INTRODUCTION

AN

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

BY

JAMES
Head

of the

Department

Psychology in the University

of Chicago

NEW

HENRY

ANGELL

ROWLAND

HOLT

of

YORK

AND
1918

COMPANY

COFTRIOHT,

1918,

1\

BY

HENRY

HOLT

COMPANY

AND

"OU5UJ802

THE

QUINN

"

RAHWA.Y,

BOOEN

CO.

N.

J.

PRESS

PREFACE

Shortly
L

1904

'^,pare

after

began

briefer

older

digest

mere

set

forth
of

relation

authors.

aware,

been
It

the

methods

of

the

be

sure,

students

who

Fourth

the

between
It

of

them
and
and

the

adjustment.
and

mastered

themselves

terminology
^

certain

for

"

attempt
resents
rep-

attempts

first

work

time,

features,

far

so

and

and

of

was

degree by

less

structural

adopted

the

of interest.

its

of
or

ciples
prin-

it

topics

consistently

terpretat
its in-

in

view

sense

to

observe

not

least

point of view

edition, 1908.
iii

exhibit

the

in
gressive
pro-

presented, provisionally

It

teachable
a

to

as

tional
func-

life, this position being reflected

mental

definite

enabled
for

emphasized

be

earlier

in greater

adopted

to

upon

may

the
of

novelty

arrangement

of

comment

another

one

psychology.

stages of
to

to

distinction

in

popularity

important

more

be-

so

field, and

the

Some

This

accordingly

essentially biological point

an

in

of

survey

accorded

the

to

book

present

pre-

far

lagged

continued

concisely the

books

since

other

part

and

has

to

lines.

longer appropriate

The

welcome

due

have

utilized

the

no

it.

two

prompt

which

seems

of

fulfilment

despite

teachers

general

same

general psychology.

presumably

am

it

simply

of the

The

but

entirely fresh

an

to

that

work,

the

in

Psychology

my

from

requests

on

do,

to

promise,

the

receive

to

of

appearance

volume

"p finally agreed

\j3hind

the

of
and

system,
control
think

important
which

"

which

gave

the

over

terial,
ma-

psychologically
afforded

rendered

the

them

litera-

PREFACE

iv

of

ture

the

in

appear

emphasis and
has

science

rendered

and

centered

now

which, with

its

distinction

longer

no

about

'

the

to

and

to be

me

itself

adolescent

sound

readily

development
still

in its

of

of

acute

'

movement,
its crusade

and

interestingblend

an

troversy
con-

Polemic

treatment.

behavioristic

of solid

exaggeration. Whatever

position,I have

me

seems

It lends

adopted.

incorporation into the biologicalconception

to

activity,which

of mental

as

of the

to

seems

matter

gospel of objective methods

against introspection,presents
contribution

the

requires a less militant

so

changes

necessary.

it is

significant. But

is

which

points of view

Such

reflect alterations

simply

text

present

structure-function

The

accessible.

subject easily

the

I have

retained

and

getically
ener-

pressed.

organizing character

The

activities is

impression left

of

"the real

of

nature

I have
than

explicitlybrought

more

book, with advantage, I trust,

older

formerly did

I
in

the

to

not

prurient implications of much

nor

but
that

there
in

control
conscious

other

on

is

text

element

neural

many

observation.

thought
The

large

as

will be

grounds

of the

found

of

more

to

by

have

reflect

importance

accept the

moment

Freudian
any

esses
proc-

doctrine,

tions;
of its conten-

belief

the

to

intrinsicallyintelligent

hold

overt

regarding

more

come

which

processes

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the

greatly influenced

I been

have

ness
vivid-

of subconscious

for
of

in the

environment.

to

function

I do

behavior.

our

mind

assign

to

years

than

depth and

reader's

the

on

motor
psycho-

our

out

to the

adjustments

our

in recent

come

level of

of every

to

our

escape

be

control

as

true

of

our

something

of

direct
of

flective
re-

muscles.
this

viction.
con-

PREFACE

views

My

the

on

function

misunderstood.

deal
to

confront

may

be

found

This

less

sympathetic
the

to

from

its pretense

imaginal
After

that
in

the

second

written

exercises

rounded

For

the

are

due

ton

"

with

use

the

the
of

"

T.

In

to

teachings

and

W.

T.

of

but
of

and

of Howell's

consider

Brain";
"Text-Book

not

be

wellmade

text.

acknowledgments
Apple-

Physiology"

John

Murray,

Organs"

D.

System";

Nervous

of

and

of admirable

Elements

Sedgwick

find

own;

publishers :

publisher

by McKendrick

Sons, publishers of Loeb's

W.

B.
of

Saunders

"

Physiology";

Scott, Ltd., publishers of Donaldson's

Brain."

their

number

''The

place

particular

any

''The

G. P. Putnam's

of the

or

decided

I have

they need

Physiology of the Sense

"Physiology

of

sensorial

first

of illustrations

number

in

struction
miscon-

the

precise need.

this

following authors

Snodgrass;

the

prepare

now

are

course,

Co., publishers

Hough

Much

of

teachers

Co., publishers of Barker's

of "The
and

to

on

tion
atten-

operations,

essentially indispensable part of

an

am

altogether unsubstantiated.

as

supply

introductory

dependent

by

to

direct

on

devoid

wholly

prefer

place there

the

postulate of the existence

Its

conferences

instructors

manuals

Ginn

regard

text

With

texture.

is based

practical exercises.

any

many

such

factors

extended

omit

to

consciousness

of

states

which

present

to

mental

our

think

of earlier doctrine.
of

the

served

sensuous

in

place

good

'imageless thought'

it has

as

mere

novelty

to

the

misapprehension.

aspect of

their

been

have

that

trust

of

far

so

imagery
hardly

to

open

meaning

distinction

is

doctrine

recently developed
warmly

of

critics,but

my

"Growth

lishers
Co., puband

ter
Walof the

vi

PREFACE

under

am

and

to

my

suggestions
in

the

obligations

many

colleagues
and

preparation

at

criticism.
of

my

the

My

to

my

University
wife

has

students

former
of
aided

Chicago
me

May

1,

1918.

greatly

manuscript.
J.

Chicago,

for

R.

A.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER

PAGE

Problems

and

Methods

Psychology

of

1
.

II

Inherited

and

Acquired

Behavior

10
.

III
IV

The

System

Nervous

Consciousness

18

Habit

and

49

Formation
.

V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI

XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI

Attention

58

Sensation

76

Sense

Perception

114

Memory

137

Imagination

152

Reasoning

170

Feeling

189

Emotion

204

Instinct

215

Elements*

Will,

OP

Instinct,

Sleep,

Dreams,

Personality
XVII

Action

Voluntary

and

226
.

Character

Hypnosis,

237

and

Multiple
249

Self

263

Bibliography

273

Index

279

The

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

INTRODUCTION

AN

CHAPTER

The

hand,

they

propose

definition

of

because
in

he

science
this

which

of

deals.

point
is

kind
be

beginner.

seek

be

shall
a

the" youngest

of

give

to

the

the

sciences,
field

the

its real

facts

with

any

formal,

and

vague

make

meaning

which

the

serious

no

of

effort

psychology,

biological sciences.
indications

rough

character

general

define

beginner,

precise definition
the

to

cl^ar

the

somewhat

therefore

construct

well

Young

make

to

To

of

knowledge

and

it unnecessary

occupy.

must

Old

"

intelligently interpret

regarding

of
the

of

is,

It

helpful

problems

to

confronted.
The

older

science

of

definitions
the

and

mind.'

In

abandoned
case

more

for

this

of

the

its turn
favor

general
one

the
of
and

about

word

because

word

mind
term

in

as

this

which

there
1

of

'the

had

it

term

gathered

'the

as

long
the

ployed
em-

many

followed
science

definition

'consciousness.'

compromising

less

was

Then

soul.

described

was

the

last

of

spoke

designation

at

psychology

in

psychology

abandoned

only

when

period

of

soul,' and

implications

confusing
a

science

possible

however,

of the

to

We
to

feel

commonly

cannot

advance

at

benefit

the

other

the

which

for

PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology.

generally

sciences

themselves

OF

of

Matter

Subject

established

on

METHODS

AND

PROBLEMS

In
was

of
was

each
stituted
subgroup

INTRODUCTION

AN

irrelevant

of

itself has

now

its

we

place

At

this

misleading associations.

or

victim

fallen

urged

are

'conduct,' or

which

to

terms

in

and

movement,

same

such

use

it is far

juncture

fruitful

the

to

Consciousness

'behavior/

as

'intelligence.'

verbally precise and

a

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

less

definition

accurate

working idea

of the

general

deals, and

psychology

and

gathers, organizes,

important

to

than

secure

it is to

gain

of facts with

range

technique by which

the

interprets these

it

Broadly

facts.

speaking,then, the psychologist'ssubject matter

concer^ns

thinking,feeling,and acting.

is

often

as

today,

occurs

be understood

that

the

which

the term

under

is controlled.
which
into

us

the

we

In

the first

without

human

out

being. Much
without
therefore
A
'

entire

few

less

recourse

find it
advocates

for
duct
con-

remote

from

explore.

to

of

Conditions

even

It is
in

one

pretend

upon

frequently necessary

perience
Ex-

physical

quite impossible

of the human

scientific

employ

to

'

to

way,

common-sense

structure
to

Human

physiological materials.

'

what

all the strands

seemingly

bodily

to

three

of life will take

this skein

of the

can

in which

manner

place, all life is built

nature,

knowledge

out

the purposes

unravel

to

facts

Social

and

the

what

attempt

set

these

point

to

arises,what

physiologicalfoundations.

understand

it

of many

thus

Physiological
"

includes

to

intelligenceis composed, what

together in

study

those which

and

The

twisted

are

behavior

which

employed, and

it is

defined,

it is
of heJiavior,

the science

of which

materials

the conditions

psychology

shall try in this book

processes.^ We
are

as

When

'

knowledge
We

shall

informa-

ism
behavioror
objective psychology
pure
would
wholly disregard thinking and feeling,devoting their
attention
to a study of motor
activity.
of

METHODS

AND

PROBLEMS

the body, and

tion about

Again, all life

life,is lived

to

regard

to

these

taught

us

to

evolution

quite

truly

interpreted from

food

the

on

the other.

conduct

The

directions,and

point backward

account

in progress

at

the

method

correct

present

which

rest

is known

process

recall what

after

try to discern

in

office.

Evidently

anyone

who

such

chooses

differingfrom

to

of these

influences

The

the usual

which

of

in the
ask

events

in

see

thought.

it.

forms

the

to
one

direct

myself

to

diately
imme-

question, I
in which
I may,

myself walking
is at

is

psychology

this hour, and

in my

as

traditional

consists

the

method

employ

volves
in-

There

"

the particular manner

eye'

race-

vigorous controversy

into mind

'mind's

each

Psychology.

self-observation.

portrayed

are

my

in

very

describe

and

racial past.

doing yesterday at

and

climate

in

early accomplishments

bringing

occurrences

extent

some

psychology.

of

was

of

piece of behavior

any

introspection. It

as

systematic

example,

in

all the

upon

and

social organization

adjustment

Facts

Gathering

today

are

today reflects the

this illimitable

to

of

to

light

the

of adapting

process

to

man

understand

to

taking into

Methods

of

struggle and

of

long history

hand, and

one

in

has

social conditions

physical conditions

the

science

development

of

tempt
at-

constant

physiologicalkind

always been

has

to

These

past.
a

without

conditions

point of view

the

Life

supply

of

those

as

organism

the

from

It is idle to

modern

Our

all contemporary

see

adjustment.

behavior

human

social relations.

of their

the

and

the brain

especiallyhuman

social surroundings.

understand

as

extent, and

some

among

to

on

particularlyabout

system.

nervous

the

PSYCHOLOGY

OF

to

for
my

disposal of

It is purely
of external

tional,
observaobserva-

INTRODUCTION

AN

tion in

having one's

PSYCHOLOGY

internal

own

than

object, rather

TO

the

mental

and

facts

operations

events

of

the

its

as

outside

world.
A

this
been

good deal of mystery

has

at

introspectiveprocess,

and

unmeasured

directed

observe

to

forms

control.

of

here.

upon

carefully and

of

many

of

of

in all the

defenders

urge

scientific

the

latter
because

method,

hardly be

can

that, carried

out

individuals, it

has

respectable body

very

scientific.

term

physical sciences.
it is the

that

it is the

only

and

Needless

more

than

one

observer.

chemistry, physics, geology, and

general

based

are

entirelyupon

the

external

to

say,

in

the

As

attempt

applied
to

use

to

the

bodily expressions (e.g.,gestures, words, facial

etc.) as

movements,
and
describe

alleged facts

biologicalsciences

this method.

psychology, it necessarily involves

The

affording

one

of

by

is

only really

unequivocal opportunity for verification

events

to

objective observation, which

essentiallythat employed
of

is prone

subjective observation,is

against introspection or

general method

cannot

experiences just past,

everyday life,and

accumulation

of

that direct observation

entirely worthy of the

knowledge

the

Suffice it to say

of

state

method

controversy

systematically by

in the

Over

this

denial

the less sweeping

to

the

has

extremely difficult

are

of mental
described,i.e.,

commonplace

resulted

of

to

criticism
from

down

on,

which

error

merits

The

of the kind

going

attached

mental

pertinent criticism,that

more

many

entered

it is

been

way

that

ground

the

itself while

but

is

it,ranging all the

at

possibilityon

its

times

its advocates

and

activityjust

measure

in the

basis

for

the

maintain
the

degree

understanding

that

one

can

significant facts
in whi^h

one

can

of

havior,
be-

accurately
of

mental

determine

its

METHODS

AND

PROBLEMS

manifestations.

external

All

purely subjective and

likely to doubt

that many

the

of

mind,
be

may

Who

can

Caesar?

common

It

immediately
there

at

seems,

this controversy.

Let

highly desirable

the

but

be

extremism

of the

the

understood

mental

of

Organization
that

both

made

has just been

in

partisans

possible,

is at

as

life,let

present

rely

us

of

have

Data.

methods

these
to

It should

"

be

upon

which

to

clearly

reference

the gathering of data,

do with

This

collecting of the facts of intelligentbehavior.

is the

first. There
the
exhibit

of

part

scientific introspection.

Scientific

process

or

of the bodily expressions

use

regions of

in many

case

external

Napoleon

to

is impossible,

this

wherever

about

and

acter;
of their tangible objective char-

states, because

of mental

observing my

therefore,

to make

lags

states

describe

to

at

sions
expres-

recognize that wherever

us

is also

present,

mental

thinking

am

avoid

to

sense

trained

for example

But

that

our

from

say

whether

appearance

it is

such

ability introspectively

our

analyze them.

Julius

is anyone

nor

reflected

fact

of

majority

great

behind

far

the

of

sion
expres-

abilityto detect accurately the external

least,our

the

questioned;

states

treatment.

ultimately secure

call in question the

to

reason

is elusive,and

say,

unequivocally in facial expression.

and
no

do

be

not

embarrassment,

or

anger

as

else,they

states

need

conduct

in

PSYCHOLOGY

incapable of scientific

fact that mental

The

OF

then

remains

the task of analyzing and

facts, of classifying them

their
in

relations
their

practicable,a modern
analyze and

to

it is only the

science, but

first step in any

one

another

in

science,in addition
to

which

make

and

entirety. Moreover,

describe, attempts

ways

wherever
to

izing
organwill

them
this

trying thus

telligib
in-

is
to

explain. Analysis, or-

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

the

ganization,explanation,
of the
in

given

knowledge
of

group

in

Experiment
modern

advance

phenomena

has

been
of

development
is

middle

of the last

under

verification

by

always been

not

While

others

than

to

of

found
mental

mental

entirelyobdurate.
been

life has

By

already

facts
mind
the

are

processes

ported.
re-

are

cluded
ex-

w^as

necessary

the work

to

the

there

is

far the greater

hardly

any

has

been

portion of

our

explored by

extent

some

pale

resistant

more

operations which

to

permits
possible

put beyond

experimental approach,

significant group

it

logical
possibilityof psycho-

forever

mental

some

It

control.

largely

the

their

to

makes

because

perimental
ex-

experiment

of

that

Thanks

Wundt,

experiment has been

of doubt.

An

thus

supposed

could

the

natural

proportion

of whatever

experimental attack

Weber, Fechner, and

of

in

with

the fact that

from

be secured.

important

other

conditions

observers

many

It had

control

the

repetition of conditions,and

exact

istics
character-

the most

experimental technique.
made

effect

century, of the

in

Progress

gains its crucial importance from

an

the

be connected

to

rapid directly

observation

an

Quite

"

and

cause

are

cause
be-

events

science.

psychology is

in

of

these

"

natural

movement.

sciences

relations

Psychology.

in the

development,

ability to predict

of the

established

of every

PSYCHOLOGY

experimental methods.
Experiment
of
the

has

introspection and
one

assist

case,

the

itself fruitful

shown
in

that

of

time
conditions.

after

time

of

After-images

is

by repeating the stimulus

range

permit

to

devised

so

color

may

again and

thus

again.

In
as

to

ment
reinstate-

the

substantially the
of

the

objective observation.

experimental situation

introspectiveanalysis, and

in

both

same

be
In

mental
studied
the

case

which

of behavior

modes

in response

to

involved

thus

are

The
text

in

whole

the

Fields

Different

shall be

we

the

with

behavior.

of behavior

There

which

been

material.

useful

secure

rather

child

from

The

time

branch

of

abnormalities

understand

influences
found
social

which

of

profitable to
psychology.

directed

to

attributes
in

social

to

an

the

adult.

of

ogy
psychol-

in

order

to

children
a

has

ably
reason-

called

life of

psychology.

human

that

beings

without

regard

relations,it has

this field attention

is

it is quite impossible

special division

division
sub-

another

abnormal

as

these

create

In

with

constitutes

behavior

from

to

been

known

as

is particularly

study of the explicitlysocial instincts and

of the mind, and

is

attempt

human

arise

time

life of

social surroundings, and

to

do

constitutes

Despite the fact that all mental

amid

commonly

genetic psychology. Similarly

generally spoken

lived

present

investigation,sometimes

psychology, sometimes

the study of mental

to

to

mental

extensively studied, and

distinct

is

important divisions

shall invade

we

has

the

facts involved

the

field

This

It

In

"

characterizing the normal

other

however,

are,

of

types

ing
objective type is tend-

Psychology.

designated general psychology.

typical forms

both

other.

chiefly concerned

human

ordinary

of

thus be determined

can

the

displace

to

made

movement

by

in experimental procedure,

that

say

elicit

to

recorded

and

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apparatus.

it is probably fair to
on

of

promptness

sound, for example,

by time-measuring
observation

be observed

can

The

experimenter.

the

PSYCHOLOGY

OF

observation, the experiment is designed

direct

of

METHODS

AND

PROBLEMS

to

organizations
older

division

ascertain

and

an

analysis of the mental

and

institutions.

of the

describe

Eace

subject, devoted
those

tors
facchology
psy-

to

the

peculiaritiesof

AN

INTRODUCTION

and

temperament
different

behavior

ostensibly characterize

psychology,

itself with

concerns

PSYCHOLOGY

which

Variational

races.

psychology,

TO

the

individual

or

study of those personal

idiosyncrasiesof temperament,

taste, intellectual capacity,

etc.,which

being

of

the

mark

off

human

one

interestingand

most

psychological knowledge
the

study of animal

applied the

is

There

in

behavior.

branch

psychology which
with

of
has

recent

To

this field is

psychology,

to

our

from

come

years

generally

sometimes

or

as

made

incessant

though it

be

it
classified,

of

use

the

physiological
side

consists

as

experimental

bodily

shall have

We

system.

garded
re-

spoken
it may
in

simply

life in

mental

the

connection

of the

particularly those

processes,

be

to

However

of fact

matter

by side

It is often

definite method.

w^ere

systematically to study

nervous

up

specialpsychological field.

as

attempt

as

Strictly speaking, it ought perhaps

of

with

psychology known
historicallygrown

experiment, and

procedure.

brain

frequent occasion

to

and
make

of its materials.

use

is

Psychophysics

applied

name

developed by the German

has

led

which

the

to

division

of

detailed

it to

the

of

to

branch

of

chology
psy-

scientist,Fechner.

It

quantitative psychology,

attempt

to

relativelylittle

mental

measure

to

do

with

this

psychological inquiry.
and

knowledge

dwell

with

shall have

We

Psychology

of

development

is concerned

processes.

out

Much

comparative psychology.

term

to

another.

significantaddition

has

animal

term

from

upon
say

Other
of

like

philosophy, with

"

In

advance

of any

psychology, it is hardly profitable

its relations
that

Sciences.

to

other

natural

sciences.

fice
Suf-

them, it has historicallydeveloped

which

it still retains

rather

more

AND

PROBLEMS

relations

intimate

stem

psychology

its

because

group,

by

of

of

is

science

biological

the

in

parent

certain

of

relationship

evolutionary

and

physical

to

its

in

is

psychology
terms

organism

the

in

which

to

and

the
As

life

the

extent

in

problems

its

adjustment

the

the

place

of

physics

e.g.,

time.

matter

intimacy

attested

measure

claim

from

earlier

an

subject

The

expressions.

themselves

at

fairly

may

sciences,

those

separated

(philosophical)

PSYCHOLOGY

OF

do

than

which

chemistry,

of

METHODS

ceives
con-

in

terms

social

and

environment.
Like

other

applied

In

aspect.
to

of

many

education,
the

although

higher

add

that

medicine,

still

of

development
they
contributions

in

are

the

to

this

and

interests

of

must

completeness
science.

pure

making
science.

genuine

lated
re-

to

life.

sumably
pre-

upon

It

an

and,

infancy,

valuable,

to

pure

closely

stands

early

and

themselves

and

pure

jurisprudence,

their

approach

any

practical

interesting

for

it

to

and

are

both

has

applications,

professional

extremely
wait

far

its
to

applications

These

psychology

sciences,

is
and

fair

to

portant
im-

CHAPTER

INHERITED

It

will

detailed

of

the

This

forms.
which

path

give

us

in

rough

follow

to

are

proceeding

rapidly

pass

we

will

we

before

if,

us

behavior,

of

study

BEHAVIOR

ACQUIRED

assist

perhaps

its chief

of

AND

II

in

to

review

some

idea

working

our

exact

more

analysis.
Classification

of

We

speak of it
stupid,
to

think

we

from

the

good

as

mark

view

of

work

e.g.,

moral

attaching

point

of

which
For

the

will

be

that

these

we

may
two

the

of

action

all

modes

of

useful

most

havior
be-

classification

constantly

in

view,

distinguishes innate, inherited, and

behavior

volved,
in-

speaking, writing,

are

keep

from

profitably proceed

of

forms
birds

fishes, birds, and

pigeons

special kind

classify

may

those
to

which

are

brief

^7^-

acquired,

description

of

types.

Instinctive
activities

of

we

distinguished.

should

we

which

forms

thus

signed
de-

are

qualities which

Again,

piano,

ways.

ful,
thought-

as

divisions

Walking,

purposes

which

one

stinctive
and

present

our

and

be

might

the

the

skating, golfing, playing

cruel,

or

such

it.

to

tical
prac-

different

intellectual

or

For

"

many

kind

as

play.

or

in

Evidently

certain
as

Behavior.

of

bad,

or

clever.

or

of

Forms

classify behavior

we

purposes

the

and

of action
and

such

insects, the

certain

certain

are

mammals,
birds.

marine
10

as

the

seasonal
the
All

nest-building
migrations

homing
these

of

habits

of

forms

of

AND

INHERITED

in

have

behavior

this native

common

certain

their fitness to achieve

animal

of the
animal

native, and

the

this

and

nausea

regard

does

of

to

of

animal

all

behavior, are

Some

of the

are

iris in the
muscular

light. The

response

incentive

in

of

act

to

sensing

of

the membranes

secure

of

an

sorrow

or

in

by relatively

of

the

the

ulus,
single stim-

is similarly

more

instinctive

response

It

complex.

situation,instead

single stimulation
of the throat.

like light
There

is

the

relativelysimple

rather

irritation in the throat.

to

entire

reflex

called

contraction

to

response

tial
essen-

race.

forth

light is

end

some

the

or

called

coughing

is somewhat

apprehension

in

behavior, inborn

example, the

made

movement

simple muscular

are

of strong

presence

the

designed to

For

larly
Simi-

the flushing of the

expressions of this character

simple situations.

out

like those cited from

activities,

simple and

very

carried

example.

or

of tears

of

of the individual

the welfare

to

shedding

being. These

human

every

acts

the

instinctive

are

child and

either precept

to

possesses

dryness of the

terror,

every

all indigenous modes

are

entirely

are

trembling of

The

face, the

the

faintness

in embarrassment,

in rage,

by others

set

himself

man

the clenching of the fist in anger,

skin

an

always recognize

not

of behavior.

of behavior, natural

quite without

much

they

sense

that

true

limbs, the blanching

modes

In

forms

of these innate

mouth, the

vation
preser-

of executing these instinctive

popular conception

this fact, it is nevertheless

many

to the

necessary

learned.

not

Although

and

character

by the example

tuition.

wholly without

inborn

11

species. However

kind, it is quite capable

of its
acts

ends

the

or

influenced

be

may

BEHAVIOR

ACQUIRED

or

very

dently
Evi-

in

barrassment
em-

the

involves
of

the

mere

irritation

large

of

group-

AN

12

INTRODUCTION

innate

of these

bodily operations
heart

the

the

notice.

attracting our

itself upon
It is
the

normal

with

being
amazing

an

disposal. The
upon

activities.

As

constitute

the

the

foundation

upon

sure,

and

walking both

but

both

they

are

putting
the

on

require
all

at

to

or

acts

off of

and

an

have

of

or

of skill

habits,even
and
As

we

in

set

at

ability
Both

of

basis, to be
fore
learning be-

Practically all

of this character.

social

etiquette of

enunciation,
our

of this

shall discover

the

moral

acquired
later

painstaking effort.

period

daily life,our

large measure

beliefs,are

stincti
in-

quite

typewriter.

complete.
are

tence,
sen-

The
of

clothing, the manipulation

our

our

"

with

instinctive

extended

expressive of the conventional

civilization,and

an

all the

the

upon

represent

the

use

traits

the last

rest

is born

Nobody

perfect

utensils

common

behavior

inherited

presently study.

suggested in

of

first

very

erected

are

shall

we

was

the violin

dexterities and

our

which

require long practice and

achievements

the

instinctive

these

see,

his

capacities at

they nevertheless

of affairs.

play

already provided

which

As

"

world

operation of these

later

Behavior.

to

trudes
in-

observation,that

of life is from

acquired forms

forthwith

digestion

breathing rarely

muscular

proper

types, but

Speech

of

of behavior

different order

of

cursory

the

shall

acquired modes
Acquired

into

comes

number

we

the

of

entirely without

processes
our

the most

maintenance

dependent

beating

attention.

clear,then, upon

human

The

part

Even

life-sustaining

great

most

The

similarly unconscious.

are

the

ordinarilywe

this character.

for

on

goes

of which

All

of

are

PSYCHOLOGY

behavior

of

unconscious.

wholly

are

forms

TO

deportment
our

time,

professional

our

and

own

"

religiouspractices

character.

point with

more

detail,

AND

INHERITED

acquired

these

of

result

in which

processes

these latter

Of

their

owe

accorded

As

them.
the

social forms

the

effort.

in

elaborate

effort

not

are

be

have

we

appear.

careful

acquirement.
man
gentle-

learned

without

appropriate

service
it

not

conventional

of

behavior

the

before

apprenticeship

they do

lady by

to

ritualistic

behavior.

civilization involves

greeting of

Similarly

participant

the

tially
essen-

they

so

cidedly
de-

are

of

but

in us,

conscious

Europe

modes

aware,

born

every

the

to

proper

played

regard they

the

as

thought which

any

of

distinct

Western

studious

to

be

were

execution

gestures

to

they

peculiar

tutelage and

in

indeed

may

peculiar form

Obviously

The

we

has

instinctive

the

from

mind

this

In

conspicuous part.
different

the

13

established

all become

have

acts

BEHAVIOR

ACQUIRED

involves
be

can

to

longed
pro-

successfully

mastered.

Acquired

Acts

Automatic.

Become

is

suggest what

fundamental

that
fully explored, i.e.,

that

is to

innate

say,

table

etiquette. But

all the

It

of

for

large
this

it involves
another

to

way

training
this

once

itself;and

of

care

simulate

more

require in their

which

take

As

acquired types

other

find how

day is

but

of

course

practicallycares

of

they tend

of behavior.

forms

tedious

and

to

and

essentiallyautomatic

time

tions
illustra-

supervision, become

conscious

alert

early stages

these

later to be

truth

acts

many

All

"

the

after

themselves;

instinctive

child, it requires
the

and

long

niceties

master

is

thoroughly learned, it

the

thing

same

of behavior.

part of the behavior

It is

is true

of one's

kind, and

that

we

are

involves,however, explicitemphasis

creatures
upon

of

surprising

working

how

little

immediate, thoughtful supervision. This

saying

of

to

automatized, habitual

of

is

of routine.

the fact often

INTRODUCTION

AN

14

unappreciated, to-wit,
Behavior

Instinctive

to be

is

which

doubt

insect

sacrifices its life in the

then, of

instinctive

reaction

which

the

of

have

the

which

the

stands

But

forms

for
as

from

we

the

it is in

encounter

we

the

this

but

line of
The

by
of

The

lower

are

may

amoeba

The

jelly-likeprotoplasm.

seen

This

to consist of

nucleus

little organism

secures

body,

great

our

the

nature

the

of

dividual
in-

of

survey

higher,

find

we

ment,
types of adjust-

which

have

we

that
called

broadly preservative in character,

tries out

prove

is

an

Under

and

for

success

simplest type of the known

amoeba.

the

in

the

to

of actions

individual

action,which

to

these, in the

of

they represent the region of unstable

adjustment.

opposed

region of adaptive behavior

group

acquired. They, too,

havior
be-

in the past for

upward

pass

tion.
genera-

of

safeguarding

the

stances,
in-

are

represents types of

useful

species. Many

this

mode

species. The

found

make

new

no

increasing opportunities for individualistic

and

while

the individual

creates

of behavior

been

of the

well.

animal

of

forms

must

case,
as

the

survival

for

maintenance

preservation

fixed and

truth, there

forms, where

which

act

that

nothing for the

said,cares

certainly true, however, that

hope

successful

become

to

of the

overstatement

particularlyin

can

already

maintaining

everything for the species,and

an

It is

have

we

effective in

are

it is

perpetuated. Nature,

no

As

"

speciesinevitably tend

individual, but

mands
de-

evolutionary conception teaches

types of reaction

life of the

the

routine

control.

Animals.

in

intimated, the modern

those

well-established

that

little active mental

very

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

or

animals

almost
the

surrounded
its food

incomplete

himself
a

new

failure.

is

represented

structureless

microscope it

by

fluid

speck
can

be

protoplasm.

by gradually envelop-

AND

INHERITED

acids,

or

similar

stimuli,the

the

of

from

away

confined

the assimilation

Evidently the

structure.

to

is represented by the

food; (2) with

both

amoeba, this
division
modes

the
latter

which

of

unfavorable

and

is too
of

addition

about

by

the

to

of

some

them

America

North

to

the

adjustments,
the

for

mon
com-

our

of

ranges

northern

southern

extreme

the

particularly

the

from

mere

surroundings

journey

the

with

considerable

over

In

commoner

connection

migratory

favorable

them

salt,etc.;

species.

listed,fishes,and
amazing

physical

cold, too

the

expression in
have

cluding
objects, in-

of

end

America.

To

adjusting activities

intelligentmammals
birds)
often

add

many

safeguard
enemies.

common

has

harmful

In

migrate annually

territory, and

South

from

is brought

cell.

main

the

that

again

as

(1) with the securing

which

function

life,such

stages of their life cycle. Practically all

birds

end

escape

most

afford

to

simple cell-like

one

to do

propagation

we

birds, display the

designed

and

the rejection of

of animal

find

enemies

instinctive

functions

several

the

of the parent
of

fore
there-

are

of adjustive activities for

have

e.g., water

(3) with

and

this

fishes,we

animal

surroundings,

of

scope

of adaptive behavior

forms

and

of food

higher order

much

Its reactions

flow

to

extremely limited.

is

creature

Passing

of

attack.

products, all functions

waste

tends

protoplasm

simple activities of approach

these

to

retreat, with

such

source

by strong

If it be attacked

its liquid surfaces.

it with

ing

15

BEHAVIOR

ACQUIRED

an

of the kinds

(to
types
the
In

nothing

say

of

aggressive rather

of

the

more

fishes

and

gregarious instincts,which

members
some

described,the

of
cases

than

the

group

from

this

community

their
action

merely protective char-

16

AN

Wolves,

acter.

other

for

animals.

such

from

of the stronger and

Modification

single

one

which

does
of

But

man.

which

the
bear

in

and

often

animal

form.

retires to

the

his den

in

and

summer

his search
climate

for

his

over

food

at

than

he
social

has

of

instincts

conditions, and

behavior
in the

havior
be-

havior,
of be-

the

learned

circumstance.

In

the most

in

search

that

it may

other

latitude.

skiU
to

If

elaborate

of

equable

be

cool in
ficially
arti-

animal

in

by conditions

of

The

his control

Man, by
himself

assures

one

words, he

adequate

around.
of those

been

with

adapt

evolved

forms

supply, and
is the

physical nature,

one

nest

migrates from

climate, food

have

in

the

squirrel to his

his mastery

relate to

no

acquired adjustments

be carried

may

the year

general characteristics
his

other

husbandry,

strikingstill

which

perhaps

form

preferred climate.

door

adjustment which

bird

the

degrees of

many

agriculture and

to

is

animal

of

for himself

winter.

own

over

More

leadership

of the herd.

case

the

his house

livelihood

his very

enemies.

degree quite surpassing

the

to

in

warm

creates

some

is
primarily instinctive,

cave,

Where

devises

so

builds

man

continent

climate, man

the

counterpart

kinds

to

to

Against the rigors of the winter

of artificial shelters.
of

is

perfected

of

some

domestic

their

of

There

"

every

through various

in the tree, but

end

almost

in the animals

modified

man

Man.

in

substantial

do

as

numbers

assaults

protective forms

find

not

whose

intelligentmembers

more

these

packs,

they benefit by

of Instinct

of

in

Buffalo, deer, and

the

association

group

PSYCHOLOGY

in herds

by preference

protect them

extent

TO

example, hunt

of wild

forms

cattle live

In

INTRODUCTION

to

social

meet

gence
intelli-

of

his

own

himself

to

the

demands

the

the

extent

which

disregard

of

of

appetites of

AND

INHERITED

and

hunger

satisfaction,

their

in

social

to

the

great

are

either

forms

of

adjustment.

group

of

instinctive

at

various

evolved

has

designate
the

and

which

in

modes

to

the

animal

that

which
while

instinctive

large

and

part

of

study

in

behavior,

what
this

and

itself.

it is

into

out
we

book

i.e., instinctive

particularly

result
acts

to

It

the

the

and

industry,

state,

the

of

ment
adjust-

how

wide

is the

be

last

the

of

life
both

to

acquired
named

out

by

out

activities,

in

these

factors

characteristics,

portion

their

mind.

of

of

them.

and

thought

will, constituting

devoted
and

is carried

play

forms

point

to

inherited
the

the

are

only

process

of
of

is distributed

which

remains

call

commonly
will

we

and

manifold

how

unconscious

the

which

processes

suggest
over

adaptive

this

often

feeling flowing
entirety

life

human

of

his

to

serve

adjustment,

much

tions
modifica-

concretely

represent

of

out

intelligence,

commerce

forms,

point

fellow-man.

may

it clothes

with

institutions

developed

his

to

and

of

process

with

and

illustrations
in

range

has

but

government

Even

its

all

man

nature

These

more

in

agriculture

custom,

church.

the

social

all

"

primarily

reflective

by

social

sympathy

indefinitely

impulses,

great

religion, law,

family

and

those

remaining

sorrow,

Arising

points

their

exclusively

or

almost

out

with

all the

practically

dominantly

drawn

17

connected

hate, fear, love,

Anger,

introduced
man

that

say

be

instincts

the

may

import.

list may

the

"

one

instincts

human

and

thirst

BEHAVIOR

ACQUIRED

Our
in
but

CHAPTER

THE

typical forms

In

environment.

the

great majority

the

involve

little

however,

mind.
which

of

are

those

which

to

mental

do,

not

feeling, "which

intelligence, which

stimulate

in

centered

In

of

man,

nificanc
sig-

most

of

use

in the

our

ingenuity

our

and

the

things

things which

challenge

ta

probably

character

definite

do ; the

to

whole

are

the

tain
cer-

adjustment

which

naturally

or

to

supervision.

involve
is

as

reflex

are

adjustment

interest

strong

our

direct

types

organic

of

acts

directed

was

kingdom

these

of

the

choose

we

animal

no

or

Human

attention

chapter,

broad

the

of

SYSTEM

NERVOUS

preceding

the

In

III

voke
proor

courage

and

test

our

perseverance.

To
be

even

evident

that

knowledge
in

hodily

for
shall
of

mental

our

been
of

be

our

mental

bodily

frame

behavior.

the

is
We

its control

mind,

the

which

responsible
make
18

which

for
no

the

regarding
tant
imporwe

conception

other

any

the

know

tendency

working

than

that
of

we

are

this

to

its

psychology

all it could

rough

more

as

Modern

structure

of

and

senses,

through

Pursuant

gain

shall

hodily

learn

to

it must

possession

helpless.

physical
life.

system,

nervous

rather

to

into

body

the

disposed

undertake

now

the

our

Without

portions

of

use

situation

the

comes

itself effective

obviously

therefore

of

survey

mind

the

through

muscles.

it, would

those

the

it makes

turn

has

superficial

part

of

peculiarities of

pretense

of

entering

in

detailed

any

the

THE

NERVOUS

way

upon

impressions,which,
of

anatomy

physiology

or

go, will be

they

as

assistance

constant

us

19

shall,however, attempt

far

so

to render

kind

the

We

system.

nervous

SYSTEM

to

secure

and

accurate

in the

of

of

course

study.

our

Fig.

of

Diagram
shaped mass
1.

"

CV,

of

marine

and

plants
made

type,

stimulation.

pass

is
to

the amoeba

Every
definite

no

part

which

differentiation

excitement
These

early

we

in the

to the

nerves

from

one

special claim

upon

simple

of

Main

forms

part

of
our

nervous

Subdivisions

be

of

the

control
attention.

