of these three taxa?

Trilobite

Gastropoda

cephlapoda

The inward pinches describe extinctions or mass deaths, the outward extensions
show rapic growth spurts or expansive diversity
Trilobites diversified very early in the Paleozoic era and decreased in diversity until
their extinction at the end of the Permian. Gastropods show only a continual
increase in diversity, with only a brief decrease at the Permo-Triassic boundary.
Cephalopod diversity has remained roughly constant, fluctuating between increase
and decrease. The Permo-Triassic extinction event was not terribly remarkable for
cephalopods.
52. Explain how a molecular clock works. How is the fossil record used to
calibrate molecular clocks? What types of research questions can be
addressed with the use of a molecular clock?
Neutral mutations (which neither improve nor hinder the functioning of the
molecule) accumulate at a constant rate. Determining the rate at which mutations
accumulate allows us compare the structure of a molecule in one species with the
structure of the same molecule in a different species, and thereby determine how
long ago these two species had a common ancestor.

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The technique has used the sequence of amino acids in proteins or the sequence of
nucleotides in DNA.
53. What is meant by the term index fossil?
The fossil remains of an organism that lived in a particular geologic age, used to
identify or date the rock or rock layer in which it is found an ideal specimen that is
the best indicator of what was the organism looked like.
54. What are four characteristics of a good index fossil?
1.
2.
3.
4.

Widely distributed geographically and environmentally

Distinct morphology easy to see morphological traits
Abundant
Short range of existance (Appearance-Extinct)

55. What kinds of fossils are typically used as index fossils in each of the
following time intervals:
a. Lower Paleozoic shale- trilobites (extinct after Permian)
b. Paleozoic limestones- conodonts (have little coned teeth), change color based on
temp.
c. Late Paleozoic limestones- fusulinid forams (animals with little holes (foramen) in
them. Like a torpedo shaped amoeba that has a skeleton
d. Mesozoic- ammonites (squids with coiled shells)
e. Cenozoic- forams, mammals (still animals with little holes, mammals, humans,
etc)
56. In Chapter 12 of Knolls book Life on a Young Planet, he reviews some current
ideas about the possible role of worldwide glaciations on the history of life. Briefly
summarize what this is all about. What is Knolls view about the role of oxygen in
the timing of the evolution of metazoa and skeletonized metazoa?
There were up to four major glaciation events that preceded the Cambrian. These
glaciations formed a slush-ball Earth which left deep oceans largely anoxic by
preventing the movement of oxygen from the atmosphere to the sea water, due to
the ice blocking it. As the earth thawed and oxygen was able to get into the sea
water, body sizes were not as limited and skeletonization became possible. Heavy
skeletonized animals require more oxygen.
57. In Figure 12.3 on p. 222 of Life on a Young Planet, Knoll contrasts evolutionary
patterns at the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary with those at the CretaceousPaleogene boundary. Be prepared to draw the essential features of this figure and
explain what it is all about.
Show very similar diversity and evolution patterns, just with different groups.
For Cretaceous Teriary boundary : Prior to the dinosaurs extinction, mammals
were small and simple. extinction of dinsaurs allowed for the subsequent explosion
of birds and large mammals.
Ediacaran- Cambrian Boundary: Edicaran animals were the dinosaurs of the the
late Proterozoic when the ediacaran animals died off, the bilateral animals were
able to explode in diversity.

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