Title :

METAPHOR IN THE NOVEL PAPER TOWNS BY JOHN GREEN

Theory
Leech (1984)
There are four notional classes of metaphor according to Leech :
1) The Concretive Metaphor, which attributes concreteness or physical existence to
an abstraction. For example : a vicious circle, room of negotiation.
2) The Animistic Metaphor, which attributes animate characteristics to the
inanimate. For example: an angry sky, the shoulder of the hill.
3) The Humanizing (Anthropomorphic) Metaphor, which attributes characteristic of
humanity to what is not human. For example : this friendly river, laughing
valleys.
4) The Synaesthetic Metaphor, which transfers meaning from one domain of
sensory perception to another. For example : dull sound, loud perfume.
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980)
In 1980, George Lakoff (a linguist) and Mark Johnson (a philosopher) published the
revolutionary Metaphors We Live By, which claimed that metaphor is pervasive in
everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual
system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally methaporical in
nature. For example, when we talk about arguments, we use the language of battle (as
per the metaphor argument is war): we defend positions, attack opponents, choose
strategies, and we win or lose in the end.
In a metaphor, there are two domains : the target domain, which is constituted by the
immediate subject matter, and the source domain, in which important metaphorical
reasoning takes place and that provides the source concepts used in that reasoning.
Metaphorical language has literal meaning in the source domain. In addition, a
metaphoric mapping is multiple, that is, two or more elements are mapped to two or
more other elements. Imageschema structure is preserved in the mapping-interiors of
containers map to interiors, exteriors map to exteriors; sources of motion to sources,
goals to goals, and so on.

 Statement of Problem
1). What are the types of metaphor contained in the novel of Paper Towns by John
Green?
2) What are the significances contained in the novel of Paper Towns by John Green?

Purpose of Study
1). To identify the types of metaphor contained in the novel of Paper Towns by John
Green.
2). To analyze the significances contained in the novel of Paper Towns by John Green.

Example
1). The types of metaphor according to Leech
Her face gray (page 7)
The phrase above is categorized as a concretive metaphor, because the word of gray
is constitutional an abstract form to be illustrated with a concrete word such face.
Human face skin color range in variety is darkest brown or lightest and not gray. The
color of gray can be meant sad, miserable or depressed. It can be concluded that the
woman was sad.
Other examples without description :
All the strings inside him broke (page 8) = Concretive
Social calendars (page 11) = Animistic
I dont believe in prom (page 11) = Concretive
2). The significance of metaphor at part Prologue

a. Subject of novel
The subject of novel at this part is Quentin, the main role of this story. This part took him
to have a little flashback of his childhood when he was nine years old.
b. Analysis
Her face gray
Target : her
Source : face gray
The word of face gray described the circumstance of the woman which using the word
of her. The significance of metaphor from this phrase was talking about her heart
condition that she was not feeling good at the moment that affected her face.

Related Literature
1. Judul Skripsi : Metafora pada Lirik-lirik Lagu dalam Album No Sound Without
Silence Karya The Script oleh Delsius Garing (2016). Teori yang digunakan yaitu
Leech (1984) dan Lakoff dan Johnson (1980), dengan mengidentifikasi jenis dan
menganalisis makna metafora.
2. Judul Skripsi : Makna Metafora dalam Album Cross Road Bon Jovi Suatu
Analisis Semantik oleh Jan Peterson Reppie (2007). Teori yang digunakan yaitu
Lakoff dan Johnson (1980) tentang target dan souce. Dia menemukan dua tipe
metafora yaitu metafora campuran dan metafora mati. Hasil penelitian ditemukan
tiga posisi target dan source yaitu target yang dinyatakan secara terpisah, target
serangkaian dengan pernyataan source dan target yang tersirat.
3. Judul Skripsi : Metafora dalam Lirik Lagu Karya Adele oleh Olga Grace
Sumolang (2015). Teori yang digunakan yaitu Wahad (1999), dengan membagi
jenis metafora antara lain, metafora nominative, metafora predikatif, metafora
sintak. Hasil penelitian ditemukan posisi target dan source yaitu target
dinyatakan terpisah dengan pernyataan source dan target yang tersirat.
4. Judul Skripsi : Metafora Ontologis dalam Novel The Twilight New Moon dan The
Twilight Ecplise Karya Stehenie Meyer: Kajian Semantik oleh Mila Puspitasari
(2013). Teori yang digunakan yaitu Lakoff dan Johnson (1980), dengan mengacu
pada satu jenis metafora saja yaitu metafora ontologis. Penelitian ini juga
membahas persamaan makna antara makna literal dan makna metaforik yang
terkandung dalam novel tersebut.
5. Makna Metafora dalam Novel Maggie A Girl of The Street Karya Stephen Crane
oleh Ishak Eliardi (1996). Dalam skripsinya, ia menganalisis makna metafora
berdasarkan aspek pragmatik dan tindak tutur. Penelitian ini menunjukan bahwa
makna metafora di dalam kalimat, frase dan ujaran menciptakan interpretasi
baru.

Other theories about metaphor

What is metaphor? according to Ricocur (1976, p.49), metaphor is a trope, a
figure of discourse that concerns denomination representing the extension of the
meaning of a name through deviation from the literal meaning of words.
What is metaphor? according Aristotle in Poetics (1951,p.87), metaphor is the
movement of an alien name from either genus to species or from species to
genus or from species to species or by analogy. In addition, he also considered
metaphor not only as an artistic and rhetorical category, but also as a cognitive
one.
What is metaphor? according to Soskice (p.15), metaphor is that figure of speech
whereby we speak about one thing in terms which are seen to be suggestive of
another.
What is metaphor? according to Richard Brown (1977, p.77), metaphor is seeing
something from the viewpoint of something else.
What is metaphor? according to Paul Ricoeur (1977,1979), metaphor can also
involve the transfer of predicates or descriptions.
According to e.g. Kvecses (2005) metaphors have several dimensions or
aspects: neural-bodily (embodiment), conceptual (cognitive preferences and
styles), contextual (social-cultural experience) and linguistic (semiotical and
semantical). Although I think the number of dimensions, aspects or fields could
be extended (e.g. by the logical, historical or ethical), I agree with the thought
that metaphors are not pure linguistic eventities. In order to be adaequate and
relevant, a theory of metaphorical meaning should take into account a variety of
dimensions, aspects or fields.