But

To

we

in the

some

are

tions,
respiratory funcof

transmitting
to

appropriated

which

as

beginnings of

organism

have

to

moving.

has resulted

others

to

of this

sensitive
of

tissues.

among

were

ence
refer-

animals

the

falls the function

tissues

functions

with

meet

higher animals

of functions

last mentioned
the

to

and

simplest

to which

capable

appears

assigned digestivefunctions,
while

In

appears

the

specializationof function.

higher forms,

that process

body

of life

of

(Fig. 1)

irregularly

its nucleus,
contracts.

and

expands

previous chapter.

The

N,

animals, presumably

part of the

every

There

in

with

shown

that the earliest forms

possiblestructure, like
was

is

vacuole, which

tell us
biologists

The

greatly magnified.

protoplasm

contractile

amoeba

an

accounts

Figures

2 and

another.
to

selves
them-

for

their

3 exhibit

systems.
of the

Nervous

System.

"

There

are

AN

20
two

great subdivisions
the

them
called

Fig.

INTRODUCTION

2.

of

important duties

'central'

^Nervous

"

TO

surrounds

system

system

the

mouth;

the
to

cares

of

PSYCHOLOGY

which

nerves

be

share

performed.

for

starfish;

the

a,

between

One, the

adjustment

central

h, peripheral nerves

nerve

of the

arms.

so-

of

the

ring

that

(After

Loeb.)

Fig.

3.

"

Dorsal

view

of

the

central

system

of

an

earthworm;

o,

supraoesophageal ganglion; c, commissure-;

suboesophageal
u,
(After
ganglion; S, pharynx; O, ganglion of the ventral cord.
Loeb.)

NERVOUS

THE

organism

outside

the

to

'autonomic'

system,

physical world.
known

often

more

system, provides for the proper

the

as

eyes

and

the

in

the

assimilation
of

and

for the two

Of

the

to the

the

the

known
The

the

fully developed
slender

end

beyond

number

of

the

cell
which

nerve

thread
the

brush-like

neurone

with

system

some

ways
tral
cen-

it is also related

it wise

of

elementary

Nervous

System.

resembles
end

one

knot

corresponds roughly

to

of
out

is the
the

It is the vital center

"

roughly

(See Fig. 4.)

the

tures
struc-

brieflydescribe.

must

near

of

to consider

being frequently frayed

plant develops.

could

one

great divisions

two

nerve

knot

to

the

as

activity of the

of the

endings.

may

overlap,

neither

see, but

up
we

or

corresponding

body, which
a

knot

made

Element

system

life is in

in these

which

tions
condi-

somewhat

the

of

important particulars.

many

are

many

assures

central

sufficient to make

are

of

processes

autonomic

presently

neurones

as

Neurone,

very

The

with

differences

separately, both

them

general

Mental

system in

fully
success-

order, oversees

their functions

shall

we

system

nervous

The

as

autonomic

Although

in

health.

other.

with

set

avoidance

particularly the

immediately connected
system,

in

provider,the

course

in

and

such

organs

about

move

intimately connected, and

are

without

on

more

of

the

through

second

bodily

the

tion,
system keeps the diges-

excretion, and

as

housekeeper.

get

to

shelter

more

physical life and

thought of

sense

through

circulation

and

reflexes

the

sympathetic

connected

various

Meantime, the autonomic

respiration,and

be

and

other, the

the

as

system

organism

of food

search

danger.

of

and

ears,

muscles, enables

the

the

The

functioning of

central

with

of terminals

set

one

The

themselves.

organs

21

SYSTEM

The

it, the
into

part^

so-called

seed
of the

out

of

nerve.

the

Like

die.

plant seed, which

develop into the

that

and

root

Fig.

A, B, C,

of

cortex

of

character
in
exhibits
of

the

axone;

the

the
the

appearance

fibers

which

others

become

the

4.

of

axones,

aoc,

and

dendrites, d,

structure

shows

cross-section

segments of the
(Modified
system.

cell

of minute

body

of

the

filaments.

differences in appearance

and

of

Cajal

nerve

These

shown

in

and

of

of

branous
mem-

ably
prob-

the

pathetic
sym-

Toldt.)

"Qsnally gives off

possess

the

trunk.

nerve

fibers

unmedullated
from

such

fiber

of

a
fully developed nerve
typical
periphery, ac, the axis cylinder, or true nerve,
pulpy medullary sheath; p, the thin
m, the thick
primitive sheath, both the sheaths protective and

the

exhibits

stalk, the
forms

gives off certain

the

stages in the development of a young

fully developed pyramidal cell from
nuclear
cerebrum, showing the granular and
ences
differcell body.
D
and
E
both
show
the

nutritive; G,
H

will

of

represent successive
E
represents a

neurone.

the

nerve

destroyed, the remainder

if it be

and

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

INTRODUCTION

AN

22

as

Fig. 4D,

E.

two

rule certain
The

nerves

THE

enormously

vary

be two

or

extend

from

of

any

of

sometimes

fibrils,brought
in

circuit

the

of

only

are

which

nerves

of

result

of

of

often

may

are

injury

an

of

wires

the

one

as

sole

ordinarily require

the

together like

may

cross-section

The

as

the

brain)

reality great bundles

cable, such

into

length, and

seen.

view

to

in

are

in

of them

the fibers which

are

long would

clearly

exposed

Such

occur

in

or

be

to

Some

spinal cord

(examples

short

operation

the

of

millimeter

them

microscope

an

base

the

23

dimensions.

in their

Others

fraction

SYSTEM

feet in length.

more

foot.

the

NERVOUS

or

little

these

telephone

see

our

upon

streets.

Classification
nerves

of

central

system.
because

The

nerves

out

to

These

which
the

motor

justors, or

the

differ somewhat

which
as

the

when

particular portion

they

come,

is known

in

direction.
conveys

brain

the

are

or

cord

can

This

means

impulses
never

system

be

called

the

the

called

forms

that
from
an

central

of the

first
ad-

nerves

ing
microscope, accord-

them

from

system

nervous

alike in the

over

the

connect

be

the

of

conduct

(2)

nated
frequently desig-

are

may

flow

ceptors,
re-

or

central
may

higher organisms

impulses always

nervous
one

they

the

which

under

seen

the

specificeffects of adjustment.

Although

connectors.

toward

nerves

These

(3) Those
These

great

stimulations.

sensory

entering muscles

second.

three

in

sensory

glands.

or

the

purposes

into

impulses from

nerves.

with

called

they produce

Effectors

our

impulses

carry
are

carry

muscles

For

"

divided

they receive

effectors,because

to

which

(1) those

groups:

Nerves.

conveniently be

may

group

the

fact
at

in

neurone

sense

that,

so

far

least,normal
and

one

which
organ

impulse backward

only
tomarily
cus-

to

the
from

INTRODUCTION

AN

24

the cord

carries

which

that

the

only

in

shall

stimulus.

structures

the

into

in

with

contact

sensitive

of cutaneous
far

been

But

this

is

The

center.

by saying
flow

currents

surface

specialized tissue

retina,of which
These

chapter.

light. When

they

microscopic
stimulated,

are

to the brain.

The

sounds

when

contact,

or

heat, or

to

have

exception

any

to

we

end

an

cold.

One

shall

form

has not

special terminal

which

ear.

dermis, which

the so-called '^pain nerve"

i.e.,
to

are

the
to

come

the
to

the

cells,which

skin
in

structures

then

about

fall upon

the

to

acter)
char-

auditory

ear,

hair

as

in
we

which
fibers,

nerve

so

physical

optic fibers terminate

known

minute

an

of

particularform
of the

distributed

found

of the

organ.

return

in

chapter.

nervous

the

causes

and

or

motor

terminate

system

it

to

effectors

When

never

the

terms

similarly in the internal

nerve,

thus

another

can

(probably of electro-chemical

vibration

nerves

are

to

the

at

of

the

later

structures

Again, the

excitation

nervous

of minute

thrown

muscle

magnetic

impulses in the

terminate

bases

in them

occur

to

cones

sensitive to

that set up

nerves

and

in

more
are

transmit

muscles,

polarized. Its

Thus

the rods

learn

changes

in

kind

some

to be sensitive

as

with

contact

with

contact

chemical

or

the

receptor terminates

sensory

organized

is

the

direction.

one

in

from

system

Similarlythe effector,

toward

out

back

PSYCHOLOGY

organ.

the situation

nervous

Each

sense

impulses

express

may

body

to the

impulse

an

convey

We

brain

or

TO

nerves

in

the

leading
surfaces

impulse travels down

muscle

with

this in turn

part of the body in which

which

one

from

out

of

the

the muscle

tral
cen-

muscles.

of these nerves,

it is connected

brings about

the

to

of

movement

is found.

When

tract,
con-

the
the

raises his hand

reader

originating in

of the hand

muscles

Fig.

and

and

motor

over

that

impulse

Diagram to illustrate synapsis of arborization

dendritic
receptor from the skin, 8K, with
sensory

"

of central

system

dendrites

3, 4, with
are

be sent

of

effector

an

of

synapses

terminating

of

may

of

axone

terminals

motor

in

the

axones,

muscle, M,

similarly shown.
into

out

whether

of

gland, which

secretion

will thus

occasion

detail at

later

or

central

is then

excretion.

flow of tears.

adjustor

more
nerves

thrown
A

As
of the

point, certain

great activityby the

The

The

1, 2.

neurones,

point

into

nerves

Similarly,an

arm.

impulse

from

passing

book, the

nervous

5.
a

to

and

spinal cord

the

through

brain

the

of this

page

by just such

brought about

is

movement

the

turn

to

25

SYSTEM

NERVOUS

THE

into

cinder
shall

we

glands

in
see
are

activity,
the
in

eye
more

excited

powerful emotions.
are

located

within

the great

26

AN

of the

masses
a

INTRODUCTION

spinal cord and

brief description of them

Neurones

the

they

points

are

are

called

in

only

is built

indicated, (1)
effectors,and

(3)

of which

means

stimulation

of any

of any

of

muscles

various

is

it is called,would

case

the

when

nervous

spinal cord, where

The
be

it is cut

impulse

brain

elaborate

and

or

it is turned

complications of

(4)

ment
move-

In

the

the

muscles

sense

organs

arrangement

accompanying

arc,

or

circuit,as

by the reflex withdrawal

up

burned.

or

In

such

the receptors into the

about

of the hand

the cord

the
an

bruised

passes

This

in

of such

use

illustrated

effectors into the muscles

The

arise from

munication
com-

relatively

are

first instance

diagrammatieally

by

that

occasion

connections

of

nerves

brought into

region of the body.

same

(Fig. 6A.)

of the hand

the

the

system

so

"

already

have

(2)

organs,

by impulses which

represented

sketch.

in

which

(See Fig. 6B, C.)

and

rigid, and

System.

we

of the latter may

one

fixed

lying in the

fibers

impulses

that

with

are

sense

types of organism, these

innervated

junction

nerve

Nervous

receptors,

lower

are

the

accordance

of the former.

one

all

tance
great impor-

of interconnecting

various

the

of the

involves, as

up

system

the

with

Like

5.

Fig.
At

Such

of very

nerves.

in

system

in

is unknown.

are

Pattern

pattern

system

nervous

shown

as

at

direction.

one

fundamental

The

another

seemingly polarized, so

are

shall give

we

one

another.

one

and

synapses

Sensory-Motor

The

with

not

or

close to

very

themselves, they
pass

brain, and

connection

in the operation of the

can

the

presently.

they actually touch

events

PSYCHOLOGY

points of their fibers

terminal

Whether

into

come

TO

and
and

sent

over

the

arm.

in their entirety represent very

this

basic

pattern, of such

NERVOUS

THE

kind

permit almost

to

as

between

relations

be moved

may

sense

the skin of its

in

muscles.

and

to

response

of
hand

The

stimulations

to

response

surfaces,but also in

own

combination

conceivable

every
organs

only

not

27

SYSTEM

from,
stimu-

A
Fig.

exhibits

stimulus

stimulated;
In

6.

pattern of the simplest sensory-motor

immediately

1 is the

elicits

receptor, 2

the

arc,

of

movement

and

connector

where

the

3 the

pheral
periregion

effector.

be directly conjoined with

simple reflexes 1 may
3, omitting 2. The diagram also suggests in the dotted
line a
of M
sets up kinvery important fact, i.e.,that the contraction
aesthetic sensory
impulses which
centers,
pass into the nervous
opening a new
circuit, and in turn, perhaps, elicitingother
some

very

movements.

illustrates
of two
to

how

two

of

sets

include

sets

sense

all

The

organs.

the

diagrammatic.

of muscles
and

senses

The

actual

be

may

pattern

same

all

innervated

the

paths

can

muscles.

would

from
be

elaborated

It

involve

either

is

purely
more

many

neurones.

illustrates

rudely three levels of circuits in the nervous

system.
does not necessarily involve
r, is purely reflex and
consciousness.
It is typified by the
conditions
in the
spinal
The

lowest,

cord, medulla,
are

crude
such

the
The

lower

brain

congenitally open.
perceptual reactions

The

most

as

cerebrum

ideational
memory,
In

makes

and

of

centers.

These

circuits

neurone

level of
represents
mere
sensory-motor
learning,
exhibit.
animals
The
sensory-motor
regions of
circuits.
are
presumably
represented in these
circuits
involve
are
scious
conrepresented by i and

the

most

to

y,

and

imagination,
addition

second,

the

the

reflective

thought

sensory-motor

and

zones,

rational
this

highly developed regions of the

other
cortex, i.e., the frontal, parietal and
association
See the later part of this chapter.
use

ference.
in-

circuit
cerebral
areas-

INTRODUCTION

AN

28

other

lations from
hand

right
hand,

or

to

in response

moved

As

etc.

seen,

muscular

to

sound

movements

simplest

them

such

of

part

the acts

acts

permits

be

not

by

controlled

those

learn

to

write, cr

of the other

to

of

these

upon

the

renders

conjoining

the

in

from

such
of any

but

eye

perform

to

the hand
man

in

"

is

to

any

rected
largely di-

contrast

arrangements

"

only

extremely difficult

typewriter,or

animals

of the muscles

the

be

Moreover, in
in many

(e.g.,

flexible

The

nerves

from

of skill in which

acts

found

the control

the

use

object

an

hand, for example, could

If the

skin, it would

by vision.
conditions

it

by stimulations

the

from

be

reflexes

is, learned.

learning possible,because
effector.

may

are
psychologicalinterest,

of most

adjustor

any

left

others, however, and

organization of the central

receptor with

the

ing.
previous train-

called

are

wholly acquired, that

or

or

are,

without

coughing, sneezing,crying). Many

among

heard,

inherited, and

are

appropriate stimulation, executed

The

is

which

already observed, many

have

we

upon

Similarly, it

surface.

body

lifts the

one

object pressing

some

other

some

when

regions, as

cutaneous

remove

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

ideational,as well

to

the

exist for
as

from

sensorial,centers.
If

the

will bear

reader

of the central

system

nervous

of sensory
to throw
we

light upon
now

may

system

nervous

the two

Figs.
masses

and
of

nerves

made

as

up

to

describe

the

in

Central

this notion

of elaborate
will

elements, it

motor

general anatomical

the

of

be

binations
com-

found

situation,which

little

System.

more

"

The

detail.
central

comprises the brain, the spinal cord, and

great groups
7

and

attempt

Divisions

Main

constantly in mind

8.)

of receptor
The

brain

and

and

effector
cord

are

nerves.

(See

nothing but

gathered together and held in place partly

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

2"

Cer

Figs.

7 and
central

8.

"

Fig. 7 at the left shows the general relations

and
skull
of the
system to the bones

nervous

of the

spine.

30

AN

INTRODUCTION

by the veins and

though within
the

the

of

brain, these
bones

partly by

cord

supported within

the

9 illustrates in

rude

the

these

ing
supportseries

great

containing

to

of

connective

of

masses

as

irregularly shaped bag.

an

attached
are

the

and

enclosing

the walls

of

case

neuroglia,

membranes

strong, firm

PSYCHOLOGY

arteries,partly by

called

tissue

TO

membranes

in the

skull,and

canal

central

In
are

of the

case

spinal

of the

vertebrae.

Figure
in the

its surfaces

near

fiberswhich
the

on

are

hand,

the

fibers spring.

It

are

at

is first

sense

great
and

organs,

muscles

and

The

The

fro.

the

are

two

suggested by

once

and

earlier learned,

we

"ord

outer

largely composed

are

v^^hich,as
nerve

The

regions of

exclusivelyoccupied by

impulses to

carry

other

the essential features

way

of the spinal cord.

structure

the cord

inner
of

regions,

cell

from

centers

great functions

its anatomical

nerve

bodies,
which
of the

appearance.

reflex center, receiving impulses from

immediately sending them

out

again into

glands. If the sole of the foot be tickled

or

of the central
Fig. 8 at the right displays the general contours
from
in front.
The
system as seen
great ganglionated cord of
the
to one
side of the
attached
sympathetic system is shown
cut
the other
side has
been
Ger., the
spinal nerves;
away.
cerebral
hemispheres; 0, the olfactory centers; P, the pons
Varolii; M, the medulla
oblongata; Ch., the cerebellum; 8p. C,
the spinal cord; /, the olfactory nerve;
///,
//, the optic nerve;
the
and

oculo-motor

VI,

the

nerve,
abducens

connected
nerve,

with

like
the

IV,

the

muscles

trochlear
of

the

nerve

eye;

V,

the
fibers coming from
trigeminus, made
up in part of sensory
face
and
fibers supplying neighboring
scalp, partly of motor
regions; VII, the facial nerve,
similarly in part giving sensory
of motor
fibers to the face, tongue and
neck, in part made
up
fibers; VIII, the auditory nerve;
IX, glossopharyngeal nerve,
and
and
fibers to throat
motor
X,
tongue;
giving both sensory
both
and
the vagus
tion,
distribumotor,
complex
nerve,
very
sensory
viscera ; XI, spinal
and
other
chiefly to heart, stomach
with
connected
sympathetic system; XII, hypoglossal
accessory,
to
motor
fibers
tongue.
nerve,

NERVOUS

THE

is at

pricked,there

once

SYSTEM

reflex

under

of reflex action

forms

place, it

the "second

impulses from

the

this is typical of other

control

of

great channel

is the

the

Anterior

motor

Motor

which

into the

brain.

"^

pathway

collateral

root

Bensory

and
branch
fiber

Sensory

collateral

Cell

fiber

Ascending
_

"'

motor

Posterior

cell

"

Peripheral

In

root

ganglion

Sensory

cord.

through

receptors flow upward

many

Central

the foot for which

jerk of

spinal cord is responsible; and

the

31

of

descending

fiber

Motor
nerve
in muscle

ending

"

"

fiber

Sensory

"

and

of

lateral column

Peripheral
ending sensory
nerve

"

Fig.

9.

Schematic

"

motor

at
the

of
the
the

and
brain
those
The

of sensory
representation of the connection
with
their
the
and
spinal cord,
synapses

with

nerves

inside

another

Bipolar cell of spinal ganglion

"

the

matter

gray

of

cord.

the

The

cross

and
one

section

diagram exhibits clearly the difference between

the
white
and
marginal fibrous material
H-shaped center
will
how
cellular
matter.
to
show
9
Reference
Figure
gray
between
combined
their
exit
strands
make
sensory-motor

the

top

of

the

vertebrae.

through which
to

the

muscles.

these

impulses

The

principally engaged
central

reflexes

are

regions contain

outer

in

are

returned

regions of
this

contact

cord

the
are

function.

conductive

the arrangements

brought about, i.e.,the

the

from

whereby
of

the-

terminals.

INTRODUCTION

TO

receptors with

terminals

AN

32

the

from

similar

are

with

synapses

Thus

effectors.

central

of

the motor

PSYCHOLOGY

of the

effectors.

adjustors, or
from

nerves

There

connectors,
cerebrum

the

F^L

RFC

OL
Fig.

10.

"

The

brain

seen

cerebral

from

below.

FL,

the

frontal

lobes

of the

poral
hemispheres; OB,
olfactory nerve;
TL, temlobes; ON, optic nerve;
HG,
LPC,
hippocampal gyrus;
RFC, left and right peduncles, or legs,of the brain, great masses
of fibers; P, pons
of fibers
necting
conVarolii, or bridge, great band
the two
sides of the cerebellum
medulla
MO,
oblongata
;
;
(Modified
C, cerebellum; 8", spinal cord; OL, occipital lobes.
from
Edinger. )

discharge over
of the

It

bulb

neurones

which

of

join them

in the gray

matter

spinal eord.

will,no

doubt, be understood

that

the upper

regions

NERVOUS

THE

cord

of the

body, and

the

and

trunk

with

bundles

between

the
the

effectors.

portions of

the

both

true

These

As

the vertebrae.

the

in

shown

regards

the

gathered

up

as

both

are

the

parts of the

lower

given off from

are

enters

33

the upper

legs. This is

which

receptor group

with

portions with

lower

receptors and
into

connected

are

SYSTEM

the

cord

Fig. 9, the

in

pairs

sensory

or

posteriorlateral part of the cord,

ON

Fig.

11.

Diagrammatic

"

back

the

through

sketch

of

central

vertical

section

from

front

to

of the

regions
hemispheres, cerebellum,
CE, cerebral
hemispheres; CQ, corpora
quadrigemina ; C6, cerebellum; ^0, the spinal cord; P, pons
The
sketch
cates
indiVarolii; T, optic thalamus;
OiV, optic nerve.
few of the neurone
a
paths. (Modified from Edinger.)
brain

the

and

stem

motor

cord.

effector

or

is

group

given off

on

the

anterior

lateral surface.
At
to

the

enter

cord

point where

the

the

broadens

oblongata.
important

skull,it
This

structure

reflex centers.

leaves
out

contains
For

the
to

spinal vertebrae

form

number

example,

here

the
of

7nedulla

extremely

are

located

AN

34

the

INTRODUCTION

The

breathing.
by impulses

rate

Fig.

viscera,is

in the

body,

controlled

"

sketch

beat

thalami.

As

e.g.,

from

as

this

we

or

thalami,
many

of

also be altered

may

Furthermore,
between

tion
the distributhe skin and

region.

pass

to

indicate

the

cerebral

The

upward,

we

encounter

conspicuous parts of the brain, such

pons

the control

of the
general location
optic
have
been
hemispheres
entirelyremoved
all but
and
a
portion of the right side of the cerebellum.
T,
be compared
with
this.
Figure 11 should
GB,
optic thalami.
geniculate bodies; GQ, corpora
quadrigemina ; P, a segment of
the
Varolii;
cerebellum;
G,
M, medulla
oblongata; "G,
pons
cord.
(After Edinger.)
spinal
12.

of the heart

the medulla.

from

of the blood
the

primarily responsible for

centers

nerve

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

bridge,
etc.

of these
for

the

corpora

a
as

us

to

are

give

The

still obscure, and

them

of

other

the cerebellum, the

quadrigemina,

(See Figs. 10, 11, 12.)

organs

number

the

optic

functions
it will be

consideration,with

one

of
profitable
un-

or

NERVOUS

THE

In

exceptions.

two

similar

cerebellum, whatever

The

other

quite certainly responsible for

muscular

maintenance

our

clearly essential,if

it is
that

each

of

hip should
right

contract

the

too

soon

or

the motor

cerebral

receives

for

ample,
ex-

effective,

just the

to

the

meet

be

would

pace

from

to

would

balance

moment

to

bodily position, and

hemispheres have
behavior.

instinctive

They

ment
mo-

orders

requirements.

do

to

with

fact which

exaggeration of their activities when

destroyed, as
death.

the

general

is shown

by the

hemispheres

happen in certain animals

may

acquired

The

the

depend

acts

reflex and

our

under

operate

supervision of the cerebrum,

the

in

general those parts of the central system lying below

In

the

be

and

well-ordered

cerebellum

discharges to

involved

to

violently, one's

too

reports of the

sensory

gait is

our

controlling the knee

muscles

obviously be disturbed, and

impossible. The

of

walk,

we

is

play,

control

are

just the right time

at

Were

as

As

our

fibers

controlling the foot, knee, and

muscles

the

extent.

contract

bodily balance.

of

it may

orderly

particularly such

movements,

and

medulla.

part

the

stood
to be under-

cell bodies

of

masses

spinal cord and

in the

those

to

35

however, it is

case,

every

they consist of

that

SYSTEM

without

are

ing
caus-

definitelyupon

more

cerebrum.

The

Cerebral

brief comments

some

then

to

with

mental

Hemispheres.

that

on

part of the brain

life,to-wit,the

the

organ

the

brain, distinguishesthe

the

higher

in the

whose

In

like the

most

cerebral

man,

few

ments
mous

intimately connected

to

the

other
of

system
from

those

too, the association

is

This

hemispheres.

nervous

apes,

for

thalami, this brings

the

great size,relative

animals

scale.

Omitting

"

parts of
and

man

lower

down

regions,to

be

36

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

Figs.
Fig.

13

shows

the

lateral

and

13

surfaces

of

PSYCHOLOGY
14.
the

right hemisphere of the

of the left hemisphere.
The
latter
section is made
through the corpus
callosum, the right
covered
Surfaces
hemisphere being removed.
by colored dots are
the
so-called
motor
whence
in control
regions,
originate neurones
of voluntary muscles.
There
small
and
portant
are
some
relativelyunimelsewhere
in the
motor
areas
cortex, e.g., in the occipital
with
connected
The
vision.
the receiving
region some
areas,
sensory
stations
for sensory
the periphery, are
indicated
impulses from
by
black
dots.
The
regions most heavily dotted, Ijoth sensory and motor,
those
most
The
less
are
areas
indispensable for the given function.
dotted
those
less
which
in
the
are
are
heavily
uniformly employed
of
the
whose
exercise
function, or
derangement affects the secondary
For
or
more
complex use of the function.
example, visual images
ideas
be disturbed
which
and
by injuries in the visual areas
may
do not
crude
sensations
of
The
free
areas
seriously impair
sight.
from
which
has
dots are
the association
divided
regions,
Flechsig
cerebrum,

into

figure 14

number

of

the

inner

mesial

subordinate
deep fissure

surface

districts.

of If, the
separating the convolutions
regions,from B, the somaesthetic
regions for
sensory
The
bodily sense
impressions, e.g., touch, temperature, kinsesthetic.
of
left
in
the
side
of
controlled
the
is
half
general
by
right
body
In
and
bbth
motor
the cerebral cortex
as
regards
processes.
sensory
the motor-somsesthetic
area
specificparts of the body are controlled
of the
legs are
by special regions of the cortex, e.g., the muscles
in Figure 13.
the letter M
from
centers
controlled
lying just under
the lower
from
controlled
The
edge
are
regions near
speech muscles
in this figure. Injury to the left side
convolution
(in
of the motor
ability
is
to
motor
aphasia, i.e.,inproduce
likely
right-handed people)
but
is
not
to articulate
paralyzed,
correctly. The patient
A
somewhat
center
his
words
higher
cannot
correctly.
pronounce
in
all
These
relations
controls
are
suggested
hand-writing.
up
various
here
center.
visual
19.
produce
Injury
Y,
may
Figure
blindness
Total
to
and
extent.
its location
effects depending on
is
what
understand
read
or
half the field of view, inabilityto
seen,
without
actually being blind, are all found as symptoms of occipital
In right-handed persons
injury
lobe injuries. H, auditory center.
in sensory
left hemisphere in this region is likely to result
to the
heard.
when
words
Complete
aphasia, inability to understand
followed
be
is
to
said
both
sides
by total
of
the
destruction
region on
in
which
exends
a
great loop up
deafness.
0, the olfactory center
is quite uncertain
of the area
extent
The
callosum.
the corpus
over
nized.
the drawing simply suggests the facts at present generally recogand
to the region
areas
and somaesthetic
of motor
confinement
The

R, Rolando,

principalmotor

the

above

limbic

of the

lobe

corpus

is

callosum

also

though
tentative, al-

olfactory
by competent
association
olfactory tract; O.T.A., occipito-temporal
bulb;
the
with
continuous
temporal
occipitoassociation
area,
A.P.,
parietal
area;
investigators. O.B.,

asserted
O.T., the

Island

association area;
A.F., frontal association
which
to show
association
area
of Reil, another

surfaces
the

just

corpus

of the

above

the

callosum,

hemispheres.

of
band

fissure

great

Sylvius

have

of fibers

been

the

the

lifted

connecting

/., the

area;

the

cortical
up;

C.G.,

two

sides

OTA
Fig. 13

^-AF

Fig. 14

explained in

moment,

animals.

most

intelligencemore

Figs. 8,

in

is indicated

As

its size.

13

his

owes

superior

his brain

organization of

the

to

apparently

man

in

larger than

relativelymuch

are

However,

37

SYSTEM

NERVOUS

THE

than

to

14,^ the hemi-

and

c
AOC

voc

COS

cooi

ROMC

TOC

T()C

TOG
BOG

Aw

R()G

M()C

MoG

c|c.
I

Ro.

Co.

sJg

I C

SOG'

El

0(j)C
Ml

t
Fig.

15.

Diagram

"

to

organs
actual

Taking

cortex,

pathways
skin

the

outside

the

the

cerebral

cortex

shortest

from

pathways

muscles.

to

No

sense

doubt

the

are

as

the

to

cord.

and

medulla

thalamic

the

from

generally more
complex.
an
example of the sensory
end-organ in the skin, then a cell
spinal cord
sending a fiber out to

another

in

illustrate
and

nerves

find, first, an
and

to

next

thus

in

turn

has

neurone

with

communicates

region, which
cortex,

The

the

located

one

with

communicates

completing

pathways we
the ganglion
the
end-organ
its cell-body

in

chain

from

in

cell in

skin

to

the
the
brum.
cere-

find
from
centers
motor
we
a
Passing downward
long
the
so-called
extending through
(of
pyramidal pathway
the
which
in
tract
is shown
principal crossed
Fig. 18) and
in the gray
horn
of the anterior
matter
terminating, somewhere
of the spinal cord, where
it communicates
with
another
neurone

fiber

which

sends
in

obtains
^

These

very

figures

carefully

figures and
which

out
the

cannot

and

be

to

muscle.
of

the

similar

muscles

of

legends accompanying
The

student

constitute

mastered

certain

the

studied.

diagrams

fiber
of

case

without

should

use.

them

understand

highly important
their

the

part

arrangement
head, such
should

be

that

the

of the

text,

AN

38

constitute

spheres
brain.

third

the

surfaces

adjustor

means

that

come

to tJie

and

the

of

cerebral

'

join

Except that

all the

cortex,

'

is similar
of the

the

is

posed
com-

regions with

one

structure

several

zones,

represented in

in

the

cord, this general

to, although

very

senses

not

are

cord.
is all

cellular matter

the

effector

are

they

as

fibrous matter

gray

that

of the

than, that
'white'

definite zones,

remainder
which

distribution

receptors

originate similarlyin other

nerves

another.^

regions. This

sensory

cortical

to

cortex,

to muscles

leading
that

(3) association

certain

in

belong
the

as

the

human

distinguish on

to

common

from

the

them

compose

hemispheres, known

pathways

surface

of

larger part

it is

group,

nervous

PSYCHOLOGY

which

(2) motor, and

sensory,

tracts

the

nerves

the

of

TO

far

by

Although the

our

(1)

INTRODUCTION

is

To
on

much
in

be sure,

the outer

plex
com-

more

cord, the

the

surfaces,and

wholly surrounded

the

the

by this fibrous

muscles, for

diately
example, where, however, the immeissue
from
the
not
spinal cord, but
this
the
brain
the
from
With
stem.
explanation and
legend
which
follows, the diagram will be easily understood.,
BC, bipolar retinal
I, the visual tract; Ro. and Co., rods and cones;
retinal
cell; RG, large
ganglion; TC, cell-body in the thalamic
of the
occipital region.
region; YC, cell in the visual cortex
2, the auditory tract ; EG, hair cell of the cochlea ; CC, ganglion
cell in the
medulla
cell of the cochlea; MG,
oblongata; TC, as
in
the
cell
of the upper
in the visual
cortex
tract; AC,
auditory
cutaneous
tract; ES, end-organ in the
temporal region. 3, a
the
skin; 8G, cell of the spinal ganglion on
posterior root of
as

ocular

controlling neurones

the

cord;
character

in
cell

in

bulb;

upper

COl,

region. 5,
region; SG,

to

M,

Figure

15

and
motor

TC

as

before; CS,

cell

sensory

in

the

cortex

region. 4, an olfactory tract, different

from
other
paths; OG, olfactory sensory
sensory
nasal
of
cavity; BC, cell in the olfactory
part
of
in
the
the
cell
hippocampal
olfactory cortex
Rolandic

the

motor

tract;
cell of

motor

the

RMG,

cell

motor

of

spinal cord, sending

the
down

Rolandic
a

ess
proc-

muscle.

exhibits

location

paths.

and

MG

posterior to

of

certain
the

neurones

interesting
in

the

facts

regarding

important

the

sensory

ber
num-

and

NERVOUS

THE

whereas

cover,

FiQ.

16.

"

Diagrammatic

angles
the

to

fiber

the

But

section

surface.

system

alone.

The
The

39

the conditions

in the cortex

(See Fig. 16.)

SYSTEM

the great

of the

right
left

are

exactly

versed.
re-

outstanding differ-

at right
cortex taken
of the drawing illustrates

cerebral
side
side

illustrates

primarily

the

INTRODUCTION

AN

40

is found

ence

with
to be

not

Our

the

rests

of the cortex

of the

in part

the

upon

of

the

out

While

in

not

various

injury

sources

is

cerebral

cortex.

or

or

If the

are

be

memories

of

destroyed, control

temporarily,

if

regions

not

from

more

these

Conscious

"

integrity of the

result.

But

to

the

memory

If, however,
in

cortex

of the

which

so-called
upon

region affected.

particular

motor

muscles

Injuries

am^biguous

tensive
ex-

is obliterated

memory

other

permanently.

have

bratn.

the

corresponding effect

over

human

consistent,the

hand, if the tissues of the so-called

other

findings

destroyed by accident

part of the

appropriate

tions
observa-

the

upon

the

upon
are

to

of

Cortex.

pathways terminate, visual

Injury

which

evidence

upon

result

impaired.

in that

occurs

briefly

uniform.

inevitable

not

regions exercises

the

retinae

be

anatomy,

gained

Cerebral

is the

gravely invaded.

sensory

of

and

evidence

the

and

objects need

the visual

the

apparently dependent

injury

to

seems

of the effect upon

remarkably

disease,blindness

of visual

now

particular regions

to

of

are

Consciousness

as

detail harmonious

every

memory

which

nected
con-

topographical connections

its discoveries

indications

general

are

finallyin part

animals, and

life of

are

way

portions of the brain, in part

pathology,with

mental

teachings

gained by experimental physiology

upon

processes

in

facts which

by dissection worked

of the different

mental

cord.

of the

true

that

fact

the action

knowledge

stated
has

in

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

to

and

sory
sen-

the

On
zone

is
the

lost,
ciation
asso-

irregular

it is difficult
is so complex that
layers. The structure
sketch.
in
facts
both
of
sets
1, molecular
to display
a
single
of
of
brain
2
the
and 3, layers
pyramidal
;
layer next the surface
cells; 8.F., fiber of a sensory
cells; 4, layer of polymorphous
molecular
in
the
outer
layer.
neurone
entering to terminate
from
Morat.)
(Modified

cellular

THE

SYSTEM

quite definitely that

suggest

with

the

association

frontal

habits, which

that
in the

these

of attention.

use

is at

zones

diseases

frontal

indicate

of ideas

is

points.

For

led

regions

fork, or

parietal association

with

attempt has

we

mental
to
to

action.

will, and

as

receptors

are

The

effectors

are

there

object.

In

of mental

in any

the

organization.

fundamental
said

alleged

to

essential to each

correspond

to

against

over

In

sensation, the

cerebral

tain
cer-

of these

great

receptors
cortex

so

emphasize

precise fashion, it
the

of

correspond

expression, it is unobjectionable. But

literal and

respondence
cor-

nerves

forms

to

set

are

roughly

serves

be

disease

the

establish

to

thus

are

would

reasoning processes.

seriouslymisleading. Although
for

made

they

of

disintegrateand

all mental

adjusters

central

disorder

case

the

The

the

these

at

great divisions of the

described, and

this formulation

understood

been

the three

physiologicalactivities
modes

connection

to which

uses
a

the

see

sometimes

imagination,and

memory,
far

have

sensation.
the

such

disintegrationdisappears
between

which

to

brain

region (see Fig. 13)

dementia, the tissues of the brain

the

The

the

in

ciation
asso-

recognize the meaning

to

remember

to

clusion
con-

clear, but

instance, a patient suffering from

question of failure

called

less

materially impaired by derangement

ordinarily put, although

no

frequent

actively involved

were

somewhat

might find it quite impossible

or

the

quite definitelythat coherent

of this type in the

knife

tions
observa-

Many

significanceof tFe other

The

present

destroy acquired

to

to

injuries

own,

re-learned.

beings had

human

on

be

then

must

animals, whose

our

tend

zone

monkeys

upon

these

organization closely resembles

brain

41

Interesting experiments

consequences.

in

NERVOUS

may

are

is also

if

be

pensable
indisindis-

pensable;

actual

secure

is

cortex

quite

structures, the entire

all mental

If

visual

they

eyes

recalls the

one

have

cortex

also many

by which

other

any

for

reasons

attend

we

to

securing and

favorable

to

the eyes,

this

cortex

Again,

give

to

and

what

we

we

the

we

auditory regions

put

now

hear, the

that the movements

in

about
motor

this

zones.

e.g.,

closing

regions of

of

the

muscles.

whose

tion
direcinvolves

determine

arily,
cortex; but, secondthat upon

now

regions of the

cerebrum

Moreover, it is perfectly obvious

of the head

by impulses which

of the

over,
More-

motor

many

to

object

body firm

faint sound

the

of the

interpretationand

association

determining the

cerebral

to

of

attempting

are

certainly involved.

are

us

innervation
attention

our

distance

primarily
as

the

we

bodily attitude

the

of

process

areas.

undertaking,

the

that

But

very

pictures of

quiet, involves the cooperation of

the

particular kind

of the association

out

and

part of the system.

visual

some

that

active

are

and

and

in

perhaps

of

believe

to

holding the large muscles

while

will

appearance

maintaining of

carrying

our

in

elements

specificnervous

believing that the

these

recalled,involves the action

the

certain

this

for

indispensable
than

with

clear.

regions of the cerebral

action

considerations

illustrations

few

reason

mental

will, the

of mental

upon

every

more

of

system is really involved

object, we

are

have

measure

nervous

the matter

closed

with

familiar

occurrences.

to make

serve

connection

the

are

nerves

acts

These

i.e.,that while

in

depend

for

necessary,

about

physiologicalprocesses,
life

effector

the

expression

as

suggest the real truth

mental

PSYCHOLOGY

similarly, while

and

requisite to
motor

TO

INTRODUCTION

AN

42

source

in
The

which
of

part,
reader

the
at

employ

we

sound,

are

to

assist

brought

least,originate in the
can,

no

doubt, supply

instances

other

abundant

SYSTEM

NERVOUS

THE

to

in

degree involved

different

of

and

with

and

18.

Fig.

17.

the

on

brain

side

with

is indicated

centers

This

forward

unified

in various
the

over

spinal cord
of

of

of

of its parts

in Figs. 17

motor

coordination

the

back

to

illustrate
with

one

by

the

processes

extends

with

other

like the eye

and

responses.

The

occur

also to

when

we

impulses
the

ear.

highest
engage

it

which

cortex

Impulses coming

centers.

combine

special sense,

the

Starr.)

organized whole

lower

here

coordinated

forms

after

'integrating'action

brings into

organs

of

another

one

front
vertical
section
from
of a
cross
Diagram
cortex
to
through the central
region of the cerebral
the
system of fibers connecting the cortical centers

(James

connection
inter-

complex

same

clusion,
con-

lesser

or

"

another.

in

lower

the

The

act.

sides of the cortex

of the two

cortex, and

regions

general

same

is in greater

cortex

mental

every

the

support

to-wit,that the entire

43

going

its supervision
from

the

from

the

and

issue

of

these

in

pro-

AN

44

and

longed

INTRODUCTION

abstruse

large demands
Such

areas.

Pig.

18.

Rolandic

neighborhood
brain

the

process

Schematic

"

the

thought

upon

of

controls

the

the

to

parietal association

issue

in

brain
of the human
through
fibers in the
crossing of motor
In
general the right side of the
sure
the
S, fisbody and vice versa.
0.
callosum;
T., optic thalamus;

of

Sylvius; C.C., corpus

peduncles, or legs, of the brain; P, the
oblongata; VII, the facial nerves
passing out
in the region of the pons.
(After James.)
C,

of

pons;
from

will, given effect through the muscles

speech.

Fig.

19

illustrates

by the brain

decision,an

the

of

act

section

medulla.

left side

and

then

may

show

involvingpresumably

process,

frontal

transverse

region

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

some

in response

31,
their

medulla

nucleus

controlling

simple coordinations
to

sensory

stimulations.

ecuted
ex-

THE

Functions

Possible

clinical studies

regions
known

FiG,

19.

"

the

of

or

to

writes

the

show
in

auditory center, V,
speech.

haps the
mental

(After

centers

the

great

the

to

be

Thalami."

Recent

believe that

certain

of

group

elements

nervous

(see Figs. 10, 11, 12)

cortical
to

involved

pathways

what

is

seen

or

are

when
A

heard.

writing, and

per-

one

is the

E, that

for

James.)

which

the

affective

experiences depend, i.e.,the

hardly

45

Optic

response
the visual, TF, the

upon

agreeableness of
can

SYSTEM

given ground

optic thalami

Diagram

speaks

of

have

least

at

as

NERVOUS

our

called

sensations

and

conclusive, but

parts

agreeableness
ideas.
it is

The

of

our

or

dis-

evidence

certainly

very

AN

46

INTRODUCTION

suggestive

and

reader

the

region of the cerebral

Autonomic

The

memories,
and

true

proper

mental

plays

experience and
of

supposed

was

the

sensations,
of will are,

acts

the

upon

important

deserves

got its

system

ous
nerv-

part

in

our

comment.

because

name

be essentiallyself-controlling,and

to

cortex, the

further

some

our

in

central

the cerebral

very

nervous

no

responsible for

our

our

particularlyupon

system

division

This

While

"

that

life.

dependent

sense,

made

mental

System.

system, and

it

in

observed

have
been

has

reasonings, and

our

autonomic

will

cortex

conspicuous factors

these

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

self-

directing.
system, like the central

autonomic

The

of

of

groups

in appearance

differ somewhat

system,

is made

up

placed
they

one

of two
on

fibers.

by

(See Fig. 8.)

nerves

are

found

heart; another

the

stomach.
muscles
It is

Still others

Other

important

most

of fibers and

cell bodies,

spinal cord, with

of

groups

through

is located

is connected
control

autonomic

these

the

viscera

and

certain

of

the

the

at

example,

in the muscular

with

of

walls

walls
of the

glands and

through the operations of the sympathetic system

all the great vital processes

and

circulation
is

which

of the eye.

that

heart

ture.
struc-

complicated arrangements

very

group

tral
cen-

sympathetic system, which

of the

distributed

highly important

of

the

ways

points throughout the skull cavity. For

various
one

side

either

of the

nerves

essentiallysimilar

great strands

connected

are

in many

so-called

consists of the

group,

of

the

posed
com-

although they

nerves,

from

nevertheless

are

largest,and

The

These

nerves.

is

system,

are

carried

brought about

by

of digestion,respiration,

forward.

nervous

The

beating of the

impulses which

originate

NEBVOUS

THE

autonomic

in the

the

contractions

intestines,the secretion
the

digestive process,

the

assimilation

products

the circulation

might

seem

understand

that

in

only

much

all the

and

far the

so

other

of

features
of

waste

of this system.

asmuch
In-

ordinarily unconscious, it

one

to live

dependence of

of

readily

can

mental

normal

conscious

our

is self-evident.

system

were

reasonably healthful

of

expect

one

system

nervous

course,

basis

the

on

of the

Of

significant set

more

required by

excretion

the

nerves

are

life.

may

autonomic

the

upon

blood,

mental

organic conditions
life,and

and

though this part

for

fluids

various

and

stomach

functions, including respiration and

of the

as

unimportant

the

medulla.

the

by

fibers of the

by the

out

vital

these

as

of

these

carried

are

walls, although

is influenced

foodstuffs

of

47

muscle

own

muscle*

the

of

contractions

The

in its

nerves

of the

rate

SYSTEM

facts

processes

But
be

to

is

there

taken

into

account.

The

exciting parts of

most

found

in

along smoothly,
But
whether

the

they

So

emotions.

our

hardly

we

they become

moment

cause

long

in any

apprehension and

us

thrilling anticipation, we

cognizant of

be

to

the

by the

content

the

heart

of the

nerves

at

shall

wholly lacking.
misbehaves

painful notice.

our

have

this

occasion

This

autonomic

point

ourselves

which

of factors

group

the
to

with

more

make
the

characteristic features

suddenly
under

system, and

other

tions
condi-

even

barrassment,
em-

to

way

pating
antici-

without

chapter,

statement
are

tract
at-

is occasioned

analyses which

later

emotion

the

become

fear, and

detailed

acter.
char-

or
solicitude,

itself in

general
of

In

run

exciting,

way

misbehavior

in

affairs

our

their mental

delights of

appear

as

remark

ever

edly
undoubt-

experience are

our

to

we

we

may

that

many

of

be

found

in

reactions

bodily

internal

in

glands
the

facts

to

serve

chapter,

are

most

give
that

and

salivary

play

will

in

presented
point
the

to

the

central

the

significant

the

states

last

to

for

the

part.

instances

of

excitement.
will
in

early

autonomic

another,
the

certain

paragraphs
made

one

of

that

tear-producing

of

few

statement

and

shown

other

suggest

very

important

very

and

system

related

have
secretions

of

accompaniments

is

system

the

fear,

glands

emotions

intimately

fundamentally

autonomic

investigations

adrenals,

the

certain

glandular
The

are

the

of

the

Recent

anger

glands,
activity

The

which

for

like

emotions

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

responsible.

largely
in

INTRODUCTION

AN

48

activities

this

system

and

that
of

the

both
mind.

CHAPTER

IV

AND

HABIT

CONSCIOUSNESS

Relation
Acts.
this

Consciousness

of

One

"

book, which

This

is the
reflex

sleeping,

just

and

what

The
the

and

instinctive

walking.

adjusting

of

responses

individual

and
for

no

available

is

the

the

the

organism

for

would

there

of

conscious

processes

automatic

acts

this

and

inadequate

to

the

certainly

grounds.
look

to

those

for

points both

reflex

where

development
are

view
at

were

fication
particular justi-

no

evolutionary

on

tary
heredi-

life of

the

of consciousness,

consequence

racial

be

the

prepared

environment
of

of

part

reflex and

its

to

of it

and

if the

as

fully

more

as

has

maintenance

the

race,

explain

organism

that

crying,

habits, such

consciousness

of

fact

appearance

of

individual

idea.

once.

tary
heredi-

the

swallowing,

now

explanation

natural

appearance

the

the

satisfactory

wholly

this

of

equipment

appreciate

to

may

conception

general

reader

by

is meant

like

at

amid

non-conscious

We

through,

runs

introduced

arise

acts

acts,

into

over

pass

and

writing

conscious

theory that

matic
Auto-

and

conception

conveniently

be

may

Instinctive

to

fundamental

FORMATION

and

It
the
in

tary
heredi-

environmental

meet

demands.
So

far

as

conception
of

the

seems

organism

infancy,

the

concerns

sound
are

consciousness

history

enough.

adequately
is

present
49

of
In

met

in

this

individual,

the

needs

so

far

as

in

the

early life of

only

the

fleeting

and

AN

50

INTRODUCTION

interrupted

But

way.

organism, is exposed
which
to

the

in

the

in which

of

the

to

steer

place, the

large variety of conditions

At

such

history

evidences

the

those

takes

in

points consciousness

is

found.

Similarly
which

the situation.

to be

always

development

as

to

PSYCHOLOGY

hereditary equipment is hopelessly inadequate

with

cope

TO

of

of

mind

the

the

race,
most

are

points

unequivocal

purely mechanical, stereotyped

at
are

response

ordinary hereditary kind, is obviously ill-adapted

its possessor

and

his

offspringthrough

the vicissitudes

of life.
The

general doctrine

neuro-conscious

for

fact

the

which
life.

which

the

These

acts

for

automatic

habits,

All of these

as

"

While

in
the

the

in

more
are

most

these

when

most

hand,

the

supplied it by

are

various

in the

mode

reflexes
in

part unconscious, and

those

digestion,circulation,respiration,
forms

of action

the

are

conscious

at times

intense

Learning
The

manner.

of grasping the

pen,

acquired

and

the

the

like.

considerable

supervision.
in

carried

are

is learning to write, consciousness

alert and

nature

of supporting

purposes

illustrated

the

to

considerable

possesses

immediate

Played, by Consciousness
one

previous chapter

perfected exhibit
from

nervous

tasks.

walking, talking, writing,

degree of freedom
Part

ment
establish-

of the

life-sustainingbodily functions

against

such

the

to

devices
new

organism

by which

other

Over

on.

the

acts

the

to

activities which

serve

are

called

human

of motor

and

forward

been

has

that

group

and

by the non-conscious

itself goes

Attention

contributed

once

coordinations,it leaves its accomplishments

use

system and

has

process

of needed
behind

of this chapter, then, is that

'

New

Acts.

is involved

position of
model

to

be

AND

CONSCIOUSNESS

copied, the
letter

movement

of vivid attention.
and

one

finally,with

is able to

the thoughts which

to

only the
An

such

habit

into the

up

becomes

becomes
such

what

of

process

these have
almost

this

acts

the

become

in

the

the

in

doctrine
to

to the

to make

new

moving

on

worlds

habits, or

and

enough

to

of

just

soon

included

are

new

exhibit
Mental

habits.

to

are

of the
go

nervous

from

type.

We

The

are

mind

reducing

This

at

to

the

of groups
find

may

generally

physical surroundings
us

over

tem,
sys-

forward

components

nection
con-

When

passed

construction

the

our

actions

constantly challenged
itself,
then, is always

conquests, is always

conquer.

to

above.

such

control

smaller

adjustments.
to

it then

which

way

formulated

to

prevent

habitual

to

homely

itself free

social

change

wholly

mind

these

Our

taken

find its appropriate place in

upbuilding

which

place.

be

lish
is likely to estab-

clerk

sufficiently
perfect,they

of other

of habits

habit, and

which

in

larger habit

entirelyto the automatic

creation

itself.

act

writing, adding, subtracting,

as

serve

may

always

leaving

habit

for his daily work,

in

retaining

dividing.

by

with

bank

routine

illustration

seems

is spoken of

larger

Thus

habitual; but

is meant

writing

the

attention

paper,

can

formation

multiplying and

upon

the

vision
super-

over

exclusive

is thoroughly mastered, it

less automatized

This

put

now

incidental,until

fairlyfixed

gained of

as

member.

be

objects

conscious

process,

give almost

of this kind

acquirement

once

is gradually

general oversight of

most

the

are

of complete control

to

are

other,

51

part of the

each

indirect and

more

the acquirement

coordination, one

form

the

step in the
and

more

after

mastery

another

now

becomes

new

As

FORMATION

to

necessary

things, one

all these

"

HABIT

least

literallyseeking

is true

in

bona

52

AN

fide way

as

natural

INTRODUCTION

long

as

literallycease

we

mentality begins
growth

human

to

followed

grow,

to

decay.

All

period

subject to

the

certain

interestingaspects

be

in brief review.

coordinations

or

pass

Origin

Utility of Spontaneous

and

place, then, it should

the

little babies
their

often

long before

actions.

of the

their

During

active

movements,
material

they

which

details of which

partly

during

the

organizesthese

basis
of

when

learning

One

of

the

baby is found
its hand
he

and

new

first

act

of

the
are

other, with

the

growth

scribe,
de-

of children

control,

in muscular
adult

own

can

we

process

observation

our

and

effective coordinated

of the

our

miscellaneous

performances

of skill.

expressions of voluntary control

in the process
grasp

of

their

partly by analysis

and

into

general features

process

movements

or

are

random

or

called, constitute

controlled

movements

the

muscles

children

spontaneous

fashion

some

in and

on

youngest

control

to

the

by

frankly but imperfectly acquainted,

are

accidental

Certain

acts.

later

In

"

body made

moments

sometimes

are

In

we

intelligencesteps
somewhat

These

the

largely composed.

waking

it will

innumerable

are

and

of

in addition

that

really able

are

feet of the

motion.

as

of

tions
qualifica-

Movements.

there

of the limbs

they

face, hands, and

in

mental

which

be understood

strictlyreflex acts,
of the muscles

movements

our

of this process

profitableto

to

when

about

habits

to

by

acquiring automatic

the first

period when

comes

statements

made

be

mentally. In the

grow

in this situation.

implied
are

PSYCHOLOGY

life,there

to

therefore

must

There

continue

we

of any

course

TO

by which

objects which

general dispositionfor

all

are

it learns
seen.

strong

extend

to

Titer e

sensory

in

seems

stimida-

natural

seems

in

enough

to

nerves

sensory

find

to

expect

Whether

groups.

which

one

immediately

observe

of them

present

do

we

that

bright and

and

hold

As

consequence,

that

the

into

putting objects

close the

to

hand

the skin of the fingers and

that

newly born

grasping

infants

Establishment
a

good

as

to

deal

the

of

can

achievement

is

There

can

be

development
great
seem

the

no

plosion,
ex-

first to catch

are

elicit among
and

arms

sooner

hands.
later to

or

Indeed,

ents
par-

by
It

so

essentiallyreflex

an

stimulate

strong is this reflex

So

their

weight by

own

Coordinations.

excitement
to

an

skilful

object

and

habit
keen

there

this

between
and

seen,

the

possessed by

control
in

There

"

the

initial
final
adults.

early stages of the

is often

pleasure.

the rapid stamping

is

psychologists

among

intervene

question that

of such

favorable

nervous

objects which

sustain

Successful

grasping

of

gome

readily seized.

be

palms.

which

processes

experience of

by

facilitate this outcome

diversity of opinion

of

arms

rod.

small

and

whether

hand.

the

upon

can

muscle

will result in bringing

with

they

the

it is intelligible

as

certain

ably
reason-

occasioned

are

of the

movements

happens that in early infancy there

tendency

in

of

muscles.

may

attention, should

contact

where

we

all events

expedite and

to

sure

are

At

of these movements

seen

into

of internal

sort

This

tendency

stimulations, or

it is almost

some

object

child

young

sense

vigorous

responses

occur

baby's visual

53

of hands

shining objects,such

other
a

in

know.

not

the

distributed

movements

proceed from

may

of

widely

more

its results

all the

may

view

impulses forward

carry

stronger the impulse, the

The

FORMATION

offinto widespread bodily movements.

iions to drain
fact

HABIT

AND

CONSCIOUSNESS

Such

in upon

condition

of

conditions
the

nervous

AN

54:

system

of

quickly

to

INTRODUCTION

sensations

the securing of

at

lack

of

It

be

not

must

general, the

In

it

of painful

discourage

to

of

majority

great

children

trial and

we

shall

an

obvious
to

have

and

made

these

primitive

method

is

In

in

to

forms

mind

whereas

after

of

learning
of

of which
progress.

learning, of which
later

the

is

point, there
and

ing,
reason-

ought

movement

of it.

making

acquiring control,

to

in

But

first

the

In

of

the act

Useless

and

be

carefully

as

One

in

the

though Nature

by

there
vision.
super-

ture
striking fea-

later

stages in
at

presence

superfluous movements,
others

is

step

on

conscious

the

from

is found
of

"

perfected habit, almost

It is

going

casual

Movements.

merely useless,while

eliminated.

is

what

earlier

processes

the

to

is substantiallymastered

indirect

large numbers
are

point

the

during the learning stage there

distinguishingthe
outset

gists
psycholo-

to

of reflection

use

cases,

consciousness

Elimination

these

at

say

of

is that

be only the most

may

of adult

about

go

little

of

ordinary parlance, as 'try,

particular

all these

vivid

very

why

of the

case

chiefly in evidence.
and

one

borne

step

then

to

the

known

process

in

make

to

and

how

forms

something

attempt

see

by
and

error,

certain

try again.' In

in

accomplishments

motor

is brought about

as

succeeding attempts.

irregular, and

the

attempt

one

the initial stage to the perfected

from

and

in

success

in all

success

progress

is slow

habit

been

tends

most

Certain

presence

process,

that

supposed

necessarilyimplies equal

the

interest,or

conduce

habit.

automatic

an

stage of the

any

will

disintegrate the growing coordination.

and

be

PSYCHOLOGY

impressions which

those

either

is that

TO

the
some

actually hinder
all of these

called

out

have
from

AND

CONSCIOUSNESS

the

organism

found

be

haply

movements,

in hand.

The

essential

the

of these
child while

which

he is

outset

involve

to

fall

until

away,

motions

adopted

be

may

as

short

of

becoming

to

depend

seems

and

in

movements

In

described.

Everyone

will

consisted
foot

at

probably
in

which

muscular
has

recall that

remembering

knees

and

various
ankles

has

of

use

only
tainly
cer-

to

mechanism

The

"

maximal

secure

which
and

may

stop

of

well

sensations
be

briefly

bicycle,for example,

movements

one

are

through

gone

of the

push

siderable
con-

necessarily
the

ence
experi-

early difficulties

downward
as

just

non-conscious,

linking together

to ride

who

to

Circuit.

just the appropriate moment,

from

the

of

Slowly

definition,it

coordinations

manner

learning

groups

combined.

body.

the

attempts

entirely automatic
the

at

just descriptionof economic

habitual

upon

motor

any

Gracefulness

this

true

Sensory-Motor

of these

observing

substantially only

upon

occupations.

of many

firmation
con-

perfectly needless

left

are

efficiencyin industrial
the

almost

of

mass

all the

and

found

over

efficiency.It underlies

Habit

gradual

in

depend

to

the

already suggested, is apt

However

essential movements.

in

ments
move-

be

really required.

declared

among

shoulders, and

there

are

as

been

sometimes

great

head, tongue,

of

movements

have

we

from

Abundant

may

the

tion
fixa-

and

needless.

acquiring control
as

may

establishing the

second,

are

statements

dexterity. Writing,

such

of

process

elements

motor

of those

elimination

these

which

among

indispensable for

actually occurring, and

the

55

consists,then, first in the selection

coordination

FORMATION

little group

the

specificpurpose
of

of

surplus

HABIT

with

reported by

one
sations
sen-

parts of the body, particularly from

and

soles of the

feet.

One

quickly

INTRODUCTION

AN

56

learned, however,

TO

respond

to

the

corresponding downward

As

soon

PSYCHOLOGY

these

to

with

thrust

this interconnection

as

signals and

of

learning

to

the entire

itself,and

of

care

balance.

to

Until

beginners find themselves

the

to

The

Diagram

"

to

stimulus;

M,

occasioned

consequent upon
general sets
again and again.

the

become

may

the

movement

of

alternating

In

such

an

and

in the muscles

partly by

other

sense

serve

as

musical

eyes

the

from

When

arm,

a
an

motor

of

Either

and

joints of

discharge
skating
repeated

be

each

name

skin
but

there

is made,

of the

the member

type of sensation

are

hand

thus
and

also sensations

properly directed,there

may

of

others.

which

moved,

effects impressed

sensory

or

turbance
dis-

like

act

may
one's

sponse
re-

sensory
sensory

movement

the signal for the next

instrument

and
are

means

organs.

in the

hand

signing

as

different

Mj,

movements

act

rudely

discharges in
SI,
Sj, a

In

etc.

progress.

serve

may

motor

M;
Si,

pedalling'
'back-

or

forward

response;

stimulation

be

of

air

the

stimulations.

motor

be given

may

of it partly through the sensations

aware

aroused

are

in

feet

series

illustrate this situation.

we

movements

by

the

two

to

attention

of their

ideational

or

sensory

ideational

to

with

illustrate

to

ments
move-

of pedalling largely

accompanying diagram (Fig. 20)

jPiG. 20.^

and

this point is reached, many

defeat

entire

foot.

proper

sensations

is firmly established,the process

takes

the

make

to

be used

may

playing

In

movement.

aroused

only

not

in the muscles
of

be

sound
a

upon

and

visual

sations
sen-

of the
if the

report of

AND

CONSCIOUSNESS

the

as

for

signals

highly

become
of

type

that

process.

the

of

are

short-circuits
much

is
the

less

probable

seems

mechanism

may

Where

movements.

it

57

sensations

these

of

automatized,

it

we

all

or

series

sensory-motor

manner

some

so

Any

movement.

FORMATION

HABIT

habits
that

employed,

higher

definitely

serve

cerebral
conscious

have

this
but

same

that

in

regions,
of

the

CHAPTER

ATTENTION

the

conception of life
of

dependence
the

upon

turn

now

to

the

of

organization

and

notice

explained the

have

the

adjusting

process

We

system.

nervous

intensive

more

of

parts

the reader's

to

and

adjustment,

as

mental

the

brought

have

previous chapters

The

must

analysis of this

detailed

process.

Attention

subjected
acid,
of

it

to

Such

character.

movements

under

Man,

by strong

lights,

extreme

however,

as

adaptive

reactions
call

we

to

seem

be

force

cerebral

to

so

assault

upon

object acting

and

organized
any

its

of

we

in

our

stimulus, produces
58

this

more

mental

state

the

most

acteristics
char-

important

of

receptors

and

Such

we

our

mentary
mo-

sufficient

lence
vio-

into

dominant

becoming
what

case,

rect
profitably di-

may

possession.

results

and

sounds,

is, indeed,

displace the

it may

stimulation,

In

stimulus
the

over

of

that, regardless of

sense

itself take

the brain
as

certain

its way

cortex, where

activities

and

adaptive

an

the

by

Attention

generally

experience, these

personal

adjustment,

occupation,
may

from

an

of

responses.

accompanied

are

of

thought

our

adjustive

attention.

general attitude

We

example,

loud

temperatures,

all know

we

conditions

is

organism

for

obviously

are

similar

like, also manifests

which

animal

an

physical stimulus,

strong

When

"

instantly displays protective movements,

retreat.

the

Adjustment.

as

a
aware

the

ous
nerv-

nervous

of the

call attention

ATTENTION

it.

Now

process

of

to

evokes

it is

which

stimulus.

To

the

from

in

At

As

but

of the vague

Such
but

clearest

to determine

and

such
literally,

presents in

and

as

suggested,this adjustment
reactions

motor

distinct
Attention

as

our

wandered,

more

will

designed

to create

or

mental
or

or

that

color.
secure

vivid and

processes.

it

was

to

as
a

tion
posi-

imperious

of

nature

solve.

to

must

we

mount.
sur-

adjustment

previous discussion
normally be found
to

put

in

us

"

to

volve
inof

situation.
Our

ordinary

misleading impression

it suggests that

attention

suddenly step

may

Thus

has

position

the

Activity.

Certainly it

of mental

somewhat

entity which

in

less

is in the

upon

Organizing

an

separate force

aware

Figuratively, at least,

our

concerning attention,because

direct

complete perception of

and

language tends

movement.

difficultywhich

sense

always attention,

more

next

first step in the process

The

is

fair

vision.

original powerful

forthwith

stimulus

called

are

we

the

are

we

adjustive response.

which

is both

as

us,

constitutes

to

problem

object which

are

eyes

we
distinctly,

see

eyes

often

been

have

may

able to

object,and

invitation
often

the

distinct

most

we

intelligentlyour

an

eyeballs and

of which

and

process,

are

strong stimulus

Any

of the

impression did not, information

of the

the character

of

consequence

strong impression of light and

we

indistinct

of the

impression affords

an

as

system

nervous

aware
distinctly

result

of the luminous

impression

clear.

and

turn

the

part of the

as

strong light strike the

rotation
as

of

position

the eyes

an

beginning of the

the

only

is

head,

the

of

definitelyand

illustrate,if

of

the

action

adjustments,

more

side,there

turning

put

muscular

become

we

interesting fact that,

an

attending, the

certain

59

we

say

concentrated, and

that

is

in and

attention

properly under-

INTRODUCTION

AN

60

stood

such

phrases

and

It is the process
at the moment

that
in

in which

is

we

attend

may

to

21

Fig.
truncated

as

or

as

the

and

one

clear

tunnel

and

the

retina

three

the

depending

with

situation

the

instances.

But

to

as

three

The

different

Field

words

must

as

is

one

one

be said.

of

ample,
ex-

the

observer,

looking. So far
in each

are

or

as

case

stimulation

of

in

the

attending is

in each

case

interpret the lines

points of view.

mental

in

For

wholly unchanged

organize and

we

manner

picture frame,

the

concerns

be

mode

of Attention.

interested

ing
by observ-

the

upon

toward

the apex

may

our

quite distinct,because
from

far

is

21.

into which

So

same.

agent.

an

physical object

same

physical object is concerned, the lines

one

few

act, not

an

the

be attended

pyramid,

square

preparatory

organize its constituents.

we

may

simply

fact is made

of different ways,

mentally

Evidently these

mentally organized whatever

Fig.

in which

is

It is

presented. This

number

attention

that

adjustment.

motor

PSYCHOLOGY

perfectly correct.

are

expressions imply
mental

TO

"

Psychologists have

aspect of attention
When

one

is

been

about

reading, at

ticularly
par-

which

any

given

ATTENTION
moment

than

clearness

greater

outside

while

word

certain

the page

or

group

the

rest

to which

words

time

to

reads, ideas

one

is

one

intrude

of words

of the

margin.

more

the

dominantly attentive
This

this focal

extent, made
passes

one

as

and

region there

from

away

the number

of discernible

report only

two

clearness, the
field. Others
areas

the way

maintain

the central

entire

been

and
be

may

of

indefinite

differ
Some

region

four

or

less distinct

Fig.

focus

regions to
22

at

consciousness.

clear
to

as

persons

of maximal

remaining portion
or

scribed
de-

focus

Observers

of clearness.

zones

time

decreasingly

are

the focus.

that three

the central

unconscious.

has

margin

the

even

of

the

tinct
dis-

more

be distinguished,differing in clearness

may

from

and

the

is

over,
More-

with

has

in

scious
con-

from

of whatever

which

regions, one
other

attention

distinct

most

of materials

up

page,

dimly

may

situation

is comprised

clearest

moment

Outside

focus

be

less disconnected

or

themselves.

The

the

on

may

with

out

part of the field of view.

by saying that the field of

a

stands

words

altogether,one

of objectsin the outer

as

61

all

mer
through progressively dim-

margin which

will suggest

the

sort

is essentially
of thing here

described.
The
as

to

that

of adjustment

process

that

should

we

small group
we

can

is perhaps

Attention.

of

Range

at any

to

sense

in

conception

would

only
which

lead

involve

may

regard

as

make

what

number
the matter

under

ideas.
one

to

pect
ex-

only

It has often been

urged

time, and

there

thing

at

this is true, but

few

it involves

be quite complex,

ordinary conditions

of objects. A
clear.

attention

naturally

us

recognizing the fact that this 'thing' may

and

of

instant be able to attend

one

of objects or

attend

The

"

we

should

illustrations will perhaps

AN

62

INTRODUCTION

playing the piano

person
to

seem

be

attending

The

once.

perhaps

in

PSYCHOLOGY

from

great

to

indicates

be

may

may

things

groups

of

notes

and

then

glance

at

the

hands

and

in

taken

considerable

at

of

at

number
of

glance, each

particular movement

score

different

In looking at the music,

notes

printed

many

several

quickly turned

are

separate

which

to

take

eyes

keyboard.
of

TO

particular fin-

HO
Tig.

22.

1,

"

distinct

the

focal

awareness;

attention;-

region

4, the

the key is to be
involve

pressed down.

attending simultaneously
involve

situation to suppose

that in any

as

so

training the
in

single sweep,

which
to

has been

eye

what

the eye

short

taught

word.

and

painstaking practice,and

not

require

to

Obviously there

one

and

is in the

sees

give separate
is

very

with

large

they

moment

distinct

which

appears

of

group

to take

The
same

were

things. By
in groups

exactly as it takes in the

a

compose

to

less

processes.

situation

of

zones

misapprehension of the actual

separate

many

3,

the stress

Such

objects,but it would

and

of subconscious

together v^ith the time value and

ger,

to

of

region

long

of notes
of letters

groups

of the fingers

response

the

way

ceived
per-

result of long

the proficientperformer does

attention

to

real difference

each

movement.

between

attend-

ATTENTION

ing

at

doing

at

and

one

to

moment

one

any

the

instant
limit

complicated simultaneous
be hard

would
master

object to which

the

How

is

in

apart, it will

them

see

without

succeeding sounds
be

given

smaller

is

of

scope

serious

no

the

are

attention

as
we

say

is
the
may

actually

can

Four

or

seven,

as

unit.

successive

rapidly
sounds

If the

break

to

what
some-

impossible

or

eight very

even

be

can

paper

into

up

or

into

up

our

is

difficultyin determining by experiments

facts

when

objects. It is much

flow

them

be heard

may

difficult

slowly, they will begin

more

what

mind

or

unit

groups.

There

about

be

soon

breaking

Similarly, six

groups.

parts

piece of

of attention

process

by experiment.

on

can

complex

they be gradually spread

If

single glance.

further
to

determined

to be

placed close together

five dots
seen

only

us

of mental

sort

such

many

practice

however

But

movements.

all the different parts.

be united

result of

least skilful of

bring together into

to

serves

as

attend, apparently the

we

number

ability to perform

our

Certainly the

such

many

of

objects and

of

considerable

movements

to set.

good

large number

same

things. The

of different

63

upon

through it with

we

that

rest

most

of it

of attention

occupied with

certain

one

to

at

any

such

with

agreed
that

and

speak

problem,

situation

the

examined

complex
is

may

Suffice it to

us.

that

's

one

often

we

already

given instant

certainty

When

parts of

objects. However

idea

physical

problem, ideas

constantly before

psychologists are

be, attention

amazing rapidity,and

substantiallyidentical
case

of

or

range

speak with
of ideas.

to groups

the solution

so-called

dealing with

are

though while thinking about

kept the

this

difficult to

more

abilityto attend
engaged

about

an

in

idea

probably always

its immediate

relations.

AN

64

The

INTRODUCTION
of Attention.

Duration

naturally

another

to

thing ?

or

that

we

mind
been

for

that

attention

period. In

statement

different
Careful

the actual

to

as

an

We

attending

note

focus

to

feature, such

intending it,we

surprise,we

thought has
attention.
when

our

up
same

to

separate thought.

rapidly

and

about

facts

the

now

other

if

we

that

never

In

the

out
with-

feature;

or,

to

totally disconnected

examine

what

minds,

which

each

of

other

words,

which

is
our

literal

fact
each

our

occurs

some

upon

in actual

our

off

taken

and

thought with

in any

we

single

any

upon

now

If

another.

to

minds

passed through

perhaps related

very

reality

head, and

of his

some

our

way,

ostensibly occupied, but

a

in

shall discover

series of ideas has

in

wings,

thought is supposedly riveted

idea, we

was

involves

of his

some

find that

may

the

might justly

we

rigidly

noting

are

bobbed
In

quite

shape of his beak, suddenly and

the

as

attention

our

'

branch

one

brief

give us

of

color

types of

very

series

the movement

change of position from

attempt

our

the

now

plying
im-

occurs.

what

bird

'^I have

through all

will

cases

thought in

both

But

changing

ever

shape of his tail,now

his

doubt

no

that
to

to suppose

one

minutes,"

unchanged

it is that

will show

one

any

say,

fifteen

or

been

has

impression of what

enough speak of

bird.

ten

we

way

facts in such

observation

attending

same

practical sense,

lead

the other

or

sufficientlyaccurate.

are

scrutiny of

the

the

to

indefinitely.Certainly

this,that
In

very

interested

always
attend

we

almost

watching that bird for

our

has

can

leads

discussion

opinion would

attend

long time.

that

long

speak of having had

we

which

Common

may

This

"

issue

psychologists,i.e.,how
thought

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

ticular
para

great

of which
we

were

quite certainly
attention

sense

moves

lingers long

ATTENTION

in

long it remains

How

place.

one

would

Experiments

say.

ordinarily the outside

Attention

attentive

the

single mental

elements
also

discern

Reaction.

assertion

that

seconds

few

object

as

tend

is

adjustment

see

turn

now

is essentially

good

very

reason

bring together into

to

made.

be

must

attention

why

reason

we

possible of the separate

as

many

If

"

attention

shall

we

should

act

which

to

that

difficult to

limit.

adjustment,

of

process

why
a

recall the

and

back

it is very

indicate

Organized

and

65

We

be

should

can

relatively

brief in its duration.

In

primitive animal

immediate
a

in

which

localized

response.

sensory

stimulus

from

reaction.

in

which

you

every

case

must

be
to

delayed
cannot

the

your

valve

of

cap,

particular

blowing

out

acts

man,

in

hand

mands
dethe

it.

the

In

of these

many

decision

In

tomorrow.

immediate

unit

in the
To

each
each

today
and

delayed,
have

tion
rela-

that

sense

attend

to

case
on

"

attending

unscrewing
pump

it

ting
put-

separately, and

one

dust, screwing

actions,
re-

each

or

it must

tires involves
to

quires
re-

remove

secure

of response.

automobile

the tires in general, but

series

to

and
be effective,

particular kind

air in

until

is

ordinary

similarly requires

make

You

reaction, whether

which

significance in future

responses.

to

the

promptly

designed

crucial

execute

situation

will

particularlyin

their

organized

requires

find

demands
the

upon

sight of food

localized type of response

adjustments

blow

an

generally

adjustive activity

an

which

The

danger.

stimulus

in the life of man,

demanding

higher animals, and

to

localized

some

adjustment

an

implies

present situation,and

Even

localized

hand

to

response

situation

conditions,adjustment

pipe,

not
to

the
etc.

AN

66

In

far, then,

so

the

INTRODUCTION

all those

profitably make
For

much

the

and

which

inevitable

that

That

rapidity.
its behavior
of

type
and

paper
a

actually

less than

not

situation.

the

stamped

forward

move

unable

with

wholly

on

by

blank

in the

the

of

So

simple

focus

of the
himself
An

experiment.
the

ple
sim-

sheet

by attempting

of

siderable
con-

control

to

easily convince

can

one

tention
at-

of organized unity

retained

minute

can

It is, therefore,quite

also be tried

can

it has

as

kind

by making

occurs

of

it uninterruptedly.

be

we

why

be readily shown

can

reader

The

variant

soon

are

to
to

which

to

ment,
psycho-motor adjust-

pencil dot

attend

to

try

field of attention.

for

of

that

we

Put

test.

thing ought readily

what

as

in this respect

it grouping

feature

one

should

attention

find

understand

be made.

can

response

first step in

response.

can

any

with

situation

we

reason,

is done

the

situation

preliminary stage

its work
of

in

brieflyon

to

expect

single organized

same

so

It is itself the

elements

elements

PSYCHOLOGY

represents

should

we

dwells

to

attention

as

adjustive act,

together

TO

shorter

structiv
in-

fixate

to

words

on

this page.
Motor

of the

is found

in

and

converge

innervated
when

we

catch

the

sounds,

attention.

elaborate

an

the

listening we

sound

we

turn

hold
the

more
our

presenting-

are

paniments
accom-

vision

is normally

ent
depend-

acts.

The

controlling the lenses

we

tend

to

breath.
ear

Our
to

eyes

must

be

must

distinctly. Similarly,

see

may

the

turn

distinctly,and

external

we

firmation
con-

of the motor

set of muscular

that

interesting

of certain

Clear

muscles

in order
are

^An

"

conception of attention

consideration

of
upon

Attention.

of

Aspects

in

animal

head

the

case

as

of

faint

ancestors

assist their

to

so

monly
com-

hearing,

an

ATTENTION

which

art

and

contours

finger tips

it.

clearness

significant,are

the

attending

the reader

and

of access,

that

adopt certain

characteristic

Some

thinking.
walk

others
their

feet
or

But

and
in

up

tap with

fundamentally

that.

the

They
thinker

into

they

are

some

these
to

probably

vigorous

aid

the

with

seated

nails,
finger-

their
Most

of these
habits.

nervous

much

than

more

to

guard

against interruption, partly by putting him

with

sensory

overwhelm

less

conditions,

be

bite

bad

to

position of physical comfort, and

him

to

well represent protective devices

may

less

or

more

way

wish

merely

are

difficult

more

the table.

upon

attributed

are

we

cally
physi-

to

be left with

to

Still others

pencil

than

here

under

others

air.

where

cases

which

frown

down,

the

in

less

not

thinking hard, tends

in

seem

tinctnes
of dis-

little observation, however,

attitudes

which

the

pass

probably

expect

tect
de-

To

activities.

motor

are

press

maximum

of us, when

each

people

up

performances

to

facts

must

bodily

and

cases

trils,
nos-

vigorous

object,we

an

thoughts rather

certainty regarding them.

will show

to

of

objects. The

present

by

of the mouth.

expressions

and

into the

up

less real, and

motor

ideas

to

roof

is gained by

not

detected

object clearly,we

an

all these

In

obvious, but

Less

the

surfaces

or

over

and

of

against

of

be

cannot

drawn

are

get the taste

To

Odor

ordinarily accomplished

the tongue

the

are

substances

is

this

inhalation.
it with

largely lost.

odorous

the

unless

have

we

67

any

portion of these

of

group

self-controlled

stimulations

purely

which

outside

reactions

may

be

of unused

might possibly be

to

but

serve

disturbances.

regarded
nervous

advantage.

reasonably

perhaps

may

sensory

simply by the overflow

saved

ing
partly by supply-

occasioned

as

energy,

There

can

which
be little

AN

68

INTRODUCTION

TO

that

whatever

question, however,

muscular

such

which

by

their absence
and

disturbance

There

somewhat

of

processes

obvious

more

these

motor

which

has

to

think

right

to

the left will occasion

in the

fixedly of

sound

side will produce

the

muscles

as

processes,

which

have

the usual

already

^accompaniments'
they

are

be

mistake

as

balls
eye-

think

strong tension

in

if it does

head.

not, indeed,

Clearly this type

into

over

tional
ideahavior
of be-

forms

adjustive value

in

the

case

to

in

attention.

of

think

in

exactly embodied

view

truer

out

in these

whereby

we

organize and

to which

we

have

meet'

to

term

adjust.

In

types of reaction,this immediate

is the

tion.
atten-

original

attention,is precisely and

preliminary
in

an

expression

within, is

which

to

regard

to

external

which, felt from

of the

to

it would

sense,

companions

as

as

fact, while

of

enough

merely the

sense

stretching

is

reactions

motor

point

simply

It

process.

In

true

of them

genuine

linguisticmeaning

of these

done,

once

of the adjusting agency

'The

for psychologists to speak,

custom

accompaniments

entirely different
them

evident

an

the

to

carrying

the

to

and

of habit, motor

matter

have

It is rather
we

of the

of

point behind
a

and

attention.

of sensory

as

neck,

object

Similarly,to

longing
be-

people the

many

movement

persons

expression is simply

of motor

from

and

turning

actual

fort
discom-

different

some

direction.

some

head

of the

an

in

of

eyes

coming

as

one

occasion

closed

corresponding

on,

reactions
a

explanation. For

with

taken

of marked

source

attempt
or

been

history

thinker.

group

ideational

to

the

to

is another

individual

the

activities have

suppression is

or

PSYCHOLOGY

sense

motor

adjustments

determine

the lower
motor

and

response

the
more

object
reflex

exhausts

ATTENTION

and

conscious

object

immediate

way

In

the

behavior, it simply

is the

what

larger

of

types

determines

adjustment.

the

completes

69

the

or

and

higher
the

sets

situation

stage and
in

which

to

delayed adjustment

or

more

is to

be

brought about.
Classification
of

classifications
few

Forms

the

the

of

old

An

(1)

of

forms

of

attention

of

deserve

which

classification

brief

attending

to

like, the

latter

thought.

Obviously this division

in the

of

(2) Another

When

marks

interest,or

is immediate.

When

its

affords
to

because

distinction

division

of

attention

(b) involuntary
Spontaneous
immediate

given by

or

forced

and
is

attention

and

to

drawn

ary
second-

attend

high

immediate

marks

tion.
atten-

active

between
in

improved
classes

to

Attention

attention.

illustrate

three

attention

babies

in

interested

somewhat

into

rived
de-

because

some

To

significantpoints

and

from

mind

of

derived.

derived

is often

preserved

are

because

is

will

The

passive attention.

with

of

thrillingnarrative

(3) A

side
in-

capacity to excite,attention

is

one

illustration

an

differences

the

attracts

attend

we

consideration, attention
study

of

differences

on

on

of

the

and

train

off immediate

thing

of its intrinsic

one's

case

any

to

is based

than

from

itself.

process

distinction

attention.

by

attention

objects of attention,rather

posed,
pro-

sensory

color, sound, contact,

exemplified by

the attentive

been

mention.

illustrated

attention,the former

Various

"

have

distinguishes

ideational

sensations

Attention.

and

this

cation
classifi-

upon

in the

(a) spontaneous,

(c) voluntary.
substantially
is illustrated

bright lights and

synonymous

in the

loud

tion
atten-

sounds, by

AN

70

adults

hunger,

to

example
of

INTRODUCTION

of which

attention,out

forced,

Involuntary,
in the

It is

stimulation.

the

attention
intrude

by

represented by
effort.
a

who

task

distasteful

the

of

meaning

appreciate and
conduct.

of

time

at

ideas

times
some-

way.

is

in

result

is

of

form

definite

himself

holding

becomes

made.
the

that

enough

lines

or

be

must

to

the

for

early provides these competitive bidders

effort

mind,

only with

voluntary attention
to

obviously offers another

voluntary attention.
many

experiences

effort and

discomfort

and

Synthesis

great functions

designated
and
in

(1)

sense

after

peace
at

first

little time

give

we

attention.
in

Attention.

"

analysis, discrimination,

involves

serves
sub-

Attention

psychologistshave

which

(2) synthesis,or
a

our

attend

we

become

ment
develop-

the
for

forced

to

agreeable,whereupon

essentiallyspontaneous

Analysis

field for

which

such

springs from

Fortunately
to

taneous
Spon-

encouraged.

disturbing appeals

suppress

intrinsicallyinteresting and

two

other

this

attention

mature

One

to

in

conflictinginterests

be
and

of

attention

two

must

the

as

attention

The

attention

into

aside

of

them

good book

voluntary

mind

entertain

Choice

in

least put

attention

of

This

the

for attention,and
soil.

given

exercises

develops whenever

intense

very

Morbid

same

succeeds

term.

by

(closely resembling derived)

attention

Anyone

is illustrated

suddenly be shocked

in the

attention

grown.

be absorbed

clap of thunder.

for

primitive form

the mind

over

may

themselves

Voluntary

the

others have

(spontaneous attention) and

forced

tastes, such

passive attention

or

One

innate

to

undoubtedly

compulsion exercised

sensory

PSYCHOLOGY

and

crowds,

to

music.

as

TO

association.
both

of these

Every

monly
com-

sociation
dis-

or

act

processes,

of
al-

ATTENTION

though

at

the

reader's

the

As

into

letters
in

of

act

very

eye

to

That

his

all instead

at

of the

paper,

which

his

given

than

in isolation.

stimulations

of

aware

The

objects

of

have
the

for

chosen

those

which

for

requires that

now

shall be

and

out

an

adjust

cannot

make

motor

movement

to

neously
simulta-

are

yet

all these

we

stimuli.

of

possible
be

moment

any

to

objects

is to be found

adjustive

in
can

process

objects in general. It
the
The

situation

and

primitive

now

form

of

lating
dissociation,is simply the iso-

reaction
visual

organs.

are

given consideration.

particularportion

organized

sense

of

certain

why

in

this element

numbers

that

The

in response

rather

the descriptionswhich

neglected

adjustment.

in

readily comprehend

of

others

analysis,discrimination, or
of

will

at

those
has

context

great range

shall

From

rest.

reader

attention

hardly be carried

that

this

out

of all

out

skin; and
of

color

selected

kinds,

and

eye,

understanding

an

demands

the

various

ear,

from

selects

the

against which

vast

various

or

separate

page,

their

triflingfragment

neglects the

to

in

the

of

singly

words, and

given moment,

any

upon

preceded, the
clue

will, in

the

to

has

he

the

to

them

to

contacts

attention

heeded, and

his vision

attacking

only

organism

he

of the fact that

consequence

At

are

colors,

is given

correspond

impressed
are

generally

either

attends

the shape of the

attention

turn

he

attention

of to

which

special parts

Sounds,

other

this page

across

passes

possibleobjects before

the

the

or

details of the background

the

is seen, is

the book

one

reading, necessarily separate the printed

words

groups.

words

moment

dominant.

be

to

seems

given

any

71

of the environment

can

things

of the hand

to

be brought to pass.
in

general, but

designed

to

grasp

one
some

which
One
may
par-

72

AN

INTRODUCTION

tieular visual
to

object. Similarly

miscellaneous

step back

to

screech

an

of

It should

avoid

effective
of

fairly obvious
which

live,necessitates

we

have

will

this

complex

world

of

all been

situations

process

is to be

kinds.

This

but

the

discerned

fact is

analytical process
this

problem.

In

such

the

analysis

The

more

phases of

Contrary
opinion

of

the

to

the

after

ideas

where

cases

solve

study of

we

difficult

some

directed

often

maturity is

in

presumably
by

processes

of the

the

large

of

that

somewhat

elements,like

appear

from

to

themselves.

present

some

all

of

simpler

formerly accepted views, the prevalent

characterized

of many

adult

transition

thoughts which

child, and

organisms, is
fusion

to

analytical

or

to

to

of

psychologists today is that the consciousness

new-born

or

in

thinking is

our

adjustment

to

organization.

mental
to

illustrations

description of these ideational

later

up

our

case,

the

of

intimate

will be taken

the

Our
of

peculiarly evident

thinking intently in the attempt

are

appeal

attention

our

great

various

dissociative

same

nized,
scruti-

into parts of the

their

as

criminat
type of dis-

same

instances

in

that in which

as

hearing.

from

and

tudes
vicissi-

the

attention,when

up

objects, with

amid

such

involve

breaking

chosen

sensory

of

act

smell, taste, touch, sight,and

have

by the

readily suggest themselves,

selective

to

seen

same

can

one

illustrations

organism

an

Every

easily be

these

social world

such

described.

sounds, but
foreshadowed

from

will

guidance of

we

of

fully
success-

horn.

physical and

adjust

cannot

one

annihilation

the

of others

PSYCHOLOGY

jumble

automobile
be

the dozens
that

TO

vague

colors and

clearly separate and

conditions
measure

of

blending

sounds, which
distinct.

infancy

dependent

simpler

the

to

upon

The

intellectual
the

execu-

ATTENTION

tion of these

of discrimination

acts

of

Conditions

Discrimination.

certainty that colors

for

thus

are

number

that

suppose

fusions

at

sensations

of

the

sense

at all.

not

or

in

the

obstinate

most

by the exigencies of adjustment.

stimuli

food

of the
and

taste

those

smell.

of

of fact due

to sensations

of

reason

is

one

agreeable and

more
a

cold

prevented

instances

and

pressure

both

from

c^ fusions

readily be found

with

We

have

sensations
under

which

of these

do

to

the character
that

so

the

to

of the

large

both

foods

of smell and

not

tion
proporof

organs

individualistic

odor

combinations

as

to taste

of

at all.

all

nostrils,

the

sensations.

with
from

adult

Other

life may
another

of

the skin, and

of

one

originatingin

of movement

ter
mat-

features, if by

in

persisteven

are

lose almost

asparagus

tem|)erature sensations

sensations

only

supposedly characteristic

The

getting any

in the

tendons, and

forced

by artificial stoppage

or

indefinite

example, owing

For

stimulate

Coffee, tea, onions, apples, and

their

is good

Apparently

are

beverages and

familiar

of many

tastes

substances

sounds

an

manner.

about

comes

of many

life certain

and

organs

affectingthem, it

other
an-

fall simultaneously

separate which

sense

one

together, provided

in adult

Even

organs.

the proximity of the

great

is similar

There

of life

outset

fuse

may

sensations

with

general there

occasioning them

persist in the

only those

know

believing that the components

that the stimulations

upon

scribed.
analysis just de-

^We

"

undistinguished; and

to

reason

and

at first distinguished from

are

by babies imperfectly
evidence

73

the

cles,
mus-

joints.

already mentioned
separate

as

which

such

are

forced

the
to

dissociation

belief
do
may

that

so, but

only such
the

tions
condi-

be brought about

AN

74

INTRODUCTION

remain

to be

is to be

separated

adjust

it

to

it shall be
may

stated.

this in

formulated

and

y,

the

in

or

would

presumably
of

if

translate

shall

we

dissociation

differences

this formula

that

see

it

when

the

from

that

the

combination

changing

of

in

success

pointed

out

human

organism,

at

as

enced
experi-

xrs.

that

In

the

if

red,

we

at

physical

the

in

ent.
differ-

are

this

required by

these

over

its

need

It
of its
the

hardly

larger part of
to

splitup

our

odor

of

changed
It is

movements.

sensations

the smell-taste fusion

be

bring

to

power

possible,for example, by pinching the nostrils,to

off the

our

development the

conditions
own

in

variety

necessary

satisfactorilyto explain

least, secures

by its control

activity,

nervous

conditions

early stage
of

is that

combinations.

involved

the

condition
pre-

only discriminate

can

discrimination.
an

the

another

of

stimulations

sense

artificially
many

stimulation
thus

that

either

in other

or

about

theory of analysis in order

actual

successfully

mean

one

circuits

nervous

speedily bring

must

about

such

into terms

means

Obviously the
world

be

principle

differentiated,and

they shall be experienced singly

we

We

group.

The

is to

group,

be

never

their

that

always experienced together, they

were

green

may

by supposing that three

colors,for example, this would

blue, and

If

different

we

necessary

it shall be

other

that

so

together.

compound

some

of sensations

group

apparently
in

or

that

require

of

out

is

occur

z,

or

larger matrix

symbolic way

would

alone
of

from

out

PSYCHOLOGY

sensation

experienced alone

sensations,x,

case

If

independently, it

express

analyzed

TO

and

thus

to which

cut

mentally
experiwe

have

referred.

Reciprocal
"

Every

Relations

process

of

of Association

analysis may

from

and
one

Dissociation.

point of

view

be

ATTENTION

of

thought

colors
the

this

on

synthesis

"When

whereby

to

applicable

call

all

types

the

of

of

case

employment

we

our

be

found

organic

in

actual
of

both.

this

on

story.
his

page,

each

of

the

ing
dissociat-

of

of

vision

is

one

are

also

integrated

that

this

conception

and
the

dissociation,
scissors

involved

which
in

interested

more

analysis

whole

in

adjustment.

of

are

the

process

word

invariably

are

view

the

and

involved

field

the

blades

Sometimes

point

of

of

brought

are

whole,

The

up.

white

nature

very

tell

mental

tal
men-

Analysis

word

association

two

Both

either
the

will

synthesis,

were,

act.

in

rest

of
It

to

attention.

practical

the

object.

and
it

it

components

single

as

single

make

to

from

the

thus,

upon

attention

goes

Analysis

But

his

into

the

processes

this

does

word

the

conjoint

and

black

another.

one

Nor

which

letters

by

The

distinguished

attention.

unites

act

with

therefore,

gives

one

mental

is

of

the

which,

thus

associated

are,

act

every

in

one

qualities

two

and

together

is

association.

or

distinguishes

one

page

the

case,

into

which

by

process

synthesis

of

act

an

as

75

mental

sometimes

procedure

every

from
in

are

we

tentive
at-

the

synthesis.
depends

CHAPTER

YI

SENSATION

In

the

referred

the

to

which

organs

is

of

doubt

which

to

example

an

of such

and

it is therefore

The

of

highly

general

are

stimulation

more

any

kind.

the

rudimentary

As

become
the

we

the
most

their

affect

but

pass

point.
If

"

human

turn

we

no

the

up

the

varied

to

and

ear,

The

forms

in

eye,
76

various

the

sense

for

of

life, we
organs
senses.

devices

example,

of

organs

animal

other

of

the

light, temperature,

specialized

assortment

crude

very

the

specific

scale

ment
develop-

like

e.g.,

to

of sensory

organisms,

beings,

are

of

out

more

our

equipment

senses

vestiges of the

purposes.

this

our

sensitive

there

eye,

begin

at

sense

processes,

should

simpler

The
less

or

which

contact,

present

specialized

sensitivity.

amoeba,

these

mental

our

priate
appro-

no

of

use

Organs.

that

Magnetism

interesting picture of the

most

mind

find

we

we

Sense

of

history,

presents

organs

the
of

that

of the

Development

evolutionary

later

natural

analytical study

exact

with

are

physical

have

we

of

is able

of

insensitive.

rudimentary

most

contact,

forms

many

kinds

organism

the

force, for which

Connected

the

are

are

entirely

are

sound,

which

sensitive

various

to

heat,

to

there

we

receptor.
organs,

stimuli

the

No

react.

Light,

constantly

with

is supplied

responding

of

have

we

processes

man

capable

are

illustrations

action

that

fact

stimulations.

physical

to

of adjustive

account

for

which

find
which
These

plishing
accom-

makes

SENSATION

its first appearance

different

for

the

in

forms

it takes

There

the

of

structure

other

sense

sensory

with

The

vision

of

knowledge

and

implies

and

the

conditions,we

study

subject, and

of the

tion
varia-

vertebrate

have

ear,

veloped
de-

primitive
and

of contact

perature.
tem-

study of the

our

Stimuli.

Its

detailed

"

complete

acquaintance with

physiology of the eye.' Evidently, under

the anatomy

present

of

vision.

Vision

of

Organ

surface

their

conveniently begin

may

processes

those

as

of

evolutionary

the

from

away

the

mammals.

like

them,

the

similar

of

its system

different

the

face
sur-

of

considerable

in

display

further

with

very
eye

others, such

We

character

upon

birds,and
of

some

much
have

than

forms

focus

the

organs

history, although
very

to

the

on

great number

the

on

is, moreover,

like the fishes,the

The

speck

like that of man,

eye,

bringing light

retina.

through

passes

before

forms

highest vertebrate
lenses

little pigmented

organism,

the

of

as

77

rough impressions such

forego

must

as

with

ourselves

content

secured

be

can

exhaustive

any

relatively

in the

time

at

disposal.

our

The

stimulus

constituting the
These

waves

billions
head
blow.

of light

waves

red

to

violet.

approximately

435

consists normally

second.

in
An

from

rate

electrical current

will also produce sensations

The

of

length, and
such

light stimulations
mixed.

as

of

light,as
light

equal vibration

represented by the
red, blue, green.

frequent exemplificationin

the

pure

Mixed

769

to

passed through the

classified

are

Homogeneous

approximately
is

from

sunlight spectrum

vary

or
waves

vision

to

will

either

as

is

made

rate

colors

of

geneous
homoup

and

light finds

ordinary white

violent

the

of

equal
trum,
spec-

its most

light of the

AN

78

INTRODUCTION
r

Fig.

PSYCHOLOGY

TO
^
^

entering the back of the

Opt., fibers of the optic nerve
to
fovea
inner
its
tralis,
censurfaces; Fov.
eyeball
spread over
c,
the point of most
acute
vision in the retina on
which
are
of
which
at
centered
from
is
one
light
object
looking.
rays
any
in
retina
contains
this
The
region. Scler., the
only cones
its anterior
sclerotic coat, tough and
transformed
on
opaque,
the
into
the
surfaces
choroid
Chor.,
coat,
transparent cornea.
and
vessels
a
Ret., the
carrying blood
pigment.
heavy dark
the
Pr.
from
lens.
retina, terminating at a little distance
cil.,
the
which
control
the
the
of
cilary muscle
convexity
processes
in
be
lens.
The
the
which
lens
is
ligament
suspended may
the
left
of
the
under
the
which
at
sketch
letter
seen
just
p,"
behind
marks
the posterior chamber
the
iris and
Cam.
ant.,
the anterior
humour.
chamber, both filled with aqueous
Corpus
of the main
vitreum, the humour
cavity of the eyeball. Conj.,
23.

"

"

the

conjunctiva,a

very

thin

mucous

membrane.

(After James.)

SENSATION

As

sun.

of vision

conditions
when

even

of the

particular
light the
black.

looking

lights we

homogeneous
hues

appreciable

an

are

we

is always under

of fact, there

matter

79

length

wave

(each

series

of

from

colors

white

the

To

able
distinguish-

rate), and

to

mixed

to

through

amplitude of the light vibration

The

light

corresponding

one

vibration

or

colors.

simple

then, the various

owe,

spectrum

of mixed

amount

the

at

ordinary

to

gray

determines

the

intensity of the resulting sensation.

23

Figure

the

through
reasonable
The

of

center

admitted

vertical

the

clearness, all
is

eye

front

represents

human

the

through

small

The

Inside

The

of light

rays

surface

of

the

the

appears

lens

the

form

to

focused

image is clear and

camera,

plate toward,

or

the focus

away

In the eye, the distance

this
The

retina,is
case

lens

fixed and

brought
is

an

about

an

of

the

image, such
when

camera

its object.

Unless

as

the

this

In

the

is adjusted by moving

the

may

the lens and

unchangeable.
by

coat

vessels.

surfaces

well-defined

from, the lens, as

between

the

by the spherical

sharp, vision will be blurred.

photographic

the

upon

eye,

the retina,lying just

upon

photographic plate of

is properly

blood

again by the

as

pigmented

many

the

is preserved

eye

dark

refracted

or

of

center

covering of the

carrying

together

come

choroid,

on

and

cornea

lens,so that they

inside

bent

are

light is

surfaces, known

choroid,

and

rays

the

outer

its front

on

it is the

absorbing light

of

structures.

which

the

at

aperture

general form

is transparent

cornea.

into

back

to

reveals, with

important

more

by the sclerotic coat, the tough

front

It

eye.

roughly spherical camera,

surface.

which

section

The

be required.
the plate,i.e.,

focusing is

in

extremely ingenious device.

elastic,gelatinous

structure

of

spherical

INTRODUCTION

AN

80

in, and

form, enclosed
membrane.

contraction

the

suspended

by,

on

the

inner

or

relaxation

of

surface

these

of

thin

very

bag-like membrane

This

tissue

muscular

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

parent
trans-

is attached

to

eye-ball. By

the

muscles

the

brane
mem-

is rendered

change
more

more

tension, the lens is made

of

less spherical in shape.

or

in which

manner

convexity permits

24.

Sketch

"

advanced
the

lens;

humour
and

the

c, the

of

main

retina,just

of

light

rays

this changing

images

of accommodation.

object, its

near

rest, accommodated

at

controlling
6, the

cavity

the

anterior

surface

for a distant
object.
ligament, L., supporting

D, the

chamber;

eyeball. (After

of the

A,

anterior

vitreous

McKendrick

plate is moved

to

more

sharply the

come

to

object is

to

and

fro.

as

is the

As

an

and

more

remain

The

more

bent, and

are

rays

focus.

become

readily

as

case

in the

graphic
photo-

where, the lens remaining stationary, the

camera,

must

lens

mechanism

the
for

cornea;

the

that

the

securing of clearly focused

to illustrate

B,

the

with

Snodgrass.)

the

on

the

ciliary muscles

the

G,

refract

or

less convex,

or

familiar

Anyone

of this

result

more

will understand

accommodated

lens

the

bend

lenses

passing through them

Fig.

As

less taut.

or

the lens, the

convex

the

quickly they

more

object approaches the

more

convex,

sharply focused

if the
upon

eye,

the lens

image

of

the retina.

the

(See

Fig. 24.)
The

these

Retina.

"

The

central part of the retina,upon

images fall,is kno^vn

of clearest vision in the eye.

as

the fovea, and

It is characterized

which

is the region

by

slight

SENSATION

depression and

the

progressively less

of

presence

the fovea

From

81

toward

capable

the
of*

slightlyyellowish pigment.

lens,the retina becomes

affording clear, distinct

vision.
As

optic

Fig.

sketch

the

Scheme

"

the

enter

nerve

25.

indicates

of

(Fig. 25),

eye-ballfrom

retinal

fibers.

its

the

fibers

Nop, optic

nerve;

choroid; R, retina; P, blind

spot, no
present; F, fovea, point of clearest vision.
shown

the

surface,and

rear

8, sclerotic;

retinal

Ch,

of

The

structure

retinal

fibers

the

the
pigment layer
turning
in
the
and
lens
light coming
through
cornea,
optic humours, passes through the optic fibers before it reaches
are

back

choroid.
the

there

of the inner

and

cones

on

the

inner

surfaces

themselves

in

part of the

of the eye,

vertical

and

of the

and

cup-shape, all
The

eye.

retina.

(James

terminate

cross-section.

light stimulates
the

inner

The

in the very

after

actual

the surfaces

over

fibers turn

constituting the retina, of which

the

of

Kuss.)

spread

outside

'meet

The

rods

after

to

complex

Figure

sensitive

toward

26

the
ture
struc-

gives

organs

which

passing through the optic fibers

parts of the

retina

are

the

so-called

rods

AN

82

and
In

whose

cones,

the

INTRODUCTION

fovea,

In

the

PSYCHOLOGY

shapes explain the

alone

cones

of the retina
alone.

TO

found.

In

lens,the

rods

are

-the

near

intermediate

given

names

the

regions,both

them.

forward

gions
re-

practically

are

rods

and

cones

found.

are

Fig.

The
A, layer of rods and cones
layers of the retina.
choroid; a, rods; 6, cones.
E, layer of large bipolar
of
cells; Q, layer
large ganglion cells; E, layer of optic
26.

fibers

over

light

has

fiber

permitting impulses

Unlike
of the

In

next

"

the

which

stimulated

other

the

consequence
can

sense

the

the

vision.

the

of the

eye-ball there
no

reach

to

organs,
out
to

center

and

rods

brain, pushed

the very

enters

impulses

nervous

is

This

be easily verified by

travel
cones;

the

retina

retina

from

is itself

periphery

retinal

is the blind

closingthe

of

nerve

brain

after

centrifugal nerve

s,

region where
no

the

toward

nerve

the

brain.

really
portion
body.
a

the

the

optic

nerve

structure, and
spot, whose
left eye,

in

ence
pres-

fixating

SENSATION

other

the

in

directly

inches

object,like

small

pencil point held

upon

front

three

point fixated, the object

later

The
way.

to

^f

one

to the

right

away

will

suddenly

the

retina

and

in

capable of reporting

away

of

they fall

upon

comes

the

and

anterior

the

red

and

the

fovea

all the

These

finally there

these

or

vision'

direct

vision, where

binocular

Vision.

process.

"

result.
which

Each

word

of

eye

it is moved

be.

kind.

Then
their
are

gray,

in the

all.

extreme

are

as

seen

though
al-

Meantime,

relatively

are

sensitive

very

us

seen

blue, and

retina

the

are

any

Stars

We

the

cones

are

have

two

eyes,

under

Although
about

giving

may

and

predominate, which

objects double, normally

say

case

at

degrees

retina, are

all colors

seen

In

us.

white

to

be

often

can

by these peripheral parts of the

the rods

Binocular

not

of

retina,where
foveal

where

the

colors,when

band

narrow

vision, they

movement

to

'indirect

in

is

or

of

white, black, and

peripheral parts

in color

light and

gray,

the

yellow

retina

of the

white, black,

deficient

in which

zone

the

to

more

two

of

margins

outer

or

tral
cen-

about

colors

incapable

are

green.

together with

part

ment
mo-

curiously irregular

regions lying thirty

from

compounds,

must

the

disappear,

immediately

yellowish,bluish, or grayish, as

seen

from

ordinary daylight conditions, only the

sensations

seen,

the

Under

individuals

there

away

from

is sensitive to colors in

arc

as

moves

retina

are

most

while

inches

twelve

or

face

four

or

ten

some

again.

appear

parts of
fovea

the

of

coin,slowly

about

pencil. When

83

have

we

the

right and

by

in

and

invisible

vision
we

single vision, and

six

left,and

which

and

is

see
we

produce this

muscles, by
up

by

charge.

conditions

some

conditions

is controlled

are

means

down.

of
The

INTRODUCTION

AN

84

controllingmuscles
move

upward

that is,turn

are

adjusted that the

so

downward

or

in, at the

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

together. They
time, but they

same

their

beyond the position at which

axes

practical upshot of these limitations

of the

Fig.

eyes

27.

The

"

two

eyes

where
into

four

eye,

which

retina

The

the

is that

two
as

lower
seen

the

when

circles

from

gaze

represent

behind.

is the

the

same

number.

diverge

parallel. The

are

the

movements
a

upon

retinal

fovea, B,
The

converge,
not

may

is fixed

the
enters
optic nerve
eye.
Each
quadrants.
quadrant
(not anatomically) similar

bears

may

upon

the

always

eyes

surfaces
the

retinae

given

of the

blind
are

spot

divided

corresponds to its geometrically

quadrant in the other
The

nasal

half

of

one

responding
Corcorresponds to the temporal half of the other.
stimulation
points whose
produces single vision are
in geometrically similar
located
quadrants.
the
on
part of the diagram represents the eyes fixated
upper
F
fall
foveal
and
the
whose
two
on
point
images
regions ff
0
is the
produce single vision.
optic nerve.
Rays of light
from
such
points as E and D fall on the corresponding points

SENSATION

point,the
a

focus

entire

over

each

regions

object
retina

27

without

LT

of the

would

then

points, and

the

this

what

retina

of

are

blurred

other

points produces

vision.

No

doubt

half of the fibers of the

and

join fiber

tracts

either

the fact that

from

the

part of
as

when
The

double

responding
cor-

lated
stimulation
stimu-

vision

approximately

of each

optic nerve

left

quadrant

known

points which

If

the

any

together normally produce single vision.

of

occurs.

across, and

pin put through

are

of

just made.

quadrant UT,

mark

these

image

to

given point.

any

lifted,moved

over

etc.

the

wherever

upon

be

and

statement

were

superposed

quadrant LN,

quadrant

any

the

brought

are

geometricallysimilar

from

results

it

looking is distributed

that

rays

eye

would

eyes,

is

way

by

right

rotation

over

illustrate

two

one

apparently

quadrant UN

eye,

which

at

in such

will

the retina

of the

stimulated

are

Single vision
Figure

light proceeding from

the fovea

upon

the

of

rays

85

eye

cross

corresponding region

or

one

over

of the

line as
Such
EFD,
a
produce single vision.
all of whose
seen
as
single,
points are
the
fixated
is
as
a
are
on
F,
horopter. When
eyes
in
like
and
behind
and
B
which
lie
front
G,
points
respectively
will
double.
The
them
of F, are
seen
proceeding from
rays
in non-corresponding quadrants
of the
retinae
be
at 6"
found
ee

or

and

and

dd

it may
known

cc.

also

and

be

The

surface,

rays

from

fall at

h and

6 which

both

are

foveal

inside

these
both outside
e are
e and
points, whereas
points.
The
former
latter
heteronomthe
produce
homonomously,'
ously,'doubled
images.
If in the
86
assistant
a
an
experiment suggested on
pass
page
the
in front
the
double
of the
of one
screen
on
image
eyes,
the
the
side as
will disappear when
nearer
same
screen
object
This
homonomous
is fixated.
is the case
of a
image. The
the
the
heteronomous
side opposite to
)
screen
{i.e.,
image on
will disappear when
the farther
object is fixated.
the
form
in an
illustrates
extreme
Such
a
figure as the prism EJD
facts of binocular
The
only
stereoscopic vision.
right eye sees
the
surface
The
by
JD, the left eye only EX.
figure as seen
there
solid.
is a field comboth
mon
as
a
Ordinarily
eyes
appears
to both
eyes as in looking at a sphere.
the

'

'

'

'

AN

86

other

INTRODUCTION

their way

on

eye

(Fig. 28)

bears

TO
to

the

points.

If

of

holds

one

LO
28.

Diagram

"

left; T, Ti, N,
of

the

left and

of

the

left

single vision from

up

two

responding
cor-

pencils in

the

NFR

rFL

Fig.

of the brain

occipitalcortex

this matter

on

PSYCHOLOGY

of

N^

the
the

RO

optic pathway.
temporal and

R, the
nasal

right
halves

eye,

L, the

respectively
field of view

right retinae; TFL, the temporal

the
seen
by the nasal half of that eye; NFR,
eye,
nasal
field of view of the right eye seen
by the temporal side
of the retina; C, the optic chiasma;
the
OFR, optic fibers from
(i.e.,right temporal, left nasal) passright half of each retina
ing
in the
visual
centers
geniculate
through LOG, the lower
bodies
and
the
tex
quadrigemina, to RO, the occipital corcorpora
of the
the
fibers
from
OFL,
right half of the cerebrum,
left halves
of the
retinae
two
proceeding similarly to LO, the
left side
tion
of the
cerebral
Obviously destrucoccipitalcortex.
of one
side
of the visual
the
of
cortex, or
optic pathway
half
of the
to one
C, will produce blindness
anywhere above
field of view
half of
(hemianopsia) by destroying vision in one
each
retina.
(Modified from
Seguin.)
median
eyes

and

plane of the face, one

the

other

fifteen

by fixating the further

or

about

four

inches

twenty, it will be

pencil,to

see

the other

from
very

one

the
easy

double.

SENSATION
of the

Fixation

of the further

object

nearer

falling

are

will

one

similarlyproduce doubling

this case,

In

one.

87

dissimilar

upon

doubled

the images of the

regions of

the

two

retinae.
Classification

of Color

remark

we

at

that

once

great natural

two

and

waves,

of the

red

in their view

few

through mixture, but

to

one

methods

the

on

and

if

whereas

they

curious

and

sunlight, the

the

subdued

yellow;

end

of

the

blue

zone.

of

in

lights,the
and

if the

spectrum
Seen

series

When

vision.

time

bands

in

of

produced

over,
'primes.' More-

largely

very

mixtures.

reflection

by

is found

Yellow

or

by

green,

rotating

the

can

be

in the

basis

cation
classifi-

the

made
in
the

the

difference

yellow.

dark

the

retina

and

is

the

blue

after

has

faint

light,therefore,

gray

with

the

the

light'
'twi-

in

by

adapted

brighter
the

red

has

end

spectrmn
in

than

appeared.
dis-

appears
the

to

blue

dimmer,

brightest region

full

however,

been

appear

the

between

When,

progressivelymade

discerned

of

is viewed

spectrum

the

green

light

distinct shades

is in

brightest region

for

remaining

be

pigments, produce

sometimes

processes

daylight

by taking

gray.

phenomenon

visual

varied

rigidly confined

the

language recognizes seven

of

very

certain

mixed

are

disks, they produce

Common

could

depend

for making

in

geneous
homo-

of so-called

that

means

no

secures

one

chosen

if mixed

blue,

is by

one

which

results

the

others

the

light

pure

number

of colors in selecting these

group

to

early observed

was

colors, all

primary

into

mixed

to

painters have

the

regarding

It

fall

series,i.e.,the spectral

Psychologists and

elementary colors.
a

chromatic

violet,corresponding

to

waves."
somewhat

to-wit,those of the achromatic,

groups,

those

colors, from

to

now

optical sensations

our

black-white-gray series, corresponding

or

Turning

"

analysis of the color qualities of vision,

immediate

more

Sensations.

as

green-

INTRODUCTION

AN

88

i.e.,red,

sunlight spectrum,

violet.

blue, indigo blue, and

maintained

that

colors in the
blue.
red

and

is

alleged

one

and

of blue
procures

Psychologists have

generally

genuinely different

to

be

red.
of

obvious

an

to

be

When

obvious

similarly an
adds

one

purple, and

Fig.

29.

"

to

red.

The

color

white-black
most

Moreover, each

saturated

lines

The

pyramid.

series

of

line

little

more

be

if the process
and

we

spectral hues

these

WB

of

compound

continued, the blue is finallyaltogether overcome,

get back

and

to-wit,red, yellow,green,

is held

shade

light

yellow, green,

orange,

only four

are

yellow. Violet

compound
red,

there

spectral group,

Orange

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

corresponds

to

colors; the plane Bl.RYG

represents
spectral colors, e.g., blue, red, green.

and

of

with

the

letters

the
the
The

representing
joining
tints from
spectral colors, e.g., Bl. represent all the transitional
all the
shades
blue
through pale blue to white, and
through
blues
to black.
the dark
(After Ebbinghaus.)
may

be

red

and

of
can

more

less 'saturated.'

by adding

pinks,

or

produce

exhibits

or

these

and

more

We

more

series

of

relations.

will be

thus

start

produce

amounts

deepening
It

can

white

by adding increasing
a

the

browns.

of

several

with
series

black, we
Figure

29

recognized, too, that

SENSATION

colors

vary

chroma

or

in

view

with

be

relations

among

vision, and

to

Mixtures.

mixed

are

"

them

brief

When

colored
colors

will

yellow

are

which

which

violet

produce
be

regarding the number

and

esting
inter-

very

be

may

our

made.

lights (not pigments)'

in accordance

produced
be

can

produce

readily ascertained.

of the

definitelyaffect

For

formulated.

all the

One

of the

the

so-called

and

blue

orange,

purple, and

or

some

reference

are

principles which

example, red and

can

taken

together,new

definite

will

saturation

in

as

spectral qualities,there

elementary

Color

well

as

hue.

Whatever

color

brightness

89

red

combinations

interesting

most

of

is that

mixtures

these

colors,which

combined

when

in the spectrum

except

green.

whitish

gray

has

when

produce

if combined

pigmented
the

are

green

similarly produce

gray,

the two

ends

colors from

with

blue,

violet.

or

in the spectrum,

source

Figure

30

There

are

but

blue, produces

rotated

papers

colors.

color

and

blue-

on

Red

be combined

must

green

of the

color

Every

gray.

with

of the

wheel

as

complementary

complementary, also

Yellow,

used

of

red and
spectrum, i.e.,

exhibits

these

relationships

graphically.
Color
also

Contrast.
to

serve

show

colors
these.

If

to

other

the

intimate

one

another.

relations
Color

the eye

be focused

upon

join, it will presently be noticed

junction the
deeper hue
^

Pigment

effects

of

color

phenomena

which

of these

mentary
comple-

two

than
mixtures

colors

are

ver}^

elsewhere.
produce

light absorption

and

that
much

The
different
can

of

or

of

one

field

upon

point where

the two

along the margin

of

brilliant and

of

more

for

reason

results.
course

is

contrast

patch of yellow be placed beside

blue, and

of

"

be

this will be

They depend
formulated.

on

ex-

the

90

INTRODUCTION

AN

plained in

or

contact

be

green,

produced.

with

selected,a
The

with

if instead

after-images. Meantime,
in immediate

PSYCHOLOGY

in connection

moment

TO

blue,some

different

maximal

one

upon

brief account

of

placing the yellow

other

and

effect of

by complementary colors

of

color,like red,

less intense
this kind

is

another.

result is

produced

This

type of

RED

'FlQ. 30.

"

Colors
gray,

at
if

opposite ends
mixed

with

one

of any
diameter
of the circle produce
is the
another.
Purple, which

found
in the
color to green,
is not
complementary
spectrum,
but is produced by a mixture
of the spectrum,
of the end-colors
red and
violet.
Colors
opposite blank segments are
alleged to
be psychologically pure
and
do
not
elementary; i.e.,they
gest
sugother
like
colors.
Some
colors
distinctly suggest
orange
other
red and
hues, e.g., in this case
yellow. Colors opposite
shaded
segments are of this composite character.

""ontrast
eye

is sometimes

passing from

another.
affected

The

one

visual

spoken of

as

color,which

successive
been

has

contrast,the
fixated,on

quality of the latter is

sure

to

to

be

by the preceding retinal stimulation.

Simultaneous

contrast

is

name

for

color

phenomenon

SENSATION

observed

less often
much

ways

patches

of the

field and

take

on

same

gray

white

tissue

upon

be

in

If two

placed the

the other
be

much

less

thait

tendency of
shade

that the

upon

they

bluish

spread

surface

small

any

If

both

colored

stimulus

which

somewhat

Vision

affords

exercises

the

be

few

instant

an

upon

of

image

effect upon

an

and

for

then

These

the

the

and

at

eye

first with

from

photographic positiveplate,in

The

light and

shade

and

color

excitement

as

are

positiveimage is due simply

retinal

It

negative image

involves

color relations.

If the

eye

for

reversal

takes

distinct

This

is

its

name

be fixated

in the

object itself.

of the stimulus.

upon

an

the relations

which

of

an

again,

to the continuation

after the removal

closed

be

intensity only

an

positive after-image.

main

closed

thereafter

of

of

rather

two

fixated

once

example

the

organ.

of this fact

of

are

opened

at

organ

ought, perhaps,

little time

some

senses

sense

with

contact

light, and

light, and

the

all the

the

negative. If

the

electric

seen

of

slightlyless than that of the objectivesensation.

the

of

interdependence

case

after-images,which

moments,

will be

there

the

'after-sensations.'

called

its boundaries

conspicuous instance

most

kinds, the positive and

for

in

its actual

outlasts

in the so-called
to

is true

It

"

again of the

This

complementary

within

area

gray,

another.

one

informed
un-

any

actually pure

are

thin

colors.

After-images.
that

upon

tinge.

over

induce

to

colorless

gives striking evidence

complementary

patches

really match

colored

small

one

surfaces, it will be quite impossible to convince

observer

some

yellow field,the first will

paper

but

encountered.

paper

other

the

yellowish,and

of

piece

ordinary experience,

striking when

more

blue

in

91

these
a

of the
The

light and

point in the

92

AN

of

center

and

small

then

there

INTRODUCTION

turned

will

red

field for

upon

emerge

the

red

it will be found

PSYCHOLOGY

fifteen

seconds,

twenty

or

colored

neutral

some

presently
to

TO

field,or closed,

bluish-green image

object originallyfixated.

that

responding
cor-

In

in the negative image

eral
gen-

all colors

complementaries of the colors in the stimulus,and

are

relations

of

in

the

light
vice

light and

object will be

will be
dark

point
Some

the

chapter

to

of

the

normal

retina

entire

more

in

in

the

at this

greenish.
often

eases

seen

are

that

the

more

to

is

is

in

pathological color-blindness
blue

seen

In

yet

as

moner
com-

yellowish and

belonging

to

this group
be added

general, it may

more

of the normal

black
or

tail
de-

itself is in these

green

yellow, and

and

in

the
and

color

eye,

pairs

white,

less distinct

spectively,
re-

parts

vision.
of

Theory
of the

seems

of the

one

half

as

suggests that

belong together
of color

which

It is hardly

women.

that in

say

tions
por-

less color-blind.

or

that like the peripheral color-blindness

green,

peripheral

difficultywhich

Persons

gray.

said to be red-green blind.

and

earlier

an

of color-blindness

form

region of the

as

at

pathological color-blindness

spectrum

The

fact

than

point. Suffice it

types the

red

was

after-image, and

called

was

This

men

describe

to

retina.

common

practicable

the

suffer from

persons

much

Attention

"

in

affects the

are

inverted; what

versa.

Color-Blindness.

half

shade

the

color

opinion,

preferable
it

sense

which

none

writer's

Color

to

any

Phenomena.
have

been

enjoys
the
of

presents fewer

propounded,

universal

theory of
the

different

Many

"

others

but

acceptance.
Mrs.

at

conflicts with

theories

there

is

In

Ladd-Franklin

present

as

the
is

cause
available,be-

recognized facts.

It

SENSATION

said, indeed, that all the theories

be

may

formulate

to

the

mutually consistent
Franklin

Mrs.

this

originally occasioned

it

spectral colors, each

be

recalled

seen

This

over

red

and
out

particulars those
formulate
Color
one

or

whose

another

action

example, when

of color

proposed

is

mixture

of

the

process

to

blue

seen.

been

has

ferentia
dif-

various

integrati
dis-

partial

occurred

which

It will

blue.

well

which

green,

region.

veloped
having de-

as

The

out

last differentiat

The

of

explanations

resemble

phenomena

in many

theorists.

We

may

briefly.
by the disintegrationof
substance

the

rods

retina

in the

and

For

cones.

combined, the result, i.e.,

are

similar
The

splittingoff
gray

of

of

the

the

blue

complementary

by the entire disintegrationof the

original visual substance, just

itself is

which

central

process.

by other

tion
evolu-

retina

and

thinks

she

As

splittingoff of the red part of

process.

brought about

the

pretty

colors red

brought about

and

yellow-blue

colors is

very

and

of

retina.

the

directlystimulates
red

regions

by the

seen

part of the chemical

purple, corresponds

red-green

of

yellow

of them

some

are

to the

process

forms

one

yellow and

of

regions

green

at

gray

produces

colors

of the older

of the several

of

relatively circumscribed

white

in the

first differentiation

corresponds
are

which

sensations

anterior

the

toward

outer

is stimulated

of

these

that

with

substance

now

The

the

The

sensations

our

that

corresponds to

fined
originally con-

primitive condition.

prooeeded, the chemical

of it.

tempts
at-

in

facts

of

was

call gray,

now

the other.

at

still represent

so

varieties

vision

that

assumes

black

and

extreme

several

simply

are

way.

qualitieswe

the

to

retina

93

as

occurs

If, for example, yellow and

when
blue

white
are

light

mixed,

AN

94

color

each

INTRODUCTION

disintegratesa part

The

in all

as

of the

stimulus.

color
is

the

of

this

after

is

to

is of

contrast

to look at

has

with

bluish, because

the

carries

xindergoing the

of

process

is

resents
rep-

is

blue

for

image
after-

an

yellow, and

as

seen

In

process

for

is

rest

its turn.

simply

there

to the

deeper and
combination

ing
progressive break-

patch

gray

molecules

in

which

yellow field
the

tion
circula-

region corresponding

already disintegrated as

are

gray

shattered,

negative after-image blue.

retinal

the

across

in

substances, probably assisted by

chemical

The

as

been

fatigued

assigned

are

for

portion of

one

after-image
course

been

capillary circulation.
seen

pieces

otherwise,because

phenomena

stimulated

removed, for the

blue, the blue

objectiveblue
of the

is

the

Consequently

turned

than

explained by

are

has

to

go

original effects

secondary part of the

If the eye

down

the

blue, and

consequence

the

ease

effect.

of actual

the

in

Successive

vivid

simply represent,

been

has

eye

process

yellow.

Contrast

complete disintegration

of

tendency, after the blue

molecular

is then

stance.
original color sub-

positive kind

color like

molecules

yellow.

the

by

time

particular

more

of the

the

Negative after-images

that

considerable

there

of

theories,the continuation

assuming

the

PSYCHOLOGY

together effect

two

After-images

of it.

TO

to

regards yellow and

disintegration which

is

the
are
as

seen

blue.

Auditory

Sensations.

divide

auditory

noises

and

working
fast

experiences

sense

is to be

This

tones.

division,rather
It

distinction.

call tones

air, while

arise

from

noises

so

been

Psychologists have

"

than

happens

as

into

two

regarded
implying
that

great groups
as

any

the sounds

from

non-periodic

"

convenient
hard
which

regular, periodic vibrations

arise

to

wont

of

and
we

the

vibrations.

SENSATION

Nevertheless,
noise,^and

most

noises

sounds

The

have

tones

many

of

rumble

of

wheels

cart

little distance

there

Certainly

notices

vehicle

one

in

the

is heard

the

is often
the

in

physical stimulations

pitch of

We

they

begin

second, and
exceed

we

forty

these

of

about

fiftythousand

or

to

vibration,the intensity of
of
the form

the

vibration.

of the sound

character, and
present.

are
as

German

clangs, and

or

simple and

arise from

of

twenty

the

to

The

when

tone

they
of

Most

within

rate

relatively

to the

quality corresponds

determined

complex

set of

same

of
a

group

of pure

All

tones.

to

by the number,

simple and

speak

of

tude
ampli-

which

writers, in particular,speak of

from

our

frequency

or

corresponds

tone
as

vibration

the

to

when

tones

as

the

tions.
vibra-

intensity of the partial tones

to the

tuning fork, or

or

tone

sixty-four vibrations

distinguish between

designed to apply
may

sixteen

five thousand.

clangs. English writers sometimes

tones,

is

of the

the second.

tone

wave,

relative

noisy

Thus

as

about

or

pitch corresponds

While

experiences of

vibrations

them

to

from

four

some

tone.

There

"

frequency

comprised

are

running

compass,

in the second

discern

to

cease

at

of

such

as

Tones.

our

the

to

hear

rate

experiences

musical
brief

the

at

occur

to

impression

occasioning them.

corresponds

tone

The

noise, but

pitch

of

Quality

relativelysimple relation between

the

the tone.

distance.

Pitch, Intensity, and

and

with

definite

most
produces al-

wires

is

street

change

in the

disappears

primarily tones, but

are

upon

inevitably a noise which

acter.
char-

distinctly tonal

piano

of

accompaniments

some

present

striking of the hammers

the

95

these

complex
and

as

of vibrations

mixed

terms

that
facts,i.e.,

single rate,

tones

in the
made

are

tone
case

up

INTRODUCTION

AN

96

of

fundamental

the

of

case

wire,

or

only

not

stretched

violin

segments

with

tone

string, for

string,there
entire

of

one-half, one-quarter, one-third, etc., of the

quality of different

to

capacity

into

enter

of

one

pick

to

and

noises

is made

voice

these

illustrates

language
vowels

are

represents

these

peculiar and

Sense

of the

minute

ear

The

such
ear

familiar

trait.

The

in

the

most

elements

of

Each

human

spoken

precise

way.

speech.

The

individual

characteristic

the

combinations

tones, and

Organ.

voice

combination

"

detailed
consists

We

the

Although
in

the

main

anatomy

quite capable of simple

are

anatomy

difficult to follow.
of any

and

and

fact

which

tones

noises

general principles involved

physiology
the

this

off.

masses,

same

intrinsicallynoises.

Auditory

the

trasted
con-

of

elements.

two

The

as

tone

chords,depends

or

tonal

this

essentiallytonal

are

consonants

on

given

constituent

identify

both

of

piano

waves

complex

depends

up

the

e.g.,

how

peculiar

The

tones,

the

out

ability to differentiate and

of tones

present,

are

the flute,is entirely dependent

or

abilityto analyze complex

the

upon

and

the others.

instruments,

the quality

another, and

one

this composition of the sound

The

The

with

not

the number

upon

over-tones, which

or

the cornet,

others,and

the

also to

occasions

segments

will depend

or

is in relation

these

with

of sound

mass

with

of

blends

which

they harmonize

strong each

upon

corresponding

length of the string, but

partial tones,

whether

vibrations

are

piano

the

entire

these

like

example,

In

to

separate tone

of

series of partial tones.

length of the string. Each

of the

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

can

is extremely

facts
and

tion,
formula-

complicated and

accordingly make

no

pretense

exposition.
of

three

main

divisions

(see Fig. 31)

SENSATION

(1)

the

external

so-called meatus
a

of which

ear,
or

97

with

the

broad

above, the sharp edge below, and

Fig.

31.

"

Diagram

of

B, tympanic membrane
O; D, Eustachian
ear,
of the
throat; E, one

arising

out

of

saccule, fibers

the
from

semicircular

utricle
the

upon
vestibular

canal

of

canals

which,

axis

long

separating the external

tube
the
leading from

shown

part of the
ear,

edge of the wedge

the

A, auditory

ear.

and

conch

is visible;(2) the middle

passage

wedge-shaped cavity

the

the

the

ear;

middle

the

middle

upon
of the

branch

external

from

of
as

roughly

to

ear

internal

the
ear,

the

adjacent
eighth nerve

ear
terminating.
region of the internal
posite
opof the
bone
is known
the
vestibule.
as
stirrup
F, the spiral of the cochlea, through the central
pillar of which
the
is shown
the
auditory nerve
entering to spread out toward
in Figures 32 and
hair cells of the cochlear
canal, as indicated
trunk
of the eighth nerve.
35; (r, the main
(After Hough and
Sedgwick. )
are

the

parallel with
leads

down
meatus

The

end

the
into

sides
the

opens

of

throat.
into

the
At

head.
the

the middle

From

this

point where
ear

tube

the

Idrge membrane

ternal
ex-

98

AN

fills up

the

attached
it
the

INTRODUCTION

the

inner

the

To

passage.

the first of

across

TO

chain

32.

surface

en,

Vertical

"

the

of

the

section

main

tympani;

of this membrane

center

of three

bones

cavity of the middle

trunk
scala

8v,

of

ear

is

extending

from

aperture

an

into

opens

in

(3)

through
the

to

which

chamber,

Fig.

PSYCHOLOGY

the

bones

containing the cochlea;

cochlear

vestibuli;

nerve;
g,
canal.
c, cochlea

ganglion; st, scala

(After Gray.)

^M^,^

SC

PC
EC
B
Fig.

33, A
side.

and
In

B.
B

"

Sketch

part

of the

of left
bones

bony labyrinth viewed

cut

are

to

away

show

from
the

outer

internal

cavities.

ternal
0, cochlea; "Sf(7,
canal; EC, exsuperior semicircular
canal; PC, posterior canal; AM,
ampulla of canal; 0,
window
which
window
oval
into
stirrup bone fits; R, round
the
into
middle
connected
with
scale
opening
"T,
tympani,
ear;
scala
connected
with
0.
vestibuli,
(After Cunningham.)
R; SV,

the

internal

tunnels

or

This

ear.

cavities

throughout with

an

in

last is
the

solid

very

bone

elaborate
of

the

system

of

skull,lined

extremely irregular membranous

sac,

SENSATION

fluids

filled with

Inside

structures.

cells,whose

hair

sound

sac

bases

are

in

innumerable

connection
See

nerve.

with

minute

the

it first throws

separating the

Attached

little

35.

Figs. 32, 33, 34,

the ear,

membrane

ear.

appropriate bony

upon

mounted

are

reaches

wave

the middle

from

the

drum

the

vibration

supported

of the sensory

terminations
When

and

99

to the

into

external

of this

center

mem-

sc

Fig.

34.
of membranous
the
Diagram
labyrinth [supported within
in Figure 33], filled with
rounded
bony labyrinth shown
lymph and surduct,
by it. C, cochlea; 8, saccule, united
by a small
semicircular
of which
the
with
TJ the utricle,out
canals,
spring
"

/8fC

connection

The

of

the

nerve

labyrinth is indicated

membranous

with

the

in

Figure

end

in

organs

31.

the

ningham.
Cun-

(After

brane
turn

thence

both

is the first of the chain

transmitted

by

the

outside
ear,

to

the

other

inside

vibrations

hairs of the hair

bones, whose

cells.

membranous

the

are

set

Ai

which

up

this

the

auditory

Fig. 13), whereupon

The

Semicircular

the internal

ear

cortex

liquid (found

stimulate

the

up

of

ternal
in-

sac) of the

the

the

tiny

nervous

auditory
cerebrum

nerve,

(see

is heard.

sound
Canals.

chain, and

point originate the

impulses which, traveling back

finally reach

the

is in

motion

in the

bones

two

of the latter upon

impact
and

of

"

The

(see Figs. 31, 34)

vestibular
may

portions of

possibly have

to

do

with
but

INTRODUCTION

AN

100

canals

the semicircular

ear

find

we

which, when

rude

the sensitive walls of the

In

signal.

and

man

into

the

is moved

and

sac

the

"

at

35.

cochlea.
from

give

so

S.T.,
tympani,
window, closed by

round

fro

of

the

up

in

them

the

This

ear.

middle

ear.

membrane

the

the

wall

tive
primi-

of

membrane,

the

warning

sensory

the
in

outside

when

vibrations

through
channel

middle

of

passage
the wall

movement

we

whorls

some

in

ferentia
dif-

has

structure

lymph-filled

vestibuli,
of

this organ

one

permits

S.V., scala
in

balance.

air vibrations

liquids of the internal

ear,
air
the
waves
coming
by

window

oval

base

of

section

cross

In

cochlear

the

one

scala

middle

and

of

Diagram

"

all.

of

jarred,strike against

or

described,sensitive primarily to

have

the detection

preservation of

the higher animals

two

doubtful,

Avith little pebble-like otoliths

sac

organism

the

for

organs

auditory function

real

no

are

for

and

movement

They have

Fig.

this is very

perception of noise,though

the

bodily

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

leading
of
to

the

are

into

the
and
set

external

leading

ear

the

which

from
the

These
8.T.
two
stirrup bone is inserted.
passages,
of
and
the
cochlea.
the
another
at the
CO.,
S.V., join one
top
of
Reissner's
canal
the
cochlea,
lymph-filled
separated by R.M.,
from
the
scala
vestibuli
and
membrane,
by B.M., the basilar
from
the
scala
brane
memmembrane,
TJI., the tectorial
tympani.
authorities
the
to be
sponds
rethought by some
body which
to the
waves
by sympathetic vibrations
produced in the
The
sounds.
endolymph of the ear by external
theory assumes
that
the
membrane
strikes
of
hair
cells
ths
the
tips
against
and
thus
sets up
in
the
Most
nervous
impulses
auditory nerve.
of

the

authorities
and
on

think
transmits

it.

I.H.C.

that

the

basilar

its vibrations
and

O.H.C.,

inner

membrane

directly to
and

this

serves

the

outer

respectively; S.C., supporting cells; R.C., rods

(Modified from
auditory nerve.
Stewart.)

hair

rows

of

of

cells
hair

Corti;

tion
funcing
restcells

A.N..

SENSATION

the organism

the other the semicircular

apparatus, sensitive

at

three

The

body.

of the

planes

the vestibular

membranous

and

quickly,they lag
with
as

the hair

in the

instead
a

when

is

presumably

one

of these

in

behind

cell terminals
This

head

the

somewhat

cochlea.

pathway

of

cerebellar

to

muscle

is

sound,

up

groups

most

tive
sensi-

planes.

Like

other

into

come

the

contact

in these

regions, as

sensory

impulse, which,
and

and

centers

well

occasioning

so

quite

over

released

are

of

is moved

body

different

'thence to

of the eyes, the head, and

"

movements

compensatory

conveyed

and

tire
en-

three

to the

liquids

or

and

found

sets

the

of passing to the auditory cortex

sensation

tibular
ves-

of the

corresponding

suspended

are

the

vice.
they retain the old otolith de-

arrangement,

sac

in

body

and

developed approximately

Each

body.

otoliths

These

and

canals

movements

gross

have

other

of the

to movement

to

canals

right angles to each

main

101"

trunk

tending

to

tain
cer-

and

"

preserve

bodily equilibrium.
It

is

doubtful
canals

semicircular

produce

are

directlyconscious.

as

in rapid whirling,

of their

action

and

under

whether

if

But

sensations

conscious

quality of their

is

question of their practicalimportance,

they

dizziness,loss of balance, and

cause

discussion

Sensations.

and

generally

to

and

learn
tact
con-

There

own.

for if

diseased,

ance
general disturb-

coordination.

of motor

Gustatory

we

they reflexlystimulate, rather

which

directly by

no

thus

vision

of

than

the

which

of

We

dizzy.

through the sensations

movement,

conditions

they be violently stimulated,

made

are

w^e

any

normal

"

As

the

result of

good

experimentation, psychologists

agree

that

there

are

four, and

have

deal

of

come

mentary
only four, ele-

qualitiesof taste, i.e.,salt,sour, sweet, and

bitter.

AN

102

INTRODUCTION

observers

Some

would

They

tastes.

By

of

means

combined

in

bitter,sweet, heat, and

head

is

and

is

utterly

it is much

sensations

individual
food

common

taken

of

the

at

quite

the

largely due

smell.

There

several

is

them

stimuli

are

It is
may

evidence

in

the

with

the elimination

four

commonly
be

to

mention

seem

to

every

supposed

experienced

on

that
any

be
can

of the

found
as

the

that

rule be

great uncertainty.

four

kind

observer

age
aver-

presenting them

confirm

to

One

tastes.

If

and

smell,there

other

any

eyes

precaution be

temperature,
of

pression
sup-

the

suggestion above.

of uniform

In

the

many

tending

of these

character

all made

tendency

These

and
it will

mouth,

of

that

further

there is often

kinds

indicated

fluid form

never

the

for them

really elementary

of

if the

This

the

to

identify

qualitiesalready mentioned
even

are

loss to

cold

mouth.

blindfolding

By

to fluid form

of

temperature

detected,and

at

tion
inflamma-

effect of
of

of.

apt to be dulled.

direct

to

unaware

are

the

substances, and

reducing them

only the four

the

is

odor

suffering from

more

of

involves

when

of foods
to

obviously

involve

stopping the nostrils,it will be found

and

to

Both

congestion of the membranes

of

very

ages
bever-

Coffee

contact.

person

that

attributed

point of fact

and

foods

ordinary forms

contact.

observed

the tastes

commonly

ment.
move-

have

we

of

tastes

its

degree that the uninformed

has

and

contact, smell, and

sweet, cold, and

sour,

soapy

another

one

combinations

such

Lemonade

constituents.

in the

with

and

however, capable of analysis into these

are,

Everybody

this list metallic

to

of characteristic

which

PSYCHOLOGY

of temperature,

large number

involves

add

often

are

sensations

with

TO

the

reduced
is almost

of taste

ity.
qual-

adequate.

various

taste

part of the tongue.

tions
sensa-

As

103

SENSATION
of

matter

Thus

(Fig. 36.)

It is

36.

Surface

"

the

which
of

and

the

kind

of

salt,the sides
curious

special receptors for

Fig.

regions difPer decidedly

marginal

sensitivity possessed.
tive
is peculiarly sensi-

the tip of the tongue

and

sweet

bitter.

in

another

one

to

the

different

the

tongue
gustatory nerves
circum

to

and

sour,

kinds

from

seen

above.

terminate

vallate

of

lie

base

the

of

qualities,

sense

The

taste

mainly

in

papillae,and

to

existence

fact, suggesting the

of

2, the

tive
little sensi-

is very

of the tongue

center

taste, and

to

from

fact, the

buds
the

3, the

in

walls

fungiform

papillae.(After Schafer.)
that

substances

some

produce

different parts of the tongue.

sweet,
indications
the
which
the

also

at the

tastes.

At

bitter.
of

elementary qualities.
bitter

and

taste

the tip, saccharine

it tastes

if applied to the surface

different

very

of interrelations

sensitivityfor

other

base

an

Thus

There

of the tongue
sweet

without

is

kind
are

tremely
ex-

some

are

intimate
there

upon

tween
be-

drugs

will paralyze

affecting the

AN

104

The

INTRODUCTION

Gustatory
be tasted

may

and

at

Sense

Organ.

all,it

must

by the

understand

for taste

In

"

be

with

in

the base

is thus

As

different

regions of the

sides, tip, and

that

fact

the

of

point

fact

and

what
fusion

of

receptors

for

in
tact
con-

in the

preceding

of

distributed
the

There

has

being

tongue

taste

some

are

cheeks

over

in the

and

borhood
neigh-

already been
designate

called
is in

taste

smell, taste, temperature,

The

movement.

with

center

commonly

we

cell

differs considerably
are

palate. Attention

minute

lie imbedded

out

tongue,

in the

receptors

cept
quite impossible ex-

form

them.

occasionally found
of the

to

of

is very

tongue

it

easy

papillae. Direct

pointed

base, the

substantially destitute
nerves

of very

rendered

been

has

seems

the

that

of certain

liquid form,

this

for

Figs. 37, 38, 39, which

in the walls

fluid.

in

substance

be tasted unless

can

reason

at

that

presented

paragraph, these papillae,whose

the

order

it is remembered

these organs
a

The

terminate

shown

deep crevices

for

saliva.

when

stimuli

structures

in

PSYCHOLOGY

solid,if taken into the mouth,

no

is soluble
to

TO

tact,
con-

vated
richly innerand

contact, pain, temperature,

movement.

Olfactory

Sensations.

have

noticed, intimately connected

This

connection
the

is undoubtedly

fundamental

Despite this intimate

are
on

of

striking contrasts

very

few

the

in

number

other

and

can

at

an

these

of

and

two

taste.

almost

The
to

The

taste

taste.
sents
repre-

taste

as
ditions.
con-

presents

qualities

isolate.

endless

we

senses

connection, smell

best be grouped

roughly separable classes.

as

primitive animal

relativelyeasy

hand, presents

qualities,which

to

in

are,

those

ancient

very

supplies

smell

with

importance of

guardians of the food

some

of

Sensations

"

Smell,

complexity

together

in

tain
cer-

qualitiesappear

105

SENSATION
to

in

connected

be

general

regions. Smell,

Fig.

37.

papilla;

about

Fig.

38.

section

Vertical

"

the

T,

the

n,

taste

Vertical

"

with

the

hair-like

far

so

of

circumvallate

gustatory
buds.

section

detected,offers

of

papilla
fibrils

nerve

calf.

terminating

in

no

A,
and

(After Engelmann.)

through

terminals;

be

can

as

tinct
anatomically dis-

with

way

2,

bud.

taste

supporting

cells.

1, gustatory cells

(After Cimning-

ham.)

Fig.

39.

"

Diagram

of

the

cells found

cells; h, supporting cells.

in

taste

bud.

(After Cunningham.)

a,

gustatory

106

INTRODUCTION

AN

TO

topographical differentiation.
be

fluid.

stimulus

The

events, finely divided

PSYCHOLOGY

stimulus

The
smell

to

be

must

taste

to
a

particlessuspended

gas,

in

must
at

or

all

such

gas

the air.

as

The

table

accompanying

qualitieswhich

is

division.

It

contains

generally employed

most

now

is

modification

physiologist Zwaardemaker
botanist

the

1
2
3

Fragrant

"

sweet

the

Dutch

table proposed

by

smells,

flowers

such

e.g.,

violets

as

and

peas.

smells, e.g., musk.

Alliaceous
smells, e.g., garlic,chlorine.
Empyreumatic
smells, e.g., burning tobacco, burnt

"

ing
work-

Ambrosiac

"

older

an

as

smells,including fruit odors.

smells, e.g., camphor, spice.

Aromatic

"

of

by

made

of smell

Linnaeus.

Ethereal

"

the grouping

"

toast.

Hircine

smells, e.g., cheese.

Virulent
smells, e.g., opium.

"

"

Nauseous

"

The
to

fact

that

the

which

they

ordinary method
reference

characterizingthem

as

when

speak

grouping them

Olfactory
the
in

the

nasal
organs

of

bases

reducing

of

the

them

"

or

the

odor

of roses,

or

from

etc.)
taste,

odor, or finally,

sour

disagreeable.

Receptors for smell terminate

membrane

(Fig. 40.)
are

volves
in-

of the objects from

odor,

little hair-like

these cells

designating them

names

odor

sweet

Organ.

mucous

cavity.

of

by adjectives borrowed

agreeable

as

Sense

the

to

(e.g.,lemon

come

or

we

of

or

matter.

of elementary types is suggested by the

number

either

about

odors

difficultyof grouping

small

smells, e.g., decaying animal

or

of the
Unlike

bedded
cells im-

thread-like
upper

most

portion of

sensory

apparently themselves

true

nal
terminerv-

SENSATION

ous

Fig.

41.

This

seen

how

in

gentle breathing the air

40.

Isolated

"

41.

and

the

Snodgrass

line,
natural

show

to

of

the
of

membrane

nerve

course

s,

course

olfactory

numbered

the

the

location

air

currents

right
through

air

The

the

of the

olfactory end-organs

when
nostril
the

into

bone

usual

breathe.

we

when

which
of

course

the

0,

tory
olfac-

the

above.

lighter line, numbered

inhale
we
strongly.

black

The

air

the

2, indicates

in
the

from

(Modified

through the nostrils and

into violent

pass

may

Stohr.)

1, indicates

breathing.

Zwaardemaker.

after

the

do^v^l

comes

of

cally
graphi-

olfactory region of the rabbit; sf, supporting

ties,
authorishort, stiff cilia,or, according to some
resembling cilia; r, r, olfactorycells. (Mc-

mucus

Diagram

"

and

currents

brane
mem-

cells from

of

Kendrick

olfactory

figure shows

be

cells;

up

Figure

may

cones

Fig.

in

this

of

general location

The

tissue.

107

contact

inhalation,

on

with
the

into the

this

other

lungs without

olfactory region.

hand,

the

currents

coming
In

of

ous
vigorair

are

AN

108

drawn

INTRODUCTION

sharply against

up

vivid

and

As

TO

in the

smell

taste, but

of

ease

itself

were

that

true

the

Sensations.

best

in contact

with

it.

in

But

receptors

heat, cold, and

Ordinarily
usual

there

two

myself,

and

not

skin

The

surface.

to

one

points sensitive
insensitive
made

to

then

blunt

be

come

is simply

real

consent, pressure,

these

aroused

are

as

skin

sensations.

together by
of fact

matter

sensations

Thus,

if I

upon

the

reach

ing
aris-

out

my

table, I obtain
of

and

movement.

simultaneously sensations

impression, these various

presents

kind
to

evenly

of

over

all kinds

the

points

adjacent points

with

forms, and
Of

of stimuli.

the entire bodily

interspersed between

of stimulation

other

of

forms

of mosaic, with

sort

sufficientlyintense,

true.
a

course

which

skin

by

distributed

Nevertheless,

If

it is of

mediated

secure

to the usual

sensitivityare

be

bodied
em-

though

as

deeper layers the

common

lying

is

pain.

Contrary

sensitive

of

the kinaesthetic

book

terminations

of stimuli

contact, of temperature,

of

burn

kinds

movement.

the

is

and

of stimulation, and

grasp

sensations

heat

of

more

muscular

and

or

degree, there

speak

to

organ,

whose

are

generally added

from

If

secure

36.

page

By

pain

forms

are

hand

we

knowledge

the
strictness,

imbedded.

are

cortical
modern

sensitive

protective covering within

the

and

less

It is usual

"

feel the various

we

to

exact

Figure 14, opposite

Cutaneous
skin

the

but

nerves,

in

the

membrane

distinct sensations.

uncertainty regarding
the

the

PSYCHOLOGY

almost

statement

if

course

any

stimulus

region will

just made

is

spond.
re-

tially
essen-

(See Fig. 42.)

metal

point, even

gently passed

over

the

pencil point, be cooled and

skin

of

the

back

of

the

SENSATION

log

hand, there will be spots where

of

alone

quite lacking

and

warmth
than

either

42.

cold

of

the

of

be

can

which
is

cheek.

The

surfaces,as

which

can

which

on

are

Oddly

in
illustrated,
of the

More

numerous

painful

area

to

pressure.

the

on

and

pressure

and

back

of

to

pain
Snodgrass

enough, there

simple demonstration

to

very

the

case

are

from

pain

the inner

on

the elbow.

sensed

regions, like the

some

of

gions
re-

some

puncture.
of the

surface

widely

tions
sensa-

various

on

contact

or

sure,
pres-

tongue, the tip of the fingers,and

differences
be

be

sensitive

practicallyonly pain

of this kind

the skin just above

to

an

to

will

spots sensitive

(McKendrick

sensitivity differs
is

from

quite insensitive

by the tip

sensitive

There

aroused.
seem

to

sult
re-

eye,

region

spots

charted.

needle.

then, but

degree.

sensitive

similar

those

than

tact
con-

slightly heated.

points. The

spots sensitive

been

Goldscheider.

like that

There

have

and

now

moderate

Similar

respectively

cornea

of

point be

numerous

spots; H, hot
spots

wrist.

after

other

at

the

are

C, cold

"

the

if the

either

which

on

be sensed.

all will

at

more

are

pressure

spots

clearly sensed

will be

found

other

encountered

be

Warmth

Fig.

nothing

or

will

to

felt, and

will be

cold

perfectly distinct flash

by
may

much

the
be

The

first two

more

minute

last

made

mentioned

surfaces
than

are

those

region.

by lightly touching

INTRODUCTION

AN

no

three

such
of

quarter

inch

an

characterizes
other

the

skin

believe

similar
of

Sense

that

Organs.

have

of

[with

in

the

the

The

when

one

be

Behavior

in the

cutaneous

that

ent
differ-

various

tions
sensa-

these

is perhaps

the great motor

to

will

these

not

in

in

the

be

spinal cord)

experiences
of

ancient

are

organic life.

in considerable

measure

of

stimulations

to

response

zone

thought strange

cutaneous

was

to

"

^We

to

these

little successful

effort to

in

conjunction

Various

illustrations

of

combined
moves

have

the

frequently

There

analyze them, and

been

they
other

occur

almost

kinds

given from
and

hand, there

had

gists
Psycholo-

movement.

kinaesthetic.

as

with

kinaesthetic

have

of

sensations

generally refer

one

for the

pretty well localized,as

are

is particularly difficult because

When

now

pain, which

of

primitive and

Sensations.

refer

to

these

terminal

type.

Kinaesthetic

exception

tion
sensa-

region posterior to the fissure

and

adjustment

motor

occasion

for

suggestive of that

most

of

terminals

receiving devices

in its earliest forms

simply

different

to

reason

of

type

is

stimulations.

overlooked,

probably the

the

thalamus]

remembers

is strong

different

close proximity

(an arrangement
not

of

case

evidence

different kinds

possibleexception

Figure 13,

of Rolando.

must

the

the

Although

"

receiving stations

represented in
shown

as

cutaneous

cortical

The

each
exhibits

43

plausibly regarded
kinds

disparity

sensitivityin the

the receptors for the

Figure

organ.

of

type

set

senses.

mentioned

been

apart.

points

compass

yet absolutely conclusive, there

as

the

pair of

distribution

the

Cutaneous
not

with

regions

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

cutaneous

is almost

has

isolation
without
sensation.

of

time

to

time

sensations.

inevitably

111

SENSATION

H.L,

Fig.

x;

section

of

the

skin

showing H.L.,
horny layer or epidermis, C.L.,
layer, G.L,, the
granular layer, M.L., the mucous
layer, P.L., the papillary
of the dermis;
ings,
endN.E., nerve
layer, forming the outer border
and
of the nerves.
B, diagrammatic cross
N.T., the trunks
section
of the skin showing a hair and
the nerve
winding about
its base; H., the hair; H.L., horny layer of the
epidermis; N.,
with
contact
nerve
terminals,
trunk, mediating
sensations,
T.,
about
the base
of the hair.
tactile
C, a
corpuscle of Meissner.
the tissue of the corpuscle.
AX., the axonic processes
wrapping about
of
axis
A.C., naked
Krause,
cylinders. D, end-bulb
of cold.
AX., axones
possibly organ of sensations
entering the
43.

"

A, diagrammatic

cross

the

the

bulb; N.F.,
connective

naked

touch
fibers; T.C., so-called
cells; C.T.,
skin.
Pacinian
E,
corpuscle, probably
in contact
puscle
sensations; AX., axone
entering the coraxis cylinder terminations
at A.C.; C.T., connective
axone

tissue

concerned
with

of

the

tissue.

F, Ruffini's nerve
sensations; AX.,
axones;
tissue.

sensations,
to

and

The

have

point, or

Retzius

clear

no

blunt

Toldt.)

free

endings, possibly mediating

T.O.,
nerve

terminal

end,

and

terminal

organs;
to

endings, thought
organ;

stop.

the

fibers

(Modified

warmth

C.T.,
mediate

nective
con-

pain

simply thin out

Cunningham,

from

112

INTRODUCTION

AN

stretching of the skin

which

tends

with

sensations,thus confusing, or
the

characteristic

It is the

due

in

the

and

muscle

in

or

these three

Termination

"

of

isolation

control

our

sensory

be said at

over

later

Kinaesthetic

organ

located

in

tendon;

(Modified
be

can

because

AX.,

from

doubt

no

tions
sensa-

difficult

axone;

Morris.)

that

the

extremely important part

an

of this

But

Figure

"

will

more

in

the

cortex

illustrates the

44

receptors. The
is

by

post-Eolandic region along with

Sensations.

Organic
remains

considered

in

nerve

of

clinicians
the

neous
cuta-

of sensations.

group

way

fuse

to

for the kinaesthetic

receiving station

general

the

together. However

Organs.

central

the

dons
of ten-

point.

Sense

type of terminal

tend

movements.

our

nate
termi-

cartilaginous surfaces

organs.

play

tions
sensa-

insertions

the

would

analysis,there

of this group

sensations
in

of

and

itself.

sensation

motor

in

the

occur

T.O., terminal

T., tendon;

obscuring, somewhat

of receptors which

sources

they practicallyalways

44.

motor

or

ordinary conditions

joints. Obviously, under

Fig.

tion,
sensa-

pressure

today that these kinaesthetic

surfaces,or

ligaments,

from

at least

the stimulation

to

kinaesthetic

the

quality of the

general view

are

produce

to

as

so

fuse

to

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

to

be

be

One

described.

organic
should

"

sensations.

group

These
To

of
are

this

sensory

ences
experi-

designated
group

assigned the kinaesthetic

in

strictly
sensations,

SENSATION

like

because

the

by

caused

are

changes

taste,

smell,

outside

the

when

from

of

feeling

instance

an

in

need

supply

they

aesthetic

type.

in

cases

these

In

by

objects

as

the
and

for

air

the

of

detail

here.

the

Dizziness

semicircular

canal

rather

is

Hunger,

instances.

list is

The

to

the

"

tions
func-

long
reader

the

one,
can

pain
receptor

are

also

receptors
but

identified,
and

cutaneous

is

similar

problematical,

identifiable
sensation

with
group.

in

and

represented,

is

for

kin-

to

that
The

experiences.

cutaneous

are

The

well

not

them

painful

cutaneous

when

illustrations.

of

sensations

periences
ex-

The

congestion

The

are

stations

the

other

belong

many

such

example.

Sensations.

presumably

receiving

kinaesthesis

touch,

circulation.

The

the

other

doubt

cortical
far

in

experiences

described

so

still

Organic

already

in

of

of

are

stifled

another

with

many

no

and

or

affords

given

for

these

general

kinaesthetic

property

sensations

kind.

included.
be

not

of

this

connection

Receptors
some

organism.

aroused

are

choked

are

is sometimes

doubtless

ill

nausea,

mentioned

and

the

common

respiration

of

is

one

and

thirst,

the

sensations

hearing

organic

arise

consciousness

head

this

Ordinarily

these

of

as

is

of

body.

Illustrations

close

inside

distinguish

to

and

vision,

seiisations, they

organic

despite

others,

origin.

intra-organic

of

occurring

however,

the

from

group

class

general

convenient,

is

It

113

except
those

of

CHAPTER

SENSE

Sensation

chapter,
with

and

regard

forth, and
nerves

the

of

speak

just

elements

called

produce

We

point

another

to

which

psychologists

James

as

certain

the

grass,

and

sounds,
a

has

tone, but
of

them

the

kinds

sations
Senof

tal
men-

mentioned

later,

shall

with

we

deal

particular material

objects.

or

of

green

Similarly,
is of

class

our

reaction
identification
114

our

when

upon

of

hear
or

car,

as

sound

of

these

of

hearing
the

green

we

Each

quality

is

eyes

leaves,

street

bell.

seem

ties,
quali-

sense

open

by

objects

objects

of

we

but

green,

perception

immediate

these

that

when

see

we

defined

perception,

peculiar sensation

own

involves

call

activities,

sensory

simple combinations

green

whistle,
its

analysis,

are

elements.

of these

of

quality

immediate

locomotive

sounds

be

what

other

our

further

be

as

it is true

While

color

mere

often

they

other

to

such

commonly

to

sense

nevertheless
not

with

phase

consciousness

sense."

to

present
in

"the

and

organs

because

resist

feelings,

compounds

called

Psychologists

chemical

combine

to

arouse

are

sense

elements,

other

which

on.

pass

now

the

processes

which

the

depend.

simple

mental

this

from

and

supposed

are

of

qualities which

oxygen

sensory

sensation

mental

as

simple

do

as

of

previous

the

stimuli

of

structure

they

sensations

apparently

to

which

upon

adjustive

kinds

qualities

peculiar

Throughout

"

the

different

different

the

them,

discussed

the

to

PERCEPTION

Perception.

have

we

VII

noise
any

in

or
one

the

SENSE

mentioned.

manner

It involves

us.

The

perception

by the object
The

direction,distance,etc.
the

We

thing.

same

perceive
and

of contact

hand

we

as

even

though

gory

data

tend

to

cannot

we

with

which

perceive

of these

we

in

It is, then, to

more

each

perceptual operations

the

sen-

case

we

less definite

or

an

the

its odor,

meager

supplied,

are

from

come

violet by

pression
im-

the

by

part

However

object with

an

fringe of relations.
features

it.

see

in

which

perceive

We

all illustrate

will

book

its

objects, e.g.,

senses

temperature

it.

grasp

other

to

least of the

at

some

other

to

meaning

conveys

apprehension of

our

sustained

relations

115

PERCEPTION

certain

analysis

of

that

must

we

next

proceed.
contrasted

As

of the

ing
sensation,in the psychologist's mean-

with

term

consciousness

the

as

perception is relativelymore
get at
the
of

general complex
a

ribbon

of the

texture

the other
to

the

an

pointed

out

process

by which

we

there
from
us

and

is
the

or

certain

when

case

common-sense

apart

group

we

the

objects. Even

of view

of

and
sense

tables

from
tion
atten-

other

have

of sensory
To

object involves

one

abstraction

point

stones

the ribbon.

the real objects of daily life,the

dogs, sticks and

special

be sure,

discussing attention, the

less all other

of

the

only direct

perception

from

color

The

disregarding all

apprehend

perceive

sort

and

can

In

object,in this

was

more

we

apart from

it. We

circumstances.
in which

abstracting it

it appears

which

To

concrete.

it is imbedded.

color itself by thus

state

qualitiesas
as

in

quality,

sensory

more

our

be considered

colors surrounding

accompanying
mental

fabric

which

in

thus

may

and

real

of color involves

sensation

of

our

very

regardin
dis-

here, then,

isolation.

But

perception gives
and

chairs,cats

every-day experience.

AN

U6

TO

INTRODUCTION

of Sensations

Organization
justive process,
practicalmotor
of

other

no

extending the hand

As

response.

Part
We

in

Played
in

saw

taking place in

learned.

have

instances
a

he

the

To

processes.

the

to

is

fact

to

perceives when

of

matter

that which

like

more

plain

as

it

man

top

the
which

angles and

room,

he

as
sees

as

equal sides

square,
"

is

"

the

to
:

much

particulars

his

if he

merely

sense

certain

presented
in

sees

retinae,but

in

what

his eyes.

is before

of the situation

assumed

conscious

and

no

we

all the

that

room

in

is

principle

same

the

to his

"

learning of

obvious

seems

which

one

in

the

as

perceives is

that

single feature

which

all other

to

across

physically present

essentially from

take but
across

he

that

The

skating.

looks

he

complex object and

differs

dominant
pre-

ability to

perfectly obvious

perception

of fact what
is

the

our

next

square-topped table is simply that which

As

ably
prob-

modification

by virtue

moment

habit

applies, however,

human

Experience.

constant

general behavior, such

of gross

factory
satis-

larger bodily

afford

contact

chapter that

one

This

motor

new

their

to

by

perceptions.

reactions

our

from

over

carry

and

which

to

smell, and

of

use

and

perception

animals,

Perception by Previous

earlier

an

mere

effective and

with

guides

Vision, hearing,

make

can

object

an

far less

foci of human

we

apple, as

the

make

less of taste, as

reactions.

in

compared

make

beings undoubtedly

that

possibilities.As

can

we

distinctly an

very

An

ad-

an

touch, sight, smell,

to

centered

qualitiesare

As

"

them.

to

sensation, appeals

much

Perception.

into units such

responses

taste, to mention
all these

in

perception represents

organization of sensations

matter

PSYCHOLOGY

To

eyes.

be

standing

illustration,the table

that

projected

is, with
on

his

four

retinae

right
as

PERCEPTION

SENSE

figure with
saw

simply what

is

of

the

figure

all.

one

will be

actual

metal

or

fuse

thus

much

we

involve

stimulus, like
of
that

with

and

that
all

strike upon

the

be

to

sort

simply

of

period

sensations

and

see,

form.

of

after

the

whole

part

is most
in

is

cases

host

been

of

ticularly
parupon
may

the

the

tered.
mas-

really

may

the first instance

in

we

in which

fashion
has

perience
ex-

question

experience

language

sistent
con-

strange language

meaningless sound;
a

in

sensory

most

which

same

see,

previous

our

identical; but
In

to

narily
is ordi-

every

Language

the

moment.

than

way

of

for

other

to

this is true

interpret

to

purposes

of

tion
percep-

expect

we

elicited in the two

and

melange

are

what

absolutely the

in

qualities

the

at

of the effects of

words

The

experience furnishes
which

tration,
illus-

our

impression.

perception

radically different.
a

polished

tactual

are

top, in terms

'real'

or

ear

all intents
are

ment
mo-

position.

of

experiences of the object

our

later

to

objects, and

similar

perceiving.

The

the

at

like that

see

we

tend

We

table

the

its Hrue'

at

such

looks

thorough-going

striking instance

they do

at

square

qualitiesbelonging

accustomed

appreciated.

our

ceive
per-

sketch, the drawing

one

case

apparent

directlystimulated

said that

intimate

presents

in

sensory

that

are

more

assume

in the

would

not

from

seen

the visual

with

than

organs

what

as

Moreover, when

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or

becomes

hardness, all of which

somehow
may

type, and

table

surface, as

coolness, and

sense

rhomboid

he

him,

gets something of the feelingsof smoothness,

one

that

angles. If he really

acute

right angles

failure.

two

optically before

tries to draw

uses

wood

and

of this statement

truth

The
one

If

obtuse

two

117

tions
percepwe

hear

second,

ings
interpretativemean-

entirely missing in the first

case.

What

118

AN

INTRODUCTION

perceive

we

at

by

the

to

of

dependence

of

Fig.

(2) from

common

of

source

(2)

creaking
this

to

part

apparently

of

the

noise

of

in

are

evidence

ence.^
preceding experi-

this page,

on

are

like that

on

sense

the

as

caused

In

train

wind

structure.

because

present

fear

fact

illusions

which

(1) We
is

it may

and

simply

change

or

habits,

that

case

burglars

of

matter

by

127, exhibits

organ

the

night,

from

arising ( 1 )

as

of

be

distinctly
the

sounds

temperature.

belong

at

least

in

group.

no

common

senses.

additional

upon

distant

sound.

are

boards

page

as

waken

external

derangements

to

They

(3) from

illusions, hallucinations

Like

due

and

which

footsteps

(3) Figure 47,

which
illusions,

(After Gordon.)

45."

such

We
"

of the

sketched

roughly grouped

rumbling

thunder.

hear

be

may

expectancy,

perceive

Certain

"

perception

figure (45)

Illusions

perience
ex-

it has impressed upon

perceptions, furnish

erroneous

past

our

by the particular object physically

as

Illusion.

and

simply

The

which

termined
de-

much

as

senses.

our

Perception
the

is quite

interests, by

momentary

system,

PSYCHOLOGY

moment

the modifications

nervous

present

given

any

our

and

TO

are

physical
in

the

in certain

sense

forms

false
stimulus
organs
of

in

perceptions,but
is
or

present.
in

the

insanity and

They

cerebral

may

this
may

case

be

cortex.

involve

any

SENSE

be

60, may

page

uppermost,

below,

from
for

and

gray

case

the

or

as

instant

an

diamonds.

can

set

same

brought into

he

action

is

the

large

large

which

couple

these

be

lines

as

in

an

in

reaction

therefore, of

our

cornice

is

to

go

together. Both

principle of habit, which

we

are

To
volves
in-

of cubes

in

from

the
that

organization,

perception
motor

subject

discussed

that

dealing with

The

corresponding organization of

things

it clear

neurones.

decidedly different

exhibited

acquire

it is evident

experience.

sensations

phrase

systematic fashion

and

appropriate

not

represented,is

pyramid

nerves,

be

the

make

cortical

organized and

cerebral

cause
serious, be-

entirely unnoticed.

which

of dozen

more

seeing, and

error

be

overlooked

very

of

and

one

shall

perceptual reactions

of sensation

experience would

IV.

the

the

of

groups

the

Chapter

Thus

in

arousal

habit

readers

many

for

are

are

yet

previous

evidently

errors

the

embodied

measure

required by

in

is

moment

's

one

group

previous experience should

the type of motor

pyramid

by

organization

the

two

him.

each

Clearly this

contexts

ui^lessthey
is in

in

that

note

particular

one

any

he

will

from

Which

reader

to

extent

perceive

The

at

black, white,

perceived.

are

at

observe

absolutely identical,and

different

three

really before

meaning

of

will

of

faces
sur-

looking

is difficult to

Typographical

what

sees

'Pacific Ocaan'

in

the

lines.

of

by the ordinary

that

is

one

flat mosaic

reader

objects

accidental.

The

which

black

with

only be explained by the fact that

experience affords

what

is

stimulus

retinal

result

less

as

"

The

quite distinct

or

cornice

The

different ways.

pile of cubes

"

three

the

as

finally though this

or

than

more

119

in at least three

seen

perceived

be

figure may

PERCEPTION

is

flected
re-

response.
to

rather

the

eral
gen-

fully in

AN

120

INTRODUCTION

of

Perception

gives
but

us

it is also

of

most

and

perceptions

our

that

time.

space.

itself with

nature

of these
clear

steer

but

of

common

time

and

space

has

from

the

the

effectiveness

ability

our

and

phrases

gest
sug-

just

as

we

earliest times
ultimate

the

experience. We

hardly forego

try to

must

of

our

medium

adjustments

of both

reactions

make

slight study of the

some

Our

processes.

in

to

time

lem,
metaphysical aspects of the prob-

more

of the

occur

of

that

understand

to

our

said

in

Gur

attempt

forms

two

can

we

psychology
the

the

gain

we

imbedded

us

perceive objects. Philosophy

busied

which

objects,

of

It is sometimes

to

perceive both

we

physical world

through

come

in

them

the

only

not

"

channel

space

PSYCHOLOGY

Space. ^Perception

and

with

the

of

knowledge
all

Time

contact

our

TO

is

time

to

and

roundings
sur-

our

and

space,

largely conditioned

intelligent allowance

for

by
these

factors.

Space Perception
been

controversy

some

all of

our

senses

generally been
The

perception.
have
for

been

accepted
other

example,

was

massive, and
that

some

Taste

because

it is

and
can

thin

held

is

big and

hardly

compromised

temperature.

perhaps

be

The

of

sources

have
space

particularly hearing,
James,

all sensory

that

that

William

ence
experi-

sounds

certain

are

tained
fragile. Similarly, he main-

and

are

has

whether

to

sensations

of discussion.

He

odors

others.

and

to maintain

wont

others

self-evident

as

senses,

is 'voluminous.'

with

Jhe kinaesthetic

the chief centers

There

"

mediating experiences of

of

capable

are

Senses.

psychologists as

among

Vision, touch, and

space.

Several

the

and

expansive

compared

profitablesource

sion,
of discus-

by its connection

with

precise meaning

better

as

understood

of the
after

we

tact
con-

versy
contro-

have

analyzed

of the

some

121

PERCEPTION

SENSE

in the

conspicuous features

tion
percep-

of space.

adjustment
factor

direction
locations

lifts

which

is the

hinges

and

are

found.

the

of this

Behavior

of its legs to wipe off

its body, obviously involves

The

perception

and

size

although

needs

to

distance

of

of

many

relatively accurate

from

important
has

perhaps
the

upon

when

as

eral
gen-

frog

injurious substance

an

of
the

and

from

spacial adjustment.
perception of shape
later

somewhat

the

the

retreat

Another

type,

form

presumably

are

in

go

ability to localize stimulations

surfaces.

one

to

of direction

sense

the

largely upon

very

supply

stages, the

lower

needs

creature

its enemies

from

developed,

The

of its food

where

capacity,

bodily

relations

to space

direction.

of

particularly in its

life,and

animal

In

lower

animals

ability to

estimate

acquirements,
have

to

seem

distances

at

near

hand.
If

first the

consider

we

is fairly clear that

smell
and

all

that

us

possibly

taste

if it could
the

be

with

of

if

we

turn

we

led to quite

the
a

other

different

the
of

same.

But

perceiving

who
a

make

to

are

hardly

can

sensations, at

our

But

of movement.

mentioned

have

perceive quite

objects possessing them.

we

find

we

least
when

ourselves

conclusion.

objects clearly

qualities we

and

of

any

accuracy,

in this group

criterion,we

our

factors

If

touch.

permit the cooperation

to

Visual

to

direction, i.

hearing, and

also be found

from

direction

deny spacial character

not

detect

varying degrees of

would

separated

detection

to

vision,touch, movement,

serve

may

capacity

as

truly

Indeed, in
would
square

and

shape

as
a

ever

sound,

size, and
we

think
or

perceive
they

sense

these

of

are

the

round

the
one

bility
possiodor?

INTRODUCTION

122

AN

Certain

psychologists maintain,

already implied,
odors

some

is

drum

the

odors

thought of

There

the

of the bass

case

of
more

of

factors

the noise

likely to affect

are

of the sound.

But

spacial character
undertake

their

sound

may

and

one

never

odors.

the

of

venture

such

reference

than

kind

same

of

Undoubtedly

including size

we

the
and

to

of these
volume

no

would

one

sounds,

to

other

or

estimate

the

tense,
in-

relative

their

of

to

sounds.

another, that is,more

measures

consideration
we

size

space

find

be

may

them

tensity
inand

urged

suggestive of

certainly localize them

more

or

istics,
complete list of spacialcharacter-

shape, which

visual-touch-movement

certainly lacking. We
of

ment
instru-

the

both

or

veys
con-

undertakes.

accurately. But

whatever

One

this is often

with

brings us,

shape

louder

and
spacial qualities,

of the

the sound

sounds, but

such

Exactly the
about

be

naturally

impressions of the

our

size with

often

we

of

which

exact

tensity
the in-

admitting the strong suggestion of

even

describe

to

estimate

proceeds.

In

its results

majestic proportions of

the

which

from

less

of

one

general bodily jarring which

knowledge

shape

as

gas

advanced.

is to be mentioned

impression of bigness. Associated

an

One

just been

has

possible confusion

has

there

drum,

of

lemons.

of

as

bass

space-occupying

sources

sound, which

the

less

or

our

evidence

of

illuminating

violets,sandalwood, and

supposed

others,

shrill whistle

the

pervasive,more

obvious

have

we

sound

the

garlic,onions, and

more

certain

are

in such

of

than

as

sure,

larger than

are

Thus

bigger

of

as

the odors

than

be

to

be

to

sounds

some

voluminous.

more

alleged

fife,and
are

that

PSYCHOLOaY

TO

can

character

so

are

space

tures
clearly fea-

experiences, are

hardly, then, deny

belongs

to

the

to

them

ability to dis-

PERCEPTION

SENSE

direction,but

cern

of space

the full quota

We

must

back

examine

to

in

of the several
important peculiarities

suggestion of

senses

media

as

beings

of

which

from
that

should

we

until

atrophy
there

be

can

animals
with

in the

not

or

its

determination

of

localize
This

accuracy.

the

fact
to

come

body

that
us

strongly
sounds

sound

in

than

such

right angles

plane localization
an

determine

with

is

in

the

to

the

median

person

sounds

are

is

of

measure

largest part

that

stimulate
is

line

in

one

obviously
vertical

joining the

ear

true

more

of

front

of,

all

plane of the
ears.

with

In

or

this

closed

generally quite unable

in

on

often

sounds

extremely inaccurate, and

inexperienced
whether

and

This

it is

limits,to be described,

and

to

as

way

many

direction,in which

ears

other.

the

except those
at

suggestions of

certain

two

delicacy

only unequivocal spacial

promptly

have

and

many

greater degree,

even

capacity is dependent
we

ancestry,

sense.

conveys

relations,but

suffered

time

present

that

is most

has

accuracy

In

"

and

animal

our

the

of this

use

distinctlysuperior. Within
can

of smell

the

in

essential

point the odor

at

crude

very

it is almost

from

ferred,
re-

tion
identify the direc-

to

sense

smell, hearing

is the

already

this direction

what

at

Perception.

Space

of space

function

in

head

hopelessly

us

perhaps, than
kinds

coming,

evolution

they make

Auditory

is

question that

no

excel

which

we

human

the

have

we

wish

If

determined

Whether

intense.

the

turn

have

we

odor

an

its vague

through smell only

secure

impressions of direction.

from

Apart

"

which

to
relations,

space

human

Smell.

from

Space Perception

eyes

detail the

more

perception.

space

we

them

to

properties.

turn

now

attribute

certainly not

can

we

123

behind,

to

the

INTRODUCTION

AN

124

head, and
the

of

instantly

side from

which

without
of the

in

come

determine

to

of,

of

the

it

are

the

to

cult,
extremely diffi-

sound

behind, the

either

on

as

vision,or without

whether

somewhat

or

it is often

On

of

confidence

great
but

points

degrees outside

with

the assistance

head,

front

few

down.

low

or

originating from

and

they

PSYCHOLOGY

high, up

are

plane and

this

localized

they

sounds

hand,

other

side

whether

TO

movement

is somewhat

line

joining the

ears.

The

the character

to

part

difficultyof these localizations is related

or

ease

individuals

localization

higher

side

noises

and

tones

affected

so

are

reinforced

and

when
the

be that

to

seems

toward

devoid

of

cannot

be

In

in front

overtones,
so

are

familiar
that with

with

at

complex

(some being

ear

ently
differ-

point

somewhat

when

heard

to

at

the

tones, being

Pure

affected

thus

and

they sound

head.

of the
not

and

face

as

well

is very
the

we

and

readily confused

closed

unreliable
It is easy

with

a
a

very

to

therefore

estimate

direction.

their

as

sounds.

the eyes

able

are

this is

But

where

enough

to demonstrate

faint

afford

ready proof of this fact,and

tance
dis-

the

except

stronger

Gently sounding tuning forks

and

that

for

reason

distinguished.

practical daily life

faculty which

the

back

the

of sounds

is

of

The

of the

conch

far

it is with

than

tones

of noises

overtones

dampened)

some

position is

tuning fork.

by the

mal
nor-

of the

accuracy

exact

heard, for example,

left and

left but

the

the

comes,

complex
a

with

ing
difficultyin determin-

more

with
of

itself. While

any

sound

simple tones, like those

this

never

regards the

as

with

is

there

which

from

of the sound

in

sound
sound
the

further
most

everybody

are

we

at

near

hand
away.

convincing
must

at

one

SENSE

time

been

have

another

or

object, in this

distant

deceived

like the hissing of

faint sound,

125

PERCEPTION

thinking

some

radiator, was

steam

perhaps

case

into

locomotive

some

blowing

off steam.
"

of spacial
the

other

the

clearness

and

air

the

of

for

right

the

get

we

organ

eye

pencil, hidden

instantly and

the

to

direct

sees

from

of

part

the

binocular

visual

left

taken

are

from

at

touch

and

those

of

most

and

eye,

vice

and

gives
more

know

they

left

the

occupied by

judgments

our

visual

of

spectively
re-

in

eyes

distance

the

eye

us

on

the

object. The

the movements

size and

If

image.
the

distance,

we

of such

the

the external

of the

cular
mus-

the

controlling

retinal

image

the size of the

conversely

and

estimate
estimates

cles
mus-

object the larger

know

distance;
can

for

accommodation,

the
we

involving

in

the ciliarymuscles

nearer

are

mechanism

own

of

distinctness

estimate

accuracy

on

The

clue.

distinct the
can

its

and

convergence

the latter

has

changes, to-wit, alterations

of

The

object, we
we

right and

movement,

of the eye,

also

The

graphs
presents photo-

experiential factors

depending

lens.

the

as

versa.

by

sensations

the

to

normally

the

of

solid object, such

influenced

detecting distance
former

the size and

experience of solidity,

positions further

It

the object.

Although
probably

earth's

the

exaggerate this feeling of depth because

than

looking

only by

nature

stereoscope takes advantage of this fact and

which

of

any

accurately.

great precision both

shape of objects. Thanks

sense

of

curvature

cacy
deli-

and

range

is limited

distance

the

direction

judge with

to

in

Its range

senses.

us

of

point

perception vision easily surpasses

It detects

surface.

enables

In

Space Perception.

Visual

the
of

size
course

of

if

the

varies

126

INTRODUCTION

AN

conditions.

different

with

also learn

by light and

Distant

effects,as
aids

Color

only when

tial
essen-

relations

judge of distance

to

of

in the contours

seen

too, and

us,

how

learned

have

we

readily

very

shade

roof.

illustrates the

46

Figure

involved.

relations
We

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

tant
dis-

aerial perspective, but

interpret what

to

mountains, for example, tend

to take

see.

we

and

bluish

on

purplish hues.
Accurate

Fig.

46.
the

retinal

same

and

about

knowledge

objects enabled

the

the

different
distances,
relative
size.

subject

in

shown

Figure 47, with

Space
all the

from

Perception
the

historicallyas
others

are

in

It is

vision

purveying
we

final index

however,

wont

of

touch

derivatives.

the

limits within
while

in

cases

reality.

In

is simply

the
one

which

group

few

are

explain them.

We
which

to

of

figured

has

sense,

spacial world
of

for

their

know

to

from

which

have,

at

us

an

this statement

ordinary
as

of doubt

verdict

accept the

allowance

loss

under

important

more

make

Touch

way

nevertheless
to

"

to

spacial

fact that

is much

sense,

are

of

Touch.

fundamental

earlier point, indicated

is true.

at

attempt

no

to

us

be

should

we

striking illusions

certain

to

is, it is nevertheless

vision

as

evidently is of
image ah of the object AB
size as the images of the object XY
much
tant
disfarther
much
hand.
the
at
Unless
nearer
our
object LM

The

"

sensitive

and

or

touch

ditions
con-

space

tion
hesitaas

the

of daily life,

of factors

which

Fig.

127

PERCEPTION

SENSE

47.

"

The

they

do

does

not

horizontal
not

so

appear

In

appear.
to

do

so.

larger, although upper

In
the
B
parallel lines
filled spaces,
6c.

equal length, although

a
really continues
In C the lower
clearly
figure appears
and
lower
are
exactly equal in area.
no
parallel, In E the
longer appear
than
the
equal, unfilled spaces,
longer

lines

ah, appear

in
B

the

are

of

line

which

INTRODUCTION

AN

128

with

cooperate

TO

another

one

PSYCHOLOGY

give

to

us

actual

our

space

world.
the first

In

which

locate stimuli

we

be

remembered

we

found

that

it

surfaces

in

the

that

effectors

same

cutaneous

leading

into

out

muscles

movement

of

be

signed
obviously de-

doubt

no

system

controlling these

the immediate
can

skin

the

central

is

of tkese

value

in the

mechanism

region. Genetically there

system

nervous

regions. This

enable

It will

receptors from

immediately connected

with

the

of

study

our

through

bodily surfaces.

our

upon

arranged

so

are

to

is the great medium

instance,touch

stimulated

that
has

localizingmovements

the

tective
pro-

been

very

great.
In

the

human

skin

varies

was

suggested

tips and

enormously

the

back

the

on

being
in

the

the

on

of

power

localization

different

On

the

the back

of the

trunk, and

large parts of the legs the localization is crude

The

truth

of

of the hand
thereafter
skin

on

in the

and

trying with

the

of

of the

similar

while

person,
a

point

to

to

seen

be

demonstrating

very

the

same

skin

the

front

of the

face,passing

of the

ear

with

and
one

cheek
then

with
draw

point just

one's

kind

the
them
above

eyes

skin

immediately
one's

touch
The

own

differences
will be

Another

interesting

of

is to take

pair of dividers, separate the points by

touch

strated
demon-

for localization

great.

on

coarse.

point the

pen

forearm, and

surfaces

of the

and

promptly

spots previously stimulated.

sensitiveness

immediately
method

the back

be

can

lightly with

touch

closed, to

are

statements

allowing another

by

these

finger

hand, it is relativelydelicate,

on

arms,

the

on

body surfaces, as

preceding chapter.

of the

palms
of the

the

two

thing
about

inch,

points just

lightly
and

an

the

across

other

in

the

just

SENSE

lips,and

the

below

points

by starting with

made

side of the middle

the

across

In

spreading
fashion.

explored is
in

so

the

and

both

wrist

the

will

in the

coming together again

and

forearm

points

inner

finger
the

to

felt to

be
most

sensitivityof

ing
amaz-

This

is because

very

tions
different,a fact explicableby the variaof

the

be

may

the

over

up

and

the

the

tip of the

the

on

With

ear.

experiment

passing

experiments

richness

the

points

up

other

similar

finger,thence

palm

shoulder.
be

together

129

the

to

across

so

little closer

PERCEPTION

the

supply

nerve

the

in

regions

the

areas

traversed.

In
also

addition
the

capacity

we

of the
with
that

third
this

touch

In

speaking of

heavier
coin

course

in

touch

may

it

"

the
than
serve

which

organ

and

object,
it has
that

another

However
is

one

no

is

we

original knowledge

our

fare

it may

disposed to question

movement

at

the
to

same

make

is

are

touch

attached

skin,

it is

this way

sensations

object which

upon

time

for all

substantially affects

pressed

sense

least,does

give

experiences.

elements

an

reasonable

three-dimensioned

one

fact, practicallyall

temperature

instance,

to

with

temperature

of

only

possesses

with

shape

distance.

or

touch, in connection

matter

and

at

particular view,

that

this

the

alone

dimension,

tri-dimensional

us

doctrine

to

localization,touch

golf ball in the hand, and

grasp

favorite

indebted

are

from

capable of conforming

e.g., when

been

of

power

report size and

to

It arises

accuracy.

itself

the

to

our

is

to

stood
generally under-

have

experiences

them,

As

included.

and

in

some
cases

some

spacial judgments.

distinctlyhot

likely

to

be

or

judged

For

cold, if

larger
"

object if thermally indifferent.

such

frequently happens

an

that

experiment with.
in

passing from

Of
a

INTRODUCTION

AN

130

to

warmer

doors

cold

on

colder

TO

temperature,

day,

sensations

experience.

In

these

without
cases

of

think

it

of very

factor

gives us

movement

evokes
the

utmost

the

other

only

in

spacial

remarked

pain is

particularly with.

the

hand,

muscles

exact

the

eye

be

vague,

but

retinal

changes which

anatomical

no

is

In

of

which
with
the

Although
ately
it immedi-

as

one

there

is

bring
other

from

movement

again
say

visual

up

moves

produces

of touch

group

sense

sions.
impres-

of

sensations.
this

as

stimulations

of the

measure

the
The

conjoint

widely recognized fact

largely employed

of

group

nothing

about

of

sensations,

If

of

be

matter

other

group.

is to

place, it

are,

is of

practicallyall

simultaneously

also set

responsible for

movement

first

sensations,to

contact

of kinaesthetic

doubt

forms

real

moved,

conditions

excitation

of

use

cutaneous

through changes in skin tension

the

less

even

"

which

with

joints, one

and

move

perceptions,it

space

occasioning sensations

thus

If

Perception.

sensations

the

or

perception.

invariably connected

and

the

In

senses.

kinaesthetic

that

all but

the

for purposes

save

Cutaneous

Space

in

of thermal

use

no

we

size.

definite

approach

crude

importance

contact,

or

through the sensations

vague,

perature
tem-

spacial

we

in space

Sensations

Motor

or

experience

of heat.

source

significantas

fact,

little

general orientation,as when

from

away

of space

sources

as

make

touch

vague

with

possessing shape

as

Practically,therefore,we
sensations

certain

combined

it be

unless

of

mass

general massive

of

out

goes

accompanying

get
has

one

considerable

any

we

impression, which

seldom

when

as

encounters

one

temperature

character, but

PSYCHOLOGY

are

that

other

spacial sensation.

those

types

of

experience

in

which

we

gain control

PERCEPTION

SENSE

relations

the larger space

over

play

sensations
For

side of

to

the

another,

that

such
these

learns

one

But

muscle

are

quite

with

to

tions
sensa-

in the

visual

and

joint
to

serve

ate,
punctu-

of the limbs,

movement

data, visual, tactual

sensory

into

of feet

or

or

of distance.

terms

factors

several

label in terms

conventional

the

These

the product of these

Upon
placed

other

contact

from

come

rhythmic

content

to

changing point of

is ultimately translated

not, which

what

in the

feet, and

which

point

basis of all

the

sense

side

It is in

one

precise

some

momentarily

the

each

from

one

ment
move-

from

walking.

pass

of the

soles

distance

or

is resident

tliat

that just intimated.

as

real

fundamental.

as

of the

amount

In

sensations

the

it were,

as

the

arising from

view.

the

give

to

mile.

the

as

coming from

the

learns

spacial experiences

sensations

part

effort required to

distance

fairlyclear

only by creeping

room

of

terms

child

the

example,

it is

such

some

131

is finally

yards

or

miles.

commentary
of
there

our

always remain

huge

the

to

tongue

finger tip

similar

or

instances

have

too

is

poor

examined

could

discrepancies
which

cavity in

the

in

the

be mentioned.
the

this general

working

tem
sys-

senses,

that

unreconciled

the

thing

by

with

different

outstanding certain

example,

the

organization into

perceptions from

space

For
so

the

on

in connection

remark

It is interesting to

which

tooth
when

eye.

feels

explored by
other

Many

Doubtless

reports of the

parities
dis-

they

several

resent
rep-

senses

little practicalimportance to occasion

their

reconciliation.

Organic
other
the nature

Sensations
than

those

Space.

and

"

of the

of the ease, give

us

The

kinaesthetic

only

space

organic
group

tions,
sensa-

can,

perceptions of

in
our

AN

132

thus

impressions
abdomen,

For

The

reflex

for space

so

direct

in

in

functions

report,

so

the

the

from

the

Certainly

semicircular

canals

preservation of balance,
ordinarily little or

need

we

sensations

character.

adjustments, give us

conscious

part the spacial

tion.
general spacial orienta-

our

of

highly significantfor

and

the most

vague

important part

no

PSYCHOLOGY

e.g., visceral

aroused,

extremely

are

they play

while

TO

bodily conditions.

inner

own

INTRODUCTION

consider

not

no

in

them

this connection.
The

of Time.

Perception

taken

literallyevery

of

one

appreciation of

our

^We

"

our

for

our

shape,

and

contribute
it is

But
our

to

size.

In

the

for

which

have

we

The

perception.

another.

contact

with

live in any

measure

constant

who

by

the

of time

which

similar

purpose.

long

forget

to

course

rely

upon

for

and

other

various

as

the

indications

week,

indirect

time

the

kind
in

are

all of

of the

not

us

mark

of time.
and

minded
re-

amount
serve

allow

the

a
us

The

meals.

our

month,

measures,

in

are
one

bodily rhythms

which

called

be

frequently

are

work

our

owe

vals
inter-

life,we

example, does

temperature

us

life

time.

we

symbols of

periods for

accustomed

longer periods, such

we

of

of

clocks, and

routine

Hunger,

give

and

elapsed. The

has

changes of light
daily

watches

to

of

of

may

briefer

fairly

of

means

are

senses

that

the

intervals

few,

we

passage

for

to

tion,
distance,direc-

movement

least

longer

progress

mere

the

the

civilized conditions

Under

that

all the

something

general judged indirectlyby

or

and

estimates,at

accurate

selected

of

way

appreciation of

our

to

movement,

same

although

contribute

may

estimates

accurate

more

especiallyto hearing

more

direct

senses

and

that

seen

relations,it is

space

particularly vision, touch,

indebted

have

sun's

For
the

although the

the
year,
two

SENSE

latter named

intervals

one

the

climatic

by

of

judging

we

set

up

and

hearing

Thus

series of

more

accurately than

moments

from

Whatever
as

with
is

longer

or

Perception

to

comparing

shorter

of

perception

duration

and

movement
to

accent

believe

estimate

with

another

that

than

equal interval
certain

dancing,

by

two

be

These

loud
bounded

in

length.
treat

we

it

interval

of these

Our

"

intervals
in

of

extend

may

whether

is

which

units

there

are

one

closely related

seems

contribute
interval

in

by this fact of
sounds

seems

by weak

good

to

and
son
rea-

something.

comparison
An

accent.

shorter

to

us

sounds.

example, music, poetry,

quite impossible

both

again hearing

Here

may

of

judgment

evidently

although there

of the arts, for

it would

break

we

time

one
one

or

Rhythm.

affected

is much

to say,

such

total interval.

involved.

of the duration

bounded

For

vision, too,

interval
an

in

rhythm,

are

All

light.

moment,

not

or

time

paramount,

are

Our

of

judged

be

can

seconds

directly

and

sensed

another,

units

Accent

immediately

our

than

such

time.

'moments.'

several

to

judge whether

we

less of

or

these

in

tions
sensa-

use

off the

durations, and

real

length of such

actual

to

can

we

geometrical points, i.e.,places

second

of

portunit
op-

directly,we

measure

series

the

are

of

and

another

more

They

the

unit,

like

not

fraction

to

periodic,that is

into

neither

permitted

are

series of flashes of

interval

size.

we

by

other

seasons.

have

rapidly succeeding sounds

are

are

without

rotating
we

definitely,

the

moon,

brief intervals

movement

judgments

time

up

less

or

experimental conditions

accurately, if

direct time

the

to

for

need

when

most

more

ordinary circumstances

nor

judge

marked

are

changes incident

in

find that

133

shifting phases of the

the

the

Though

PERCEPTION

over-estimate

and
the

134

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

significanceof rhythm.
the soul of rhythm
media.
it is

But

fairlyclear
of its

of

the

work

train, takes
knows

just how

Attention

to

the

spreading

out

which

it. The

knows

when
and

turn

we
more

distance

some

the shadow
on

more

one

as

we

we

forward,

In

prospect,
month

The

be taken

to

the

to

is

week

the

not

life the

strenu-

perspective is

look backward,
the

older

grow

ahead.

day itself is

later

to

daily life.

Eveii

"

but

even

becomes

year

more

trifle,
affording only grudging opportunity for

intervals

tedious

In

only when
gaze

the accomplishment
shorter

never

reason,

interminable

dim

the

good

of

majestic outlook.

our

One

of Intervals.

with

intervals
an

the

Not

same

bored, until

Length

appears

schoolroom.

altered.

of

aware

esting
spent in inter-

lightly,especially that part of it dedicated

wholly

tedious-

the

vividly

undergo

we

time

and
possibilities,

osities of the

of

ficial
of arti-

dimensions.

drawn, and

been

year

in its turn

scious
con-

mass

means

minutes
one

less

or

by

time,

experience.

an

in

of

great

by

trial it is to be

commoner

childhood

the

become

Five

of sensory

dingy railway station,waiting for

often

has

big with

tend

simply

are

more

overcome

Affecting Apparent

the

affords

are

itself.

the change of attitude

toward

we

we

serious

such

Conditions

make

to

fairly portentous

on

encounters

always

are

before
literally

passes

spent in

interval

we

tend

Only v/hen

arts

apprehension

it indirectly and

fact of time

mere

the

concerns

situation,do

these

sense

in different kinds

that while

about

indices.
ness

as

passing, we

judgments

our

embodied

far

so

In

PSYCHOLOGY

of the

tend

to

The

absolutely essential thing.

To

get wholly lost.

lives,especially those
the
of ill-health,

month

impressive dimensions,

but

which
and
even

week

so,

sure,

lived

are

the

be

as

may

in

under
take

contrasted

PERCEPTION

SENSE

childhood, all these intervals tend

in

the conditions

with

135
to

shrink.

general, this phenomenon

In

monopolizing of

is

All

factors

these

of time
the" mood

and

tend

relates

intervals,depending
is

It

passed.

of

vivid

memory

no

intervals

seem

seemed

like

pass

This

inversion

compared

obviously

is

whether

we

back

with

can

into it few

On

Peculiar

which

loom

it much

in

away

make

such

remember

that

to

never

that it often
in

But

come.

of resemblance

out

to

other

are

keenly interested

and

hand, intervals

as

long.

memory

fact

of

in

that
short

or
or

that

very

time

interval

in progress,

retrospect

depending

little content,

can

an

upon

read

events.

many
of

has

well

estimate

long

seem

were

the

in

the

they

carry

appreciation of it when

give

Forms

we

serves
de-

example,

rule,

completely

itself to

or

in

length of

in which

would

memory

our

likely to

ing
pass-

which

the

distraction,and

morrow

of the

relates

interval

of

manner

of

verge

flash when

more

frequently

of time

memory

the

absorbingly preoccupied

as

our

original dreary length.

which

is

of the

experience, for

retrospect it all shrinks

its

fresher,

prolonged.

and

prolonged illness,we

the

though

as

future

sense

estimates

recollection,as

to the

of the

is

world

more

long in retrospect. We

bored

were

to

upon

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to

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often

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curious

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nomenon
phe-

consists

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AN

136

watch

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night.

from

which

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that

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fatigue
falling
the

on

asleep,

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data.

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PSYCHOLOGY

TO

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the

INTRODUCTION

simply
impressive

is

sensitive

to

CHAPTER

VIII

MEMORY

analysis of the

The

of

consideration

which

we

minds

our

in

into

fancy

discussion
achieve

we

main

modifies

experience

successful
while

memory

in

disclosing

neither

in

"

was

is the

meantime

we

consciousness

before."

acts

The

sense,

they

perceptual

our

instances
we

such

us,

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to

those

as

As

etc.

of

been

an

in

137

tions,
genera-

them

regarded

James
event

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experience.

special
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or

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''Memory

fact,
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our

said

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of

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recall

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past

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as

have

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processes

of

ing
involv-

as

be

what

thought,

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reflect

former

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thinking

have

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examine.

remember

ago,

how

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comprises
mean

knowledge

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examine

us

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term

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memory.

hours

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of which

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of

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turn

observed

racial

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have

by

thousands

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memory

whereabouts
who

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of these

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conscious

did,

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experience.

of

usual

any

back

project ourselves

to

have

we

present

it is not

observed

constant

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points

struggles

and

of

means

bring

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and

to

memory.

previous

several

already

of

naturally
by

to

imagination,

results;

two

and

shall

We

and

memory

characteristics

At

the

future.

these

time,

past,

are

leads

processes

transcend

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the

of

mental

which

events

of time

perception
those

able

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of

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experienced

generally

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138

AN

INTRODUCTION

this in

loosely than
It

in the

point emphasized
familiar

So

and

it

after

again into

Retention

and

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inspectionthat
of the

passed

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range

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it

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on

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conundrum.

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one

in

detail

by

the

of the
this

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take

author

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and

sensorial

as

we

convenient

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retention

have

preserve

is in

previously

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the

ception
con-

matter

limitations

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thinking about

physiological terms.

seen,

modifications

stimulations.

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of

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way

tion
ques-

carries with

discuss
the

where

nature

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genuinely

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its first appearance.

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not

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by

eye.

mind, it

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it

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recall.

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nevertheless

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may
a

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"

should

tion.
defini-

character.

has

actually recalled,it lives again,

at

of the

memory

retention

processes,

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sort

we

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focus

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recall

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to

ogy.
psychol-

of James'

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in

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covers

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

the

brain

impressed
stimulus

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them

removed,

139

MEMORY

the modifications

periods of

long

evanescent
recall

old

we

point

out

Obviously,

important

part

however,

in

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as

retention

in

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intelligencethat
memories

our

of

matter

get

which

of

is to

fact,when

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as

rule

themselves.

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the

only
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and

rest

essential for the purposes

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attention
because

kind

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is that
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at

hand,

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mass

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compared, however, with

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cases

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here

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part of effective remembering,

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memory.

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brain

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are

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140

AN

quite

INTRODUCTION

which

of

process

memorizes

48

Figure

wrong.

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repeated, the
in

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as

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PSYCHOLOGY

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Fig.

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48.

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of

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MEMORY

fact

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eral
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kinds.
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of intellectual materials, such

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acquirement of

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students

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There

memorizing.

141

question that

AN

142

memorized

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tenacity. Indeed, it

memory
"

conditions

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rapidly, but

moderate

PSYCHOLOGY

gained. Exceptions

individual

learn

only

TO

under

it is

as

occasional

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INTRODUCTION

we

of economy

shall

at

these
sumably
pre-

of total

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MEMORY

work, these considerations

academic

cramming

the

to

method,

frequent repetition of

weeks

material

the

or

trast
con-

one's

study

months,

with

distribute

to

in

lead one,

would

relatively long period of

over

143

is attempting

one

to

master.

The
relates
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In

confronting the

problem
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to

organization of
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relevant.

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to

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students, and
are

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peculiarly vir-

AN

144

if

tuous

INTRODUCTION

work

As

assignment.

work

that

at

much

point

where

moderate
labor

of

form

is

sensible

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of the

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memorize

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; it

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PSYCHOLOGY

TO

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In

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MEMORY
known

dementia, there is practicallya complete loss of

as

The

memory.

severe

people

shock,

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connected

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case

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railway collision.

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accident, like

an

emotional

destruction

cases

thing is

same

result of

the

as

145

which

first groups
Odd

character.
we

that

of
as

tioned
men-

facts

to the

memories

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we

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advance
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mean

closelyrelated

names.

be

already

age

such

ideas.

adjectives and

latter oftener

and

146

INTRODUCTION

AN

in

varied

more

of

reservoir

that

means

drilled.

Thus
of

means

facts

forgetfulof
vividness
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of

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table

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often

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experiences of childhood.

to

in

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and

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stated.

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memory

draw.

other

objects designated by
verbal

have

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to

convenientlyuse

can

our

consequence

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experiencesupon
we

PSYCHOLOGY

connections,so

for the

material

TO

fact

This

brain

the

great
is

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no

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impressions.
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would
.

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recall information

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stimulation
condition

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act

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rectly
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and

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tion
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MEMORY

and

us

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resolution

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attention

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's work

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in history which

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with

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power

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degree

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147

to minimize

disturbing
chairs, from

signal importance.

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points touched

upon

148

AN

INTRODUCTION

in the last few

the

that, earlier

in

learning and

be

than

which
of

If

character,it

is made

which

stimulation

securing tenacious

memorized.

be

was

tools.

the

all

our

into

immediate

of motor

expect that

the

is

into effective motor

at this

improve

"

point.

with

stration
demonabstract
in

some

what

special

than

that

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the
as

book

would

this, because

their rise out

it is therefore
obtained

natural

to

wherever

ideational

of

we

processes

activities.

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of

take

and

the

conception which

result

best results will be

do

to

more

important,

processes

of sensory

the

in

embodied

or

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control,and

translation

of

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opening chapters of

mental

character

embodied

be

less consequence

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item

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upon

have

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in the

sions
impres-

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drawings.

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application somewhere.

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of

process

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introduced

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at

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of

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us

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application will depend

manipulation of

with

lead

found

practical applicationof

has

information.

geometry.

we

of

the immediate

of tools, in

written

quences
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it will be remembered

process

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specialkind

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connected

retention

of information

actual

practical

chapter, in discussing the

single procedure which

of the

ing
secur-

be

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of

out.

likelyto

use

process

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the

the

for

use

memory

of recall.

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to the matter

original impressions, the

for

pointed

PSYCHOLOGY

paragraphs all relate

desirable

moment

TO

Does

the memory

An

interestingquestion

training the
process

memory

for all

in

subjects?

is suggested

one

ject
sub-

Until

149

MEMORY

few

years

ago

question

with

almost

would

everyone

experiments, however, initiated

to

equally positivedenial.

an

to show

experiments seem

in

training secured

diminishes

rapidly
other

any

for other

learned

speak

to

however,

to

brain

of Retention

has

and

to

measure

been

most

one

control

gain

it

the first. In

eral,
gention
atten-

positive benefit for

some

is

memory

and

Recall.

and

is

system,

over

is

as

no

tion
excep-

It has

"

primarily
which

conditions

already

have

of health.

is to be said about

What

recall itself. To

of attention."

If baffled at any

cases

are

less
the

one
name

probably

due

succeeds.
often
to

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comes

temporary

the
back

mind

be

without

blockage

the

the

high
must

not

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directed
more

in

of

point,4t

in
exception to the general rule is found
experience of trying to recall a forgotten name.

matter,

securing effective original impressions

curious

tries, the

only

abilityin

our

effective,it usually requires conditions

other

of

matter

we

represented by

maintain

of what

most

concentration

find

even

different structure,

learned

retention

nervous

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comprises
be

that

out

indirect

such

has

general principle.

the

pointed

the

he not

one

who

man

of
systematic,controlled discipline

any

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been

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second

of intellectual work, and

forms

skill,where

may

in practically

thing holds

same

foreign language

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seems

other

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mote
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have, had

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more

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undertaken.

encounters

of memory

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kinds

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task

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any

character, but that

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greatest for

is

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investigatethe facts led

to

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that

of

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vigorous affirmative.

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answered

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ado.

common
unmore

to

some

These

synaptic

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150

AN

TO

itself flexible and

show

follow

alert to utilize every

relentlesslythose which

built

have

shall find

memories

our

is

material

our

up

which

memory

has

been

never

always likely to

this

is needed

much

very

in the brain.

rough analogy

the

forms

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muscular

systems

discharge of

advertisements

of

fully upon

enter

addition

is

evinced

forced

to

the

readers

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systems

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considerations

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nections

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brain,

of attention
away

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of

have

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so

as

character,

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impossibleto

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be memorized
them

have

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that in

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systems exploit the creation

only aggravates

themselves

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fact to another.

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and

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memory

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pass

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mania
nervous

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usual.

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may

to

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in

great varieties of arbitrary association,by

one

that

perhaps afforded

something of their value.

to know

remarked

actually preserved

disease,when

than

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is

is found

power

often

are

presenting

ordinarily closely sealed.

are

nervous

energy

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wish

of

in failing

recall has

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this situation

muscular

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to

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of memory

reservoirs
A

In

cipline
persistent dis-

to

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it may

material

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and

fact.

as

evidence

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well; but

serving us

treacherous, both

general connection

hypnosis gives us

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success.

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subjected

prove

wholly 'fictitious material

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well

on

trail of suggestion,

unfruitful, and

are

promise

commonly

supply that which

to

PSYCHOLOGY

neglect quickly those which

to
to

INTRODUCTION

the
time.

on

to

means

list of

hearsed,
re-

of

of which

forty

or

single reading by

exploit

such

associa-

perhaps, of passing fatigue.

inhibitions, which
generally

151

MEMORY

tions.

Four

point.

House

Other

King.

rack

the

for

some

but

as

said

be

may

for

bases

in

the

useful

"

Suppose

numbers,
may

which

with

each

1,

suggested
which
Smith's
number

by
these

the

means

to

be

then

serves

arbitrary

ciations
asso-

remembered.^
of

kind

this

of

be

may

the

of

real

value,
they

have

we

of

that

memory

methods

remember
of

feat

time

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etc.

shall

122,

whose

122,

for

step

large
first

and

scribed,
de-

energy

is
is

Smith
the

is

vowels

group

tall.
are

"

the

e.g.,
make

to
to

word

form,"
with

t,

easily
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remembered,

be
For

The

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people.

memorising

order.

proper

unrelated

many
of

consonant,

number
in

occur

Mr.

by

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great

with

connected

person

is

number
form

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d,

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to

they

addresses
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digit
with

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investment

occasion

street

facilitate

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in

the

of

to

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development

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example,
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the

CHAPTER

IX

IMAGINATION

At

the
man's

upon

of

far
We

kind
in

the

Imagery
we
us

reflex

as

which

our

past.

Much

the

made

of
at

of this

book

lying
to

the

on

it

see

people succeed

most

mental

them

regards
vaguer

visual

and

visual

mentally

and

in

of

picture

the

than

character.

w^hich
the

say,

in

the

for

remote

is very

of the

ment
reinstate-

form.

Looking

the

and

eyes

before,

moment

promptness

in

book, which

for

that

adjustments

closing
was

be
the

seen

memory

ing
produc-

for

many

detail, both
others,

as

although

cally
original, is still unequivo-

Interesting
152

will

relatively little of

fidelity of

and

form,

less distinct

it

as

ployed
em-

preserves

useful
time

then

reasonable

with

have

which

is to

more

material

We

has

table, and

imagination,

ideational

considerable

possesses

color

in

of

future.

some

that

imagery,

general aspects

Conscious

it.

experience

sensory

attempting

of

of

up

at

of

the

acts, certain

in

now

"

of memory

type

of

of memory

acquired

ancestors

moment

undertaking

study

Recall.

or

discussion

anticipate
of

forward

present

This
a

we

instinctive

and

psychological

largely

to

form

organic

an

possess

to

process.

Medium

the

either

psychological

the

by which

look

commented

we

important

turn

naturally

device

mental

must

we

of

certain

memory

lead

chapter,
to

limits

regarding

the

to

the

described

Now

memory.

found

previous
capacity

beyond

then

intimate

the

remarkable

backward
time.

of

outset

experiments

have

IMAGINATION

shown

that

some

out

into

images

and

space

fixedly enough

able

are

persons

153

hold

permit comparing

to

if so,

projected differ
Similarly,if
individuals

experience is

mental

secondary

it involves

unmistakable, and

more

less definite

or

would

in

be used

sensation

this

imagery, although

Certain
varieties

two

some

others.

cutaneous

probably
for
In

all

memory,

perfectly

persons

as

with

combined

be

such

lip movements,

repeated in the

be

as

viduals
indianother

or

preference for

marked

one

be

may

of

form

great variety among

senses

are

next, with

detailed

make

use

of

psychologistsdoubt
in

the

one

quite lacking

in

ing,
Generally speaking, vision,hear-

comes

of

cases

experienced,
results

hear

richly

most

certain

smell

sented.
repre-

organic

and

taste

sations,
senpeting
com-

last place.

we

Some

to

many

psychologists know

together with

group,

'

whistling. Practicallyevery

or

have

kinaesthetic

the

and

The

what

of images, and

all of the

or

for many

is very

persons

piano,

tonal quality of this

The

and

way

there

this

images thus

the

upon

regards their abilityto command

as

form.

throat

singing

in

may

vince
con-

achieve

can

the

It is quite likely to

auditory imagery.

readily

thereafter

immediately

able

are

actually

objectsactually seen.

melody be played

he

manner

running through the head.'

tune

or

the

from

what

in

with

may

not

or

visual

attention

the

them

reader

by trial whether

projection, and

before

them

present physical objects. The

himself

project these

to

because

the

they

revival
one

or

whether

believe

that

of

another

muscles,

arousing

variety of these

kinaesthetic

kinaesthetic

images

attempt

every

contraction, slight though

thus

past experience in

it

may

to

secure

be, of

sensation.

are

the

ever

them
sponding
corre-

154

INTRODUCTION

AN

images

the

as

particularevent

necessarily recall

we

in

quality to

sense

example, the
the form

events

which

this

of the
with

are

is

set up

form

in the

ourselves'

the

as

use

kind

one

It should

no

writer

events

sensory

thinks

or

ably
Prob-

in

embodied

the

in

of

these

of mental
that

the motor

We

motor

we

come

substitute

some

to

the evidence

elements

any

memory

attitudes
discuss

describe

devices

about

in

which

by

represent another.

psychologistsbelieve

for these

especiallywhere

'talk to

to

to

by 'pure thoughts' having

motor

and
recall

the

the

occasion

material

voices

own

Again, the

"When

shall have

we

our

Sometimes

assuming

junction
con-

much
habit, inas-

of

spoken words.

experience.

also be added

they recall
and

some

some

images of

between

of revival.

wholly

processes,

greater detail
we

association

method

remembered

reasoning

be

to

necessarilyhear

of nascent

consist almost

of the

for

visually experienced.

the law

auditory linguistic elements.

occurs

may

expression of

intimate

an

images,

regularly conjoined. This

persons

speak, we

we

and

words, facts and

of motor

form

the

of

apt

in

back

come

linguistic; that is

been

are

For

throat,tongue, and lips in speaking. The

natural

words

in

or

most

when

as

the

case

auditory imagery,
movements

form

responding
cor-

case.

employed.

is

imagery

originallyhave

may

the

visual
be

mean,

original

inevitable

is not

may

in the

bring back

may

In

so

of the

may

over

not

by images

nature

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substitute

commonest

one

the

street

type of imaginal material

to say,

and

does

events

the

images, but this

but

have

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the

two

of

memory

of visual

persons
other

This

experience, although this is often

sensory

mentally the

reinstate

we

fact to be recalled.

or

that

however,

by which

means

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

them.

no

The

imagery
present

imagelessmemories

attempt

is made

that

to

convincing,
un-

recall

IMAGINATION

precise details.

It must
of

practicaluse

our

and

meaning

the

imagery which
of

Relation
General.

in

Imagery

imagery for the

which

and

the reader

can

in

his

be

this

true

itineraryfor
visual

been

kind

one

which

scenes

of mental

recourse

and

motor

side and
it

Perhaps
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actual
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be

familiar

with

drawn

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the

auditory
first

and

upon

often

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becomes

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far

so

goes
a

they have

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persons

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pressed
sup-

that

of

imagery

images

at

is found

all.
of

the presence

of the

with

find it difficult

persons

readily describe

vividness

of

in contact

comes

waking life many

exceed

in which

debate

and

to

the

conflictinglines of conduct,

everybody acknowledges

exciting dreams

and

Again, it is

the dream
most

selves
them-

to

behold

to

an

their

upon

they portray

unequivocal instance

most

In

whether

enunciation.

whether

sure

to

as

pose
pur-

formulating

purely imaginal and

ordinary

in the dream.
to

be

to

use

people

Many

drawing

they expect

of mental

the other

ceases

in

"

language imagery is

but

which

sort

of

use

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organization which, if confronted

to

then

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employ for the

experience

necessity of deciding between

has

about

himself

of which

means

Imagination

another.

or

readily assure
own

and

anticipation. When

plan, we

of the

form

equally true

of

stages of their progress.

several

that

said

journey, find themselves

imagery, by
the

form

making

generally

important.

of recall is

imagery of

mental
"

in

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sensuous

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that

volves
in-

whatever

purpose

meaning, and

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look forward

we

any

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to

purposes

make

we

forgotten, however, that

significantand

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"

of its

the

not

is

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not

imagery for

apprehension

our

155

it.

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experience

ordinary waking

in

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imagery

the
seems

more

quently
fre-

perceptions.

INTRODUCTION

AN

156

quickly

identifyhis images, turn

to

finds it difficult

who

reader

suggest, therefore,that any

We

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

his recollection

to

of

dreams.
The

fancy

and

fantasy,to suggest

forms
which

is apt, like the

imagination

term

to

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of experience.

many

is

is

Imagination, which
of imagery, is

use

mental

life.

past and

no

Ideas

well

simply

regarding
dwell

connection

could

the term

term

about

future, while

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the

and

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cover

our
our

the

remember

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be nothing else.

going

fiction

up

to

on

of

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of using imagery, it will be

and

its

beginning student

of

the

upon

idea

term

image.
the

we

say

the fact that

in

common

of having

at all about

nothing

psychological

brief

Spain.
to

we

speak of recalling ideas, or

we

we

importance.

arises from

encounters

when

occasionallyto conjure

moment

language
the

future

difficulties which

of the

psychology

by which

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"

in

sense

of the basic realities of

methods

our

for

with

general

its essential

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real
un-

psychological story.

means

it

use

as
justified,

the

obviouslyone

lessens
and

to

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is

chief

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also

we

way

details

of

anticipatethe

fact that
in

part

small

very

is

of castles in

speak of imaginary ailments, or

this

there

terms

wholly

persons

course,

this implication of the term

connected

is

usage

images.

entirely justifiable,

make

explanation will

ideas

the

matter

clear.
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which

we

in

speak of understanding the ideas

we
are

listening,we

reading,

that

imply

is written

that

which

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thinking about
by saying that

or
a

'

or

in
we

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address

to

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spoken.

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which

the

certain ideas have

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meaning

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often

book

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the situa-

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our

IMAGINATION

much

remark, and

to

which

with

of these

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minds.'

following

or

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upon

find that

to

constant

greater

of

use

one

meaning
about

like sensation

and

mental

from

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and

of

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idea.

term

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texture

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we

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in

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to

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this in

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speak of

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images

particular immediate

comes
of view*, it be-

the

is embodied.

referring to the meaning

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we

image

latter

psychologicalpoint
note

ferent
dif-

two

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consequently

always understand

may

but

imagery

idea

to

not

texture

we

perception

sense

our

somewhat

matter

the

purposes,

basis in

of

described

the term

use

always the significantmatter, and

overlook

idea

sensory

unimportant,

ordinary

our

composition, whether

we

the

with

thinking

when

meaning.

sensuous

imagery is

making

carriers

as

the same,

organization and

shall

from

arising

and

particular

auditory, visual,or whatever,

meaning

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perception, are, therefore,

the

emphasize

to

used

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one

involved.

imagery, often

expectancy

event.

states, but

that

of

attitude

point of view

the

be

may

approaching

an

from

the

e.g.,

"

of

form

of sensations

attitudes, which

motor

have

we

of

process

situation, we

actual

degree

another

or

appreciable admixture

an

the

less

or

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particular meaning

scrutiny of

closer

the

occasion

any

filled in the

been

the

have

we

emphasize,

have

developing

do

cases

less to

minds

our

157

or

tions,
percep-

context

the

unimportant.

common

and

sometimes

thought of

distinction

between

fundamental
as

memory

distinction,which

substantially equivalent
itself and

to

is
the

imagination, is that

INTRODUCTION

158

AN

between

the

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

productive

and

the

of

forms

reproductive

imagination/
In

Imagination.

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"

far

so

substantiallycopiesprevious sensation
image, it would
usual

of

fact,probably

sense

mere

of

copy

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our

so

they

spring,

copies. On

that

the

of two
find

we

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we

hand,

other

it

of

sum

total

should

find

originalsfrom

which

naturally regard them

images

many

practicallyimpossible

as

binations
clearly com-

are

in the

originals,while

more

or

matter

invariably

the

compare

closely resembling the sensory

many

others

to

we

modified
un-

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almost

single point,are

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absolutely literal

in any

ever

previous experience.

images with

direct and

such

some

originalexperience. As

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present.
our

an

image is

no

detail,to mention

of

involves

of

recurrence

cedent
ante-

designated as reproductive.

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of memory

notion

other

some

or

image

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as

to

of still

case

their

trace

sources.

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verbatim

imagery,
we

use

may

in any

but

usual

possibl-eto

as

has

been

vicarious

materials

memory

recall

the

now

back

come

visual character.
be

as

visual

symbolic in

See

James'

to

copy

represents,

in its sensory

definition

of memory

texture

on

page

was

137.

events

of

not
evidently can-

the

or

agery,
im-

themselves

were

in this way

sense

it

not

trip,

impressive

most

mind

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automobile

an

imagery perhaps might do.

character,

experience which
^

into

proper

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auditory-motor word

the

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said in any

as

of

medium

despite the fact that

which

which

chapter,

reproductive. It is thus quite

event, such

an

reproductive

earlier in the

intimated

be called

sense

largely through

clearly involves

memory

original experience
It is rather

stands

for,

an

quite different

159

IMAGINATION

from

the imagery

invariably symbolic

almost

the case,

objects,acts, or

events

'dog,' whether

it be

come

into the mind

bears

no

Hund, will
bears

the

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future

adherence

animal

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"

which

from

freeing ourselves

of

powers

constructive
may

certain

obviously

for

are

particular arts,

e.g.,

sculpture, auditory and

clear,but nevertheless
thinking, from
involves

the

without

will be touched

matter

which
qualification
to

the

in the

processes

in

the

to be

results,but

about,

appear

in

not

cerebrum

field of

others

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imposed
that

are

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only

point relates

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outcome

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sudden

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of

necessarily

imagination

by which
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the

as

so

theoretical,

practical results

Vv^hich

field.

and

all constructive

later chapter.

conscious

the process

the mental

actual

is not

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the

occasionally arise

consequence

represented
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needs

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productive imagination.
in

that

whatever, although

for music.

generally accepted fact

crucial
brain

upon

saying

images for painting

practicalto
of

slavish

significantthan

visual

is

of art, rest upon

equally true, is that

most

mere

word,

merely

kind

more

motor

utilization

the

It is

imagination.

be of any

imagery employed
forms

named,

so

imagination

great scientific inventions,like great works

the

process,

for anticipating the

employ

we

past experience. It goes

to

it

whether

English word.

the

to

Imagination.
for

and

word

the

imaginal

an

the

quite as well, although neithei^

resemblance

obviously the form

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object whatsoever.

the purpose

remotest

or

of

concerns

word, chien, or the German

French

serve

as

through
nature

spoken,

or

the actual

to

the

they refer.

sensorial

far

so

heard

or

other

to any
the

symbol and

seen

resemblance

more

it does

than

to which

as

in

recalled,are,

imaginal channel

whatever

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in its recall.

employed

are

at

all.

brought
flashes of

insight,the

solution

to examine

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the

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images.

generation

of the

is

to.

of thoughts

chain

which

psychologists,from

of

of thing referred

sort

links in

problem

and

up

of the principles determining

some

of the successive

sequence

or

problems temporarily given

of

illustrations

forgotten, are

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

INTRODUCTION

AN

160

interested

has

Aristotle

every

dov/n

to

the

have

for

present time.
Association

The

tend

to

like fashion

resemble

actual

has

the

on

ascertain

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pass.

if

noticed.

ideas, and

both

briefly on

'

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all the

the

on

other

bringing these results

causes

comment

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which

describe

analyze and

unite

thus

possible the

shall

again

of ideas to suggest others

to

the

to

attracted

it,has

past

superficialobservers.

even

hand

principles which

in the

presents itself

one

repeatedly been
one

which

another

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with

of

the tendencies

them

tried

have

with

come

again the attention

and

to

tend

the others

ideas

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"

hang together, so that if

to

mind

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to

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upon
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for

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tation
interprebrain

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commented

upon

tion,
physiological funcAs

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ment
excite-

nervous

stimulus

through

the

of

in the

precise pathway

neurone

upon

especially

comes

the

versed
tra-

depend

course

of neurones,

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central

its appearance

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permeability of

makes
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synaptic junctions where

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activityof

primarily

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kind, it

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property of the

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retention

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in terms

system.

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skin

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con-

of the

IMAGINATION

hand
a

be

may

transmitted

into the cerebral

up

movement

if the

low

body.

will

depend

upon

determining
of

course

muscle,

the

is
such

in

is

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been

is

take

to

on

psychologicalterms

of

at

do.

proceed

these

to

in to

strictly mental
of direct

that

direction
erable
consid-

determine

these
of

system

rones
neu-

condition, the resistance

than

in

to believe

reason

such

an

in

inactive

an

that

chain

a
a

dition
con-

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chain, if repeatedly

reflex character,

almost
others

some

imagery

principleswere

the

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extensive

an

when

cortex

in

to

relativelyto other chains which

that

and

and

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centers

recentlyexcited presents

resistance

these considerations

once

good

has been

entirely conclusive

amount

be

the

quite certain

flow

to

remotely stimulated.

more

excited, tends

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enter

may

determine

nervous

is lowest.

excited

an

there

of lowered

the

before.

cerebral

likely to be lower

which

neurones

tend

instance, if

already

system.

have

will

of factors

system

of the

synaptic resistance

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the

is in progress.

currents

resistances.

that

the

at

things equal, will

principles which
action

the

kind

any

number

is

resistance

the

impulse through

control

nervous

where

of

quences
conse-

occur.

same

sensory

thinking of
the

reappear

of these

frequently used

been

shall

what
the

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has

to

be

may

words, previouslyestablished habits will be influential

other
in

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resistance,other

pathway

impulse

cortex, thence

entire

this

and

spinal cord into

the

; or

of the

follows
synapses,

in the

converted

the hand

impulse moving

reflex

in

immediately

161

Let

and

it not

can

be

More

neurological evidence

present day tendencies, as

stated

into

translated

ideas,and

first worked

processes.

be

AJl

this

we

may

forgotten, however,
out

by

recently
has

been

study of

a
a

certain

gathered,

above, favor

rec-

INTRODUCTION

AN

162

ognition of

neural

the

of the
Association

which

The

Columbus.

never

several

about

from

which

the

Again,

which

have

been

in

should

have

case

brain, which

we

it

upon
no

that

by perfectly definite
position to

state

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in

among

permanently
bring it

may

even

some

given
the

ences
only influ-

the

were

substantiallyimpossible
that

occur

should
a

h, c,

or

the

of

most

even

Z),recently
nected
vividly con-

one

permit
actually

of ideas
if

just what

of

condition

determining.

sequence

causes,
case

Which

d.

actually

therefore

momentary

means

the

with

would

to

particular idea

time

remote

some

lead to

it is clear enough

thoughts of

connection, rather

associations

what

at

have

bind
wise
other-

that

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frequently connected

depend

with

to

serve

may

frequent,and

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will

connected

associated

conjunction

might well

should

recall

to

intense.

make

c, and

d.

that the idea

the

been

with

with

succeeds

it

because

connected

tend

become

factors,if they

three

given

thus

more

more

work, might

dominate,
a

been

principle.

frequently

of ideas reflects this

have

of

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terrifyingexperience,e.g.,

of

recency

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predict

very

another

or

way

united

another.

of

principles

of the

experience

an

one

train

the

may

at

in

sinking ship, may

others

than

habit.

one

this way

is in

suggest

moments

that

of

less

standing
under-

an

the

together psychological elements

would

fused.

in

instance

of

1492

date

All

"

aiS

frequently

expense

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permanently

escape

the

at

thoughts.

the

been

have

another

one

obvious

most

for

by thoughts.

of Habit.

Law

general law

the

basic

taken

be considered

is the

connection
Ideas

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expressions of

PSYCHOLOGY

principlesas

temporal order
and

of association

TO

we

are

they

time,
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mined
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in

are.

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IMAGINATION

factors

interests,temporary

our

are

mood.

emotional

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minds

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arise.

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emotion

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ideas

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emotion, only
get

preoccupied with

are

impossible for ideas connected

and

permanent,

or

entertaining train of thought, it

exciting or

to

163

connected

to

systems.
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of association

account

explained
idea

that

of

h follows

idea

for

entire context

one

is

by the

amid

the

up

occurs

in connection

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with
affords

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with

to

the

idea wood

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of associates

search

for fuel and

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of the

to

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alone.

group

instances

fact

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completely

never

of furniture.

innumerable

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example,

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appears.

the

implied

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of

presence

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brings

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single ideas.

ordinary instances

words

ideas

in terms

be accounted
all

of

succession

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when
in

it
nection
con-

of

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of

thing.
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have

attracted

of Similars.

attention, and

more

significant for

human

resemblance,

similarity. The

used
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to

group

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headings contiguityin
cause,

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and

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contiguityand

effect.

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"

some

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processes,

forms
and

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substance

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with

of association

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older

space

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forms

is

none

than

writers

more

that

of

ogy
psychol-

on

of association

under

contrast,
time, similarity,

will
dealt

that of

readily recognize
with
cause

the
and

case

of

effect.

AN

164

In

INTRODUCTION

original

our

instances

in

comments

which

ideas

Associations

further

which

words

had

previously occurred

closely related

recall

to

the

to

discuss

to

pause

be

must

cited

were

succession,tended

shall not

we

association

one

involving contrast, e.g., black-white,

large-small,etc., are
and

PSYCHOLOGY

upon

in immediate

together, or
another.

TO

devoted

of

cases

them, but

associations

to

tiguity
con-

few

involving

similarity.
It is in this type of associative
break

completely with

most

freshness

achieve

truth, that it is
associative

which

nexus

the animals.

from

another,

immediately

way

resuscitation

of the

obvious

an

habit, but

any

The

process.

contiguous

in

of the

association

ous
prevition
opera-

of similars

sight to violate this principleabsolutely.

of the

or

two

we

are

of

one

in

been

illustration

the

much

recall

may

before

been

have

our

unequivocally

thought

of

of this kind

use

never

conjoined in

of

law

at first

instance

have

to

seem

probably with

similar

are

to

seem

order

off most

us

which

of ideas which

the

subtle

marks

Ideas

experience affords

seems

and

though they

even

in

said, and

been

wide

our

we

past experience and

originality

often

It has

thought.

and

that

sequence

type of thing involved

An

profitably

may

be cited.
When

whom

we

to be

know

feel resembles
able

and

instances

resemblance.
as

th^t of

to recall

other

follows:

familiarityor
person.

The

walking

we

In

the street,we

on

may

stranger, but whose

an

acquaintance.

pass

face

person
at

we

Sometimes

once

we

are

in

identifythe suggested individual,but

be

may

such

quite

at

circumstances

(1) perception of

loss thus

the order

stranger,

resemblance, (3) thought of

third step

is,as

we

have

to

place

the

of events

is

(2) feeling of
the

suggested

just remarked,

some-

IMAGINATION

when

occur

may

the

Just

wanting.

times

object, initiates
of

type

is

G"ase

another

in the

between

them.

at

once

For

then

we

example, while
suddenly

their

similarityto

of

notice
at

succeed

similarity

painting,

into the

as

and

mind,
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another.

one

ceived
per-

Another

idea

looking

comes

association,instead

of the

than

one

appreciation of similarity occurs

the

case

mind, whereupon

of events

of associations.

represented by having

remark

we

rather

image,

an

train

the

of another

the memory

or

of sequence

sort

same

idea

an

165

after

this

the

pletion
com-

preliminary step

in the process.
The

explanation which

neural

for associations

This
another

one

of

one

is

them

be

will

involved

processes

into the mind.

such

process

habitual
from

the

activity,but

nervous

is

frequently, if indeed,
Some

connection

theory always

to

be

same

the

that

ever,

in

some

when

brain

the

those

as

second

comes

from
possibility,

systems

the
may,

Strictlyspeaking,

departure

necessity of admitting

novel.

this

be the

the other.

to involve

seems

type of

thoughts

on

stir up

active,suddenly

the

part

of these brain

one

to

Consequently,

thought of

will thus

There

point of view, that

when

in

ments.
ele-

really resemble

again experienced,

the

brought into action when

neural

involve

identical

have

individuals

pathways.

nervous

sition
suppo-

another

one

point

some

the

shall,in perceiving them, employ

we

of

idea

at

resemble

that if two

means

identical

extent

the

which

processes

generally accepted

now

similarity type involves

thoughts which

that

brain

of the

is

it

from

the

usual

clearly frees

the

us

of

succession

altogether and

pletely
com-

previous experience

discerned

in

associations

is

of

ideas.
All the great

minds, especiallythose of the scientific

and

166

AN

INTRODUCTION

artistic kind,

in

of poets, the

true

large

metaphors

by

capacity of association

particularly
often

PSYCHOLOGY

apparently marked

are

of the

TO

resting

wholly foreign

of

use

"

Widened

Of

and

science

It is also

latter

for

result.

Wit

and

for the

are

The
at

an

use

imagery
of

the

of

lead

minds.

little or

largely on

one

recognized

and

use

the

"

as
or

that

within

advantage

another

in

limits

the

nifican
sig-

ciations,
similarity asso-

forms

gence
intelli-

Attention

has

the

ability to

over

may
use

of it which

called

been

fact

that

different

viduals
indikinds

preferences in

their thinking.
there

nice

futile.

are

to

In

form.

of human

those

chapter

in

these

practical

no

lowest

regards their native

kind

In

of similarity,but

which

those

variety of

of fundamental

to

perhaps

the

the

demands

thinking of little

the

devoid

are

Imagery.

of

achievements

certain

regards their control

as

fans

drastic

disordered

between

and

earlier point in
vary

of

as

distinction

Training

forms

eyelids

most

that

depend

simply

really pregnant

of

of this type of association.

use

with

pun

not

delicacy

bids

words, the great accomplishments

require

sense

his

Zephyr

characterizes

humor

the

yet

the

interest

associations

with
other

make

in consequence

and

is

verse

resemblance, in

between

creep

large

persons

the

cases

subtle

the great constructive

of similars

and

of whose

is

butterflies:"

without

not

association
children

to

philosophy

mind

the

upon

careless

it is that

Certain

when

little,as

little breeze

This

prosaic mind.

the

to

the

upon

of similars.

the

to

high development

very

witchery

due

measure

well

the

It will be
be

erable
consid-

special kinds

of

IMAGINATION

solution

in the

imagery

of

167

particular

problems.

question naturally arises,therefore, whether

The
train

achieved

there

be

One

can

with.

reasonable
thus

by

has

is

which

imagery
Owing

yet hit upon

as

to

self, for
by

complete

way

It is not

compel

the

without

use

imagery which
the

for

sensory

example,

little

of

use

learn

After

all, the

imagery

one

Practice

is the

In

and

for

another,

which

in any

with
that

note

this
the

general

forms

of

necessarilycorrespond

are

preferred.

or

one

One

may,

still make

and

ear,

learn

may

yet rely but little upon

great point is that

employs, they
only road

shall be

which

most

visual

one

whatever

forms

flexible and
can

travel

of

reliable.
to

secure

ends.

concluding

this

chapter

relatingto imagery
known

eliciting

not

auditory imagery;
the eye

images.

for

form

one

easily by the

most

solve

for recall.

imagery

these

which

visual

to

such

conditions

to

preferred do

processes

readilythrough

of

interest in connection

are

start

particulartype.

question of training imagery

to

substantially lacking.

outset

to

us

it,provided

develop

reliable method

any

difficult to create

very

of

use

be

may

example,

means

ability to substitute

our

it is found

at

make

little effort

very

simple geometrical problems

Nobody

specificimagery
to

can

that

body of it available

by compelling one's

imagery

show

to

seems

voluntary attempt
a

one

it.

about

go

of

development

the

by

to

evidence

experimental

best

considerable

very

if so, how

imagery, and

The

to

of

sorts

as

mentioned

curious

two

may

be mentioned.

synaesthesia might just

in connection

Synaesthesias.
"

When

with
the

as

of

groups

The

properly

have

nomena
phefirst
been

perception.

ordinary

person

hears

words

168

INTRODUCTION

AN

spoken,

musical

hears

or

be

way

so

vivid

colors

resemble

with

sounds,

the

they

and

the

Forms.

Galton
of

account

Inquiries into
graphic
to

mental

exhibit

projected

the

shades

same

them

Human

tones

same

the

are

frequent, but

most

peculiarityhas

single

no

and

of

The

of visual frame

tive
instruc-

synaesthesias

the

Faculty.
relations.

forms.'

entertaining and

most

The

number
used

picture (see Fig. 49)

sort

The

words.

or

by the so-called 'number

gives

numerical
in

instantlyand

come

49.

second

The

"

is illustrated

Sir Francis

they

involved, particularlytaste.

sometimes

are

but

often

30^

auditory-visualsynaesthesias

name

The

color.

12,

occurring with

Number

the

over,
native, not acquired. More-

are

Fig.

senses

they

is in any
persons

More

substantially constant,

are

10

other

for certain

vividness.

^Q.

always

of them

one

of

But

in texture.

imagery

no

experiences

sense

consciousness

of sensory

sometimes

are

other

But

auditory.

the

as

sound,

perception is domi-

the

various

produce forthwith

sounds

blend

the

suggested by

PSYCHOLOGY

sounds,

while

nantly auditory,and
may

TO

numbers
and

are

form

by its
are

in

his
is

possessor

mentally

always thought

169

IMAGINATION

this

of

in

in

such

forms,

number

and

early

memorized.

in

of
the

an

abstract

the

or

of
render

to

to

be

placed

and

concrete

otherwise

The

intricacy,
appearance

consciously

artificial

forms

many

cited.

variety,

suggest

adoption

not

be

invented

others

effort

might

present
not

the

shape,

amazing

childhood

phenomena,

involve

something

their

often

are

year

tendency
by

most

the

different

quite

same

amusement,

perhaps

form,

the

appearance

while

for

of

however,

natural

being

adopted,

or

of

of

months

although

forms,
instances

other

of

The

way.

tion
inven-

actually
in

so

seen,

visual

easily

CHAPTER

REASONING

analyzed

Having
of

of

divisions

main

the

sensation, perception,
examine

now

which

the

comprised

Adjustment

of

scrutiny
us

in

are

never

or

in

them

one

earliest

infancy

the

and
with

length

some

that

to

of

process

as

conception

same

shall

inquire
in

procedure

of

process

is

which

first to

turn

of problems

then

the

upon

thinking,

"We

solving.

the

which

what

meeting

the

of

persistent kinds

most

maintenance

immediate

gratification of hunger

wholly

front
con-

the

are

and

tering
mas-

thirst

and

make

intelligence.

A
groups

practically

no

tax

little later, however,

of problems
170

upon

there

connected

problems

of life.
cared

are

by reflex activities,which, thanks

supervision,

great

return

opening

the

In

"

difficulties.

connected

almost

of

all

intelligence

life, and

conscious

of

at

typical forms

ordinary

such
The

the

problem

certain

varieties

usual

now

with

for

name

life and

must

it

connect

Solving.
dwelt

we

organic
We

adjustment.

another

book,

the
of

conception

in

imaginings

or

It implicates

Problem

as

of

chapters

and

singly.

taken

is

thinking

processes

memory

must

we

thinking,

actual

Practical

e.g.,

another.

or

way

of

merely

perceivings

involved.

are

of

processes

several

processes,

imagination,

and

memory,

detail

some

mental

adjnstive

concrete

all of these

in

and

separately

the

to

child's

the

for

parental

present
with

In

own

selves
themcontrol

REASONING

bodily muscles.

of the

of Hrial

and

of which

we

of

occasion

have

which
and

walk

to

discuss

to

of

we

slow process

details

little later in

control.

voluntary

at

come

may

confronts

child

the

exercise

talk and

earliest forms

The

ing
Passthe

to

once

after

he

reasonable

the size and

must

has

control

nice

success

Problems

actual

instinctive
The

of the

experimental

process

do

time

for the

not

of

at

with

the

call for

Life

ticular
parhim

demands.

their

outset

is cast

any

in

for the child at this stage. He

and

making

he is thrown

of which

to

he

mental

reaction

is his

in the past.

Generalize.

back

has

upon

abundant

deeply

to cultivate
man

an

and

rooted

child

is

He

an

of
can

striking
in

this

dispositionto

things will behave

attitude
beast

The

"

of the

in the future

incorrigiblegeneralizer,

only the bitter fruits of experience

of both

must

reward

or

to

beings,

prejudices of

reflection.

mold

expect that both people and

and

human

deportment, and

complying

Tendency

characteristic

have

of

by them;

incentive.

Primitive

they

With

another.

will occur,

test, for the

afforded

resistance

in

processes

predict what

cannot

to

by actual experience

positionto punish

decidedly experimental

and

of objects; to test his strength and

kinds

of these

elaborate

very

to learn

one

failure

or

has

intricacies

in

involve-

physicalsurroundings

discrimination

individuals
for

to

which

his

of the

the

master

establish

He

weight

their relations

learn
he

the

in terms

endurance

to

beings.

other human

those

undoubtedly

are

the child's adjustment

as

by

his movements.

over

an

mastered

(or 'try, try again,') certain

achievements,

problem

learned

are

of the development
these

over

sort

error'
shall

account

our

These

171

teach

him

skepticism,until
be relied upon

after

his knowledge

for purposes

AN

172

of

INTRODUCTION

full grown.

when

man

this matter

In

prediction.

training to breed

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

is not

he

this

primitive

generations of scientific

It will cost

out

unlike

quate
inade-

to generalize on
disposition

data.
*

Trial

Error'

and

striking feature
their

which

of the

procedure!

will not

violent

might, with
with

little or

difficulty.Even

at

present themselves
there

of

practically all
as

particular

cake

opened,

in

apt

turn

the

the

be

be

is to

for it but

is

to

an

success

be

may

failure

or

actual

now

of any

no

that

solution,but
in

mode

to hand.
more

carrying

often
out

is

the

of

nature

is

nothing

which

attempt

to

may

weigh

of the suggestions in

test.

permanent

comes

be

act, and

there

cases

or

situations,the

that solution

little

to

result of this type of thinking is apt to be the

as

that

familiar

as

solution

concrete

instantly after

this and

now

present

door

be cajoled. The

In

event,

any

particular

recognized. In other

try

the probable

The

it.

discover

In

issues,such

relativelysimple

some

suggest itself. There

of

to

be given almost

problem

advance

secured,

acter,
char-

in

early childhood

relativelysimple, concrete

to

may

of

problems

to

precise

trial and

random

same

and

barrier

problems which

the

conclusions.

at

particularparent

trick

answer

of this

dog

relieve the

and

gate

as

intellectual
definitely

more

arriving

the

themselves

to discover

much

be

may

method

error

are

'trial

by

impeding

the

is

process

likelyto react, much

later stage, when

Another

"

relativelyrandom

the

assaults upon

attempt

no

Thinking.

little child confronted

is very

open

in

early types of adjustive

tendency toward

strong
error'

and

Method

tance,
accep-

of procedure, of the first solution

This

may

by accident

it is not, and

thus

definite reaction, the

it

be the best
comes

about

child, like

an

173

REASONING

animal,
is

therefore

and

those

learning

of process

type

In

elements.

useless

nothing

under

out

much

all to the

at

quite

instruction,

favorable

more

of

contortions

needless

quite

carried

discussing, children

been

it many

write, for example, which

to

conditions

under

have

we

usually

in

maintain

and

incorporate

may

than

maintain

face

elegance

and

nitely
indefi-

limb,

tributing
con-

effectiveness

or

of

their chirography.

Conception
the

far

thus

cases

him

by

they disclose

at

which

it becomes

and

thereupon

the

and

this

of any

whether

In

with
is to

what

be

first make

must

sure

solved,

welL

going

not

analyze
point

can

that

aware

the

types of scientific problem

one

exactness

Social life is full

are

must

before

in the

little later,

becomes

things

is encountered, and

lems
prob-

is encountered, in

One

be applied, one

many

solution, one

Such

physicalor mental,

to its solution.

kind.

imposed

obstacles

which

problem

reason

less

or

all
the

that

of the situation.

determine, if possible,at

is located.
situation

can

cure

more

first to determine

proceed

of

is

In

"

assumed

circumstances

of the

undefined

some

Before

to

experiences

for

of

necessary

real character

Problem.

their essential nature.

set

the

the

have

we

the appearance

once

different

quite

of

to face

he is following, and

path which

of

mentioned,

the circumstances

by

caused

are

Analysis

the child has

problem which
upon

the

and

move

of the

real

of

the

tion
situa-

the

difficulty
the

same

toward
nature

of

the trouble.
This

identification

plainly consists
familiar

the

character

connecting it with

of many

the

situation

in

particular

purely intellectual problems

difficulty

previous

some

experience. Psychologists speak of this

'conceiving'
case

in

of

way.

this

process
In

and
as

the

description

INTRODUCTION

AN

174

of

primarily one

naturally

of

character

the

and

same,

justifythe

to

we

the

wholly ideational

the

in

Stages

immediately,
For

paragraph.
throw

the

lock.

withdrawn

of

in almost

thinking), the

process

of

another

of the

ideas

The

been

(a)

the

(b)

the

will meet
us

correct

the

as

it

would

come

of

survey
as

at

offer themselves
process

of selection

psychological activitywhich

designated judgment.

and

are

and

be

tions.
possible solu-

commonly

its flrst two

or

stages

and
difficulty,
an

idea

long process,
turned

once

after

one

has

association,of

only after

be

difficulty(which

effort)leads

problem

to

instantly

difficulty.Evidently the thought which

This
a

of

means

the

then, which

process,

ceding
pre-

reflective forms

suggested

are

concept of the

securing,by

ideas

which

reasoning, involves

the solution may

many

conception of

association,to

thought

called

serious

more

key fails

these

(and

only after much

the

by

all the

correct

itself be secured

may

problems

may

possibly it should

that

us

in

guard, whereupon

the

complex

more

represented

to

In

solution

door

new

ing
think-

solution.

intimated

been

instance, a

occurs

trifle from

In

works.

It

has

as

aright the

is,then, in

is confronted

simple types of problem, the

very

almost

come

arise between

as

the first essential step tow^ard

process,

seem

essentiallythe

conceive

To

"

one

not

partly perceptual forms.

Solving.

Problem

bottom

differences

the

and

difficultywith which

certain

is at

neglect such

may

defect

the

difficultymay

conceiving. Nevertheless

term

process

discover

to

of the

inspection of

in the

wishes

one

repair it, the location

and
so

where

is

situation

the

where

cases

perception, as

sense

machine

disabled

in

but

appropriate enough,

is

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

away

gives

in which
as

rejection rests

psychologistshave

which

fective.
inefupon

generally

REASONING

final step which

175

of reasoning is known

process

to

consider

to

moment

bona

every
The

of

with
consists in

mind

relations

thought
or

may

peculiar

form

Words

as

it

or

of images.

If,

occasion

has

one

to

will find that there

visual

image of

to

represent

process

special geometrical form.

also be conceptually

of visual imagery. But

the

and

real

images

by

no

images

edly
undoubtfor

be auditory

may

apparently

all.

at

the

The

motor

forms

special sensorial

of words

use

as
indifferent,

means

as

thought

moment's

sideration
con-

clearly disclose.

the

Material

of

the word, in distinction

which

this

relations may

is entirelyindifferent,
but

will

commonly

group

we

tions,
actual,though partly suppressed, enuncia-

not

is

find that

linguistic. Such

motor,

or

be

fronted
con-

thought

that

to

thought

frequent type of imagery employed

most

visual

material

are

less distinct

or

forms

is

and

for

peculiar

are

stop

we

persons

in the

serves

processes

in fact

If

"

shall

we

more

symbolized by other
far the

has

one

return

us

part of it in which

that

of objects or

kinds

lish
estab-

phases of this

stages which

Concept.

'triangle,'
many

triangle,which

Other

Let

geometrical problem,

the concept

the

to

as

which

upon

chapter.

significantimage

some

arises in the
a

the

concept,

for instance,in
use

fashion

certain

upon

the first two

examine

and

consists in the

fidethinking process.

Nature

process

solution

the

in the

little later

in such

shall comment

pitched. We
matter

of

correctness

entirelycomplete

an

proof, and

as

organization of one's evidence

the

in

is involved

Thought.

from

the

refers,is relatively free

particularity.It

can

of particular instances

be

used

without

to

"

object
from
cover

In

the first place,

or

the

the

prejudice

limitations
one

any
to

relation

to

of

of dozens

its accuracy.

INTRODUCTION

AN

176

dog, for example, is

word

The

the

to

dog

poodle,to

the

to

as

today

seen

to the

as

it appears

in) is measurably

limitations

of

If

which

of

generality in

to

common

in

attaching
the

by

use

adverbs, and
the

Again,

desired

any

of

other

the

like.

of words

has

the

highly developed form,

our

the material
in the

translate

to

the

constant

our

other.
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of

thought

medium
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communicating.
of

should

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which

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and

men

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lives,the advantage

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for

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from

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it were,

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and

guage
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have

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social interests

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goes

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on

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obliged, as

languages,

adjectives,

"

also

are

carry

this not

difficulty

no

spoken words

animals.

among

objects or

linguisticimage

gestures, of which

thought back
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preponderance
our

same

ideas to others.

to

for

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class

important bearing

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are

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value

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fact that communication

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dent.
evi-

are

relations,of

particularityto

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as

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convenientlygive.

so

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general term,

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single instance

chieflyin the form

most

thought symbol
a

as

all the

objects,or

no

could

and

represent the essential features

to

serves

all the

which

way

relations
in

have

concept is of the

disturbing

any

reflection will also make

thinking. It

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particular times

or

great freedom

with

be used

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hound,

ago.

year

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wishes, therefore,to

moment's

in

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to

as

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one

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terrier

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foundland
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the

applicableto

as

image 'dog' (whatever sensorial form

the word

places.

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

relations

single medium

in

REASONING

both

for

of

these

that

obvious.

the

situations

social

of

out

is

purposes

maintain

psychologists

177

Indeed,

thought

and

some

arises

process

would

otherwise

not

appear.

of

Materials

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attitudes

of motor

make

large

these

conceptual situations.

not

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cast

materials

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find

or

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terms, it is hard

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clear in just what

the

to follow

with

for

type

example,
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some

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to the

of

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motor

type

or

verbal

make

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individual

of

problem, and

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language imagery.

the

on.

dominate

use

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another

writer, for

inevitably falls

back

just such

if the materials

upon

figures
hand.

at

were

problem involving consideration

point

the

introduced
tend

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of making
difficulty

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modern

into the school

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sential
es-

type

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quite

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sort.

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geometrical problem without

paper

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carried

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shown

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individual

actually draw

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of the head

tends

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solve

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in dealing with

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ments
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(visual,auditory,

imagery

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movements

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rial,
mate-

the triangle,or

imagery, constructing in his mind

visual
as

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to

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conclusiveness
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tending perhaps

motor, etc.,)natural
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case,

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eyes

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hand

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persons

themselves

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people apparently

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thought

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illustration

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"

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guages
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curriculum,

of auditory-motor

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of mental

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sweeping

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statement

debate
to

trate
illusabout

AN

178

INTRODUCTION

in

predominance

the

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

given mind

of

any

apt

to

kind

one

of

imagery.
In

thinking,

actual

ideas

our

it is often

so

rapidly that

of

thought material

are

difficult to

being used.

are

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forms

what

sure

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forward

move

little introspective

practice will readily identify them, especially if

select for

examination

with

difficult issues where

very

thinking

part of many

applies perhaps

problem,
the

all the

and

is

brow

may

the whole

symptoms

even

process,

that

say
so

far

the mind

may

vacuum

; and

at the

yet

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or

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wrinkled,

process,

may

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highly important

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to
come

as

have

think

me

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one

is

of

concerns

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profound

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kind

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phrase, provided it
have

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present writer

form

of

either of
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tion,
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of ideas satisfactorily

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ing
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belief in

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interpretedas meaning

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call

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checked,

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they

this

is

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been

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' '

moment

all.

difficult

'thinking hard.'

perfectlysane

of them

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breathing

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expiration of

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scious
con-

operations

true

meeting the difficultyfor which

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sense

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suddenly

says

external

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the stage of the mental

' '

one

It may

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or
physiological. This
cerebralistic,

is

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dealing

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mentioned, but it is measurably

to be

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is

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in Problem

Elements

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processes

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or

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meanings

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bases.

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convincing

REASONING

of this

evidence
brain

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process

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form

of

only

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of

some

both

of

solution

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when

asleep

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express

thought

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for anyone

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that

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often

in

their

to

is

pathological phenomena
suggest the

scious
uncon-

thinking is unconscious, but also that

our

gain convincing evidence

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in

on

disagreement.

psychologists are

of it which

in this way.

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used

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mentally

sense

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full

speaks readily

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of

field

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tending

to

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use.

ticipated
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general conclusion, i.e.,that large parts

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our

subconscious

thought is really carried

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reached

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subject of wide

ablest

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practicallyall
on

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difficulties.

of

type

179

thought

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processes

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sense

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Arrived

"

problems

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mechanism

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of

means

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problem confronting

supreme

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own

value
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would

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ideas
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tions
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as

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similarity is encountered.

merely of ideas suggested by

place, the solution

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chanced

past experience had

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of

conceptual imagery

whether

depend solely upon

that
special difficulty,
so
associated

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the

to

revert

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ideas to be scrutinized

us

reflective operations,

our

satisfactory concept

contiguityin previous time

our

stage in

second

formed,

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brings before

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at

assuming

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we

ing.
Relations, Especially Similarity,in Think-

of

Use

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as

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to

or

not

anticipate this

of the

solution

of any

in

previously
the

similarity,as between

present
either

AN

180

objects or

INTRODUCTION

relations,we

these

limitations

upon

the
to

of

resources

(covering

one

another

and

even

simple problems,
of the

appearance

solution.
such

then

and

bring

crucial
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would

there

is often
idea

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may

carry

in

considerable

puzzles,where

the

is not

group

of factors
be

must

in

only need

of selection and

the

There
made

rules

Practice

even

must

is

no

royal
which

within

road

to

be

skill,but unless

one's

ideas, there

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if the ideas

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are

certain

into

This

mathematical

their
In

mutual
other

associations,but

lems,
proba

relations

words, there
for

process

continuous

success

is achieved.
in this

and

learned

matter,

no

for
available,

dextrous

produces

experience furnishes
solution

of the

successful

control

no

ready-

applied forthwith.

given field undoubtedly

can

one

rejectionis also indispensableuntil

can
a

of first

politicalissues,where

and

combination

finallysuccessful

in other

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complicated reasoning

subtle

solution

the

complete solution.

in mind.

kept

ready, profuse, and

process

and

economic

factory
satis-

of these

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many

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type of thing is represented in many

and

them

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with

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our

particular word.

and

of

us

with

to make

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mentioned,

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as

larity
simi-

context

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idea

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to one

into

permits

solution

has

as

consists in the discovery of

problems,

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gard
re-

of relations) enables

thus

in

another

one

draw

to

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sequences.

to

process

of time, and

years

problem,

time

forms

many

and

place

portions of experiences separated by

supplement
In

and

transcend

to

previous life,without

our

and

essentiallycreative

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however, enabled

are,

special space

any

PSYCHOLOGY

of particular time

entire

link

by

TO

of

the

the

tain
cer-

site
requi-

problem;

and

thinking there
processes

of

181

REASONING

rejecting. Otherwise

and

choosing

Habit

The

in

Element
been

analysis has

in terms

couched

further

in the
the

which

well

as

in the

in

In

process.

of habits

the

thought

'general principles'of which

called at

was

organic tendency
a

stimulus

to

this reaction
of
are

resulting in

as

opening chapters

form
in

tends

of

its turn
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response.

object in whose

of all
and

common

the

familiar

concept
kinds

upon

same

no

to

tahle

doubt

definite

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do

can

food

it,serve

while

there

that

this is

of the

is true
as

those

of time

The

of

motor

to

eralized
gen-

a
us

an

things,

standard

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concepts

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service,

and

space.

stand

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as

vidual
triflingindi-

any

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eralized
gen-

concepts of the

ahove, the concept heloiv,both

adjustment.

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as

cue

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classes of objects render

thing

spoken

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certain

upon

vided
pro-

was

form
a

as

regardless of

presence,

relations,such

of motor

and

be regarded

adjustment.

motor

peculiarities,we
e.g., write

presentation of

satisfactory. This

lead

to

intrinsic

the

to

psychological reaction, and

concept

type of

use.

point

is also

of

fact

in certain

partly

second

concept may

stantly
con-

its first appearance,

on

been

is

this

process

generalizingtendency,

The

rule.

the usual

the

on

exceptions, there

doubt

no

earlier

made

had

of fact,

matter

of response

make

we

an

repeat

reaction

the

their bearing

to

habit is reflected partly in the concept and

Attention

our

complicated thought of

more

beings, the formation

human

As

in the

directed

was

as

far,

of the simple organism, to which

adjustive processes

of the book,

be

ing
suggest the solv-

regard

problematic situations.

reader 's attention

Thus

Thought."

of particular problems without

upon

will

thought

ineffective.

and

cumbrous

the

earlier

more

The
certain
or

the

INTRODUCTION

AN

182

TO

for

concept later similarlystand

of

In

behavior.

our

PSYCHOLOGY

certain

general it

although primarily psychologicalso

in which

medium
tend

and

The

will

to

thing is

same

rise

not

than

more

formula
with

for

in

toward

is

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planetary bodies

expression of
a

well

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procedure which
as

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of

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practical life,but

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of the

from

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set

by writers

connection

attention

respectivelyas induction
to

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should

find

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been

again

of bodies

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general principles,taking them

or

is

tion
rota-

general principle. Similarly

instances

multiplying.

could

appropriatelybe designated a concept

to

each

observed

could

science

ward
carries for-

of

process

mass

principle. Many

into

procedure which

in their
as

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elliptical

principle of gravity formulates

relations

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mode

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than

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the

conception of the

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upon

by verbal

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multiplication,

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partial product,
rests

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process

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water

Thus, the principle in accordance

conduct.

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stronger

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men

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general principle

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that,

fide habits

hona

eventually

its source,

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said

concerns

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ment
arrange-

general principles,
e.g.,

of

true

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women,

themselves

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and

venture

Thinking.

"

few

Avith

to the

the

logic,psychologists
their

two

deduction.

detail upon

on

analyses of

processes

Without

known

ing
attempt-

problems thus

sented,
pre-

brief comments.

Induction

is

name

for

the

183

REASONING

by which

process

which

those

arrive

we

have

we

behavior, which

or

the

behavior

the

pended
habit

of

fall to

granted whenever

of these

formal

by

us

for ourselves
well

in

that

hot

and

that

smooth

experiences

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ones

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needed

in

based

are

upon
a

much

more

we

terms

to

less

unsus-

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for

take

possession
are

plied
sup-

of

process

our

acquire

to

mental

process

have
very
as

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in

learn

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ones

touch.

promptly

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into

eralized
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previously indicated,
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by which

of

of them

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generalizationsof

involved,than
methods

or

are

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much

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sary
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out
experiences of life. With-

agreeable

as

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abstract
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about

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used

thinking.

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(3) Differingfrom
more

at

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gradually

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on

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intellectual

and

earth.

into

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rough-and-tumble

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reactions

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directly into

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in the harsher

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objects will burn, that sharp

way

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of

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sort

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education.

find

the

elders,or by books, in the

our

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demands.

general principles. (1) Many

to

we

thinking

gravity,

to

in which

ways

way,

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as

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reflection.

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able to

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of

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habits, in

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such

at

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we

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case

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sciences.

trains of
whole
and

in either

peculiar
These

thought and

process

involves

ciples
justifythe prinof the

first two

generalizations.Darwin's

INTRODUCTION

AN

184

organic life may

serve

considerations
which

on

been

to

based

and

JiaMts

of

gravity,we

at

can

of

set
specific

any

large part of
the

with

follow

'lying' or

thinking

or

lated
formu-

have

we

our

conduct

of

behavior
A

very

ing
to determin-

under

which

automatically.

Nowhere,

frequently

more

issues.

it is to be

that

tion
applica-

this is determined,

When

procedure

of moral

case

region of

Here

Once

act.

put under

classification to apply,

our

find
be

can

we

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immediately follow.

met

often

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heading
for

'stealing,'the practical consequences

certain what

are

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represents the

concept

almost

of

type

in the

it difficult to

in

represents

specificconditions.

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than

which

deductively the

under

masses

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infer

once

grounds

matters.

formation

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consequences

perhaps,

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logical

inferences

practicalthinking is directed

our

instance
specific
the

habit

already estaUislied.

demonstrated

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deduction, which

thinking, stands

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explain the various

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us

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"

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broadly

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scientific inductive

validityof

the

Deduction.

as

It would

attempt

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illustration of this higher form

an

as

generalization.

of

evolutionary hypothesis in regard

the

of

establishment

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

But

our

until

thought

we

is held

in suspense.
Combination

Thinking.
that

"

of Induction
It

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in

misapprehension

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or

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course

monly
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we

of the

REASONING
to solve

attempt
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on

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brutes
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this chapter,

far

so

extent

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Sometimes

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rational kind.
of animal

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To

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esses
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borhoods
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cats, which, if their

or

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reason.

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guided solely by

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generation

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reasoning

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chiefly controlled

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general principle,

with

in making

like writing,

of

fact

enough appreciated if it is compared

that

point of fact,

new

simply

applying concepts

parts

This

conception.

in

mean

apply

to

but

do,

we

the beginning of

create
new

intention

thinking by

our

does not

of the

practical issues

dealing with

in

This

particular problem.

overtly conscious

are

we

185

superhuman
super-brutes

by critical outsiders,

neighborhood myth

at
uncritically

its face value.

and

INTRODUCTION

AN

186

"It has been

anecdotal

PSYCHOLOGY

ungracious duty of contemporary

the

observation
the

TO

to

laurels

mental
experi-

strip from

the

which

previous generation

the

brute

world

accorded.

When

subjected

to

observation

under

controlled

conditions, it becomes

certain

that whatever

among

animals,

type than
in

are

the

no

at least the

their

solve

apes

identical

sense

rank

quite

of the occasional

genius

file of those lower

and

methods

problems by

with

had

scientific

thorough-going

be true

may

of

most

in

which

of reflective human

those

thought.
The

in

conducting

situation

such

which

is

experiments

requires it

to solve

simple problem appropriate to its supposed capacities

some

and

closely as

as

which
is

animal

place the

to

of

method

common

it has

to

generally so

hinge
that

through
could

and
a

not

mice

Animals

simple

marine

quadrupeds

set

but

see,

This

the

of all

of

to

the

problem

example,

anthropoid

apes,

way

which

they

readily reach

degrees of complexity,from
up

food

their

food

could

animals, like amphioxus,

and

for

find

to

their

of which

with

securing of

mean,

obliged

paths

odor

the

would

be

This

habitat.

have

to

as

would

tortuous

them.

both

arranged

its solution.

upon
rats

in its natural

cope

conditions

the

possiblesimulating

the very

higher

the

to

including

the

on

way

reptilesand birds,have been subjected to experimental

investigation.
A

wholly unexpected wealth

accumulated

of

knowledge
animal
no

point

animal

behavior

can

in

the result

as

have
in

problem

has
we

any

and

of

of studies

instinct
been

come

and

information
of this
of

many

has been

kind, and

upon

bring

conclusive
abstract
to bear

evidence
the

upon

our

features

immeasurably enlarged.

definite way
then

new

But

that

essential

of
at

mals
ani-

point

it in the mind

187

REASONING

the

experience,as

of

fruits

experimental conditions

animal

hither

runs

its exuberant

problem

In

solved

were

the

are

time

immediately.

second

trial may

In either

be

In

somewhat

other

words, the

reached

and

the

be

It would

several

to make

sweeping

any

different genera
without

saying that

and

is far

of

But
inside

than

after
the

all these

processes,

the

his behavior

statement

of

in

use
so

attain

many

theirs.
this kind

to

be

animals

dangerous

For

like the

reptilian and
for

to
as

the

the

it goes

higher

elephant,
cretaceous

ences
differ-

these

it still remains

excels

of

it.

that

another.

language
far

of

distinguishing the

allowance

kingdom,

to

man

end

doubt

mammals,

due

making

his power

different from
a

of

certainty

the

of
adaptive intelligence

that

brute

one

longer.

evidence

say

no

abilityto analyze, to abstract,and

especiallyin
render

species from
the

to

is

The

period

no

to

without

statement

be

with

between

Indeed, it

of the other

some

higher

forms.

in his

and

gives

statement

perceiverelations.

never

it may

steps necessary

broad

too

animal

second

the animal.

considerable

the

manner^

repeated a

be

solution

relation

the

really comprehending

such

some

with

so

stumbling

though

even

shorter, or

repetitions and

requires many
time.

not

abilityto reach

the

case

But

could

here,

m.erely of

in

succeeds

in

first time

the

made;

result

being,

the solution

the chances
almost

that

human

trial

apparatus

the

it
activities,

of solving

of blind
are

the

finally,as

Under

method

movements

attacks

yon,

muscular

solution.

the

upon

and

elsewhere, and

there, and

in

animal

at least the

of violent

kinds

All

error.

apes

being.

human

practicaldifficultyis substantiallythat

and

can

that

true

generalize,and
an

accessory

animals

as

to
to

tially
important particulars essen-

Of
to

course

urge

one

any

does

not

radical

mean

discon-

188

of

tinuity

earlier

with

of

of

behavior

as

break
than

would

anatomical
differs

developed
as

would

But

between
be

by

suggested

important
animal
have

which

the

casual
be

But

suggested
study

of

the
the
behavior

the
is

the

differences

far

greater
of

highly

most

are

their
brain

not

disparities
clearly

tionary
evolu-

human

the

even

gross

ering
consid-

that,

observation

sure,

from

particulars

allege

animals

in

identical

intelligence,

the

and

evidence

substantially
can

of

To

brain.

ever

one

and

man

organization.
in

is

expression

an

abundant

gives

which

behavior

animals

higher

the

child

animals.

the

PSYCHOLOGY

between

human

the

years

that

TO

development

because

man,

its

INTRODUCTION

AN

discloses.

in

such
ligence,
intel-

XI

CHAPTER

FEELING

Simple Feelings.

In

"

sensations
world

by

of

sensorial

This

present.
of another

often
there

are

which

to

serious

some

as

convenient

at

least,be employed.
When

sets

a
a

up

as

falls upon

excitation

But

movement.

besides
to

which

those

it is apt
thus

is then
it issues

described.
or

thus

or

disagreeable. Secondarily,the

it

as

gives rise
in

visual
to

may

their

be

followed

it.

consequences

If it be
are

by

the
a

likely to

189

normally

as

into
a

cular
musquences
conse-

painful results.
as

movement

agreeable
to

group

which
of

sations,
sen-

disagreeable. Thus,

retina, and

be

it

ately
likely immedi-

subsequent
or

thistle,or

being,

other

be sensed

may

agreeable

turn

object stimulates

grasp

ear

perhaps

time

again

It is

sound

the

although

transmitted

occasion

to

produce either pleasurable

strikingupon

organ,

at

gists
Psycholo-

for the

sense

system, whence

nervous

made

was

return.

may

not

neglect

the term, it is

objectionsto

the
the

originalsare

simple feelings,and

as

the

to represent

serve

mention

now

other, and

any

stimulus

nervous

the central

must

with

temporary

of which

we

refer to these

the

involved

has

of factors

outset, and

ideas which

the

experiences when

procedure

group

into contact

come

we

physical objects and

these

the

of which

means

of

emphasized

have

we
intelligence,

of

adjnstiveprocesses

far

descriptions thus

our

the hand

burr,

the

is extended

disagreeable

extremely vivid.

Thus

it

INTRODUCTION

AN

190

for

are

from

that

about

comes

the

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

the

most

beginning

very

indifferent,but

not

part

freighted with prejudices,favorable

come

life of the

the

In

experience of
therefore

so

lost.

or

seek

to

be

examined

the

The

little child

learned

The

that

some

of their

immediacy

the

or

will

being,

human

it is the

reached.

many

forms

He
of

lasting or

more

has

unhesitatingly
long

as

from

that

learned

to

painful stimulation

the

it

ful
painhand,

curtail

the

satiety

has

of

endurance

be

may

satisfyingfuture

more

the

as

other

the

on

part of wisdom

also

screened

operation is

animal

adult

ences,
other influ-

repetition of pleasurable experiences before

been

the

they

In

many

will similarly shrink

adult

and

care.

pleasurable stimulation

agreeable, and

stimulus.

with

complicated with

that

repeat the

remains

has

extremely important part,

an

in

child,these psychologicalfactors

life,they become

human

unfavorable,

or

types of animals, and

lower

the human

apparently play
must

already

repetition.

their

to

tions
stimula-

sensory

the

pleasures.

price of
In

other

words, experience complicates enormously the implications

of the

pleasure-painexperiences

The
writers
number

Varieties
there
and

of

has been

of these

may

groups

and
one

at

German

as

was

times

pointed

excitement-calm.
another

in various

These
ways,

to the

out

in

and

sensation).

The

pleasantness
un-

Chapter

agreeable, though

psychologist Wundt

of elements, w^hich

as

psychological elements.

disagreeable,is undoubtedly

commonly
eminent

itself be

recent

"

recognized only pleasantness

(physical pain,
VI, which

Feeling. Among

divergence of opinion

some

character

great majority have

Simple

of primitive life.

recognizestwo

it is
The
other

he

designates strain-relaxation

he

thinks

of

as

although only

combining
one

member

with

of

FEELING

would

pair

each

Josiah
other

Wundtian

two

disposed
and

older

to the

unpleasantness

different from

sensation.

are

themselves

are

this
would

still be

should

factors

Among

other

in

ness
pleasant-

judgment
not

as

substantially

of

accord

mental

our

become

experience

themselves

attach

independently,
felt

be

established, it

separate discussion

view

the

generally prevalent

sensations

these

with

organ

from

the

from

another

on

the stimulation
chain

its connected
in

way

affected

by

any

that

do

not

we

and

which

the

of

localize them

as

do

we

may

may
vary
sion
occa-

one

as

unpleas-

are

thought

particularsense

but

system

stimulation.

momentary

they

of neurones,

nervous

they

on

may

at

forms

two

idea, and

or

stimulus

same

pleasurable

as

arising not

as

the

that

so

sensation

any

(2) physiologically,because

urable; and
of

to

if

Even

simple feeling (1) psychologically,because

of

modern

make-up.

the

reasons,

is

there

few

these forms

even

to

present distinguishes from

as

The

arising

as
a

is

whole

alleged fact

sensations

is

urged

support of this view.^

in
^

Of

if

course

they prove

special sensory

upon

physiologicaldevice
cerebrum,
that
not

in his

sons
rea-

detail,is

to treat

only elements

finally

convenient

these

to

in

diffused,organic sensations.

vague,

doctrine

last

accepts the

but

and

suggest,

urging, that

now

psychologist,

discuss

to

Indeed,
to

of

moment

present writer, for

view,

the

as

good deal of evidence

writers

The

groups.

adhere

to

philosopher and

feels it unnecessary

he

single

strain-relaxation

excludes

Royce,

which

American

The

experience.

present in

be

ever

191

the
be

or

in

thalami

other
are

irreconcilable

nerves

of

finallyto be sensations, they

which

be

must

being reflexly excited

parts of

the
with

the

central
this

central

organs

must

depend

capable through
from

system.

activities
The

45.

in

the

possibility

responsible for them

conception. See page

some

would

192

AN

INTRODUCTION

Theories

Explanatory
the

TO

of

been

"

advanced.

experiences which

tend

of

the

within

which

the

upon

Another

widely

activities which
with

applicable
of

processes
such

to

and

goal.

For

example,

interruption of
though

even

the

other

thought

the

hand,
processes

is
a

the

or

their

in

our

in

engaged

definite kind.

trying

In

of differences

in

thought attains

its

study

to

finds

the

neighboring piano extremely disagreeable,

music
the

itself be
very

involved

intrinsically
pleasant.
of

act

of

smoothly

find

would

of

material

an

tively,
effec-

and

agreeably stimulating.

In

such

explanation

disagreeableness in

agreeableness or

presence

On

studying, provided the

forward

go

theory mentioned

for the appearance

absence

which

student

likelyto be found

situation

the

with

pleasure
dis-

immediately
is

readily aware

become

directness

mind

mental

end, and

an

is most

rather

pleasant
un-

point

one

obstructed

or

the

problem-solving of

instances,we
ease

which

at

pleasure with

conception

in

cases

whereas

system.

connects

impeded

are

this

Obviously

course.

the

as

system

nervous

drain

smoothly toward

progress

such

pleasurable experiences

that

of the

view

elicit

to

fication
substantiallya modi-

excessive

resources

held

tend

physical powers,

experiences involve
another

is

activities of the

limits of its

the

all

that

harmful
physiologically

are

urges

involve

as

first maintains

second

first,and

with

general types of hypothesis

The

pain. The

such

are

well

those

occasion

to

connection

organicallybeneficial

are

pleasure,whereas

In

Feeling.

physiologicalconception, two
have

or

PSYCHOLOGY

interruption to

the

thinking.
This

type of theory finds it

reason

more

for the appearance

pleasantness and

difficult to
of

unpleasantness. If

some
one

give a

forms
strikes

factory
satis-

of sensory
a

discord

193

FEELING

when
the

is forthwith

this

in

been

have

may

to

of harmonious

group

detect

to

In

is

such

Clearly
theories

in

couched

of

Facts
much

this

biologicalutility(negative
of the

system

to

accept

must

characterized
of the

we

one

are

the

need

endorsing

as

of

whatever

of

terms

the

stimulus, or

and

the

nervous

refuse

may

consideration

to
as

conditions

the

large part

very

rectly
cor-

are

essentiallysimilar

notion

falls

in

fresh

process

is

whatever

conditions

to

continue

readily with

very

agreeableness and

the

such
the

dis-

ing
indicat-

one

adjustment,
at

the

ness
unpleasant-

protective indices, the

instant

to

pain and

tendency

general biological hypothesis of

agreeableness

themselves

experiences

change

to

pleasure with
This

cussing.
dis-

now

it.

tendency

obtained, and
conditions.

human

our

to

the

one

under

-examining connected

in

organ

kind

early formulations

now

with

sense

frankly recognize that

by

lend

complete theory of

important of

more

One

of

sense

any

the

degrees

are

we

either

Nevertheless, while

formulation

feeling,one

of the

capacity of

respond.

affording in

one

positive) of

or

other

embarrassment

variety evidently

readily to description

more

in terms

of the

form

the

less

agreeabl
always dis-

are

occasion

cases

pose
pur-

or

pressure,

illumination, degrees of noise, which

of

more

the
disagreeable,

degrees of

are

one's

cases

forward

the

one

tones,

qualities of the tones,

go

agreeable. Similarly there

both

the

processes

successfully; nevertheless

of

pleasing.

both

sense

and
markedly disagreeable,

be

suddenly shifts

one

result

and

effect may

piano, the

the

on

the

moment

other

going

forward.
A

variant

of this view

appropriative movements,

identifies

pleasure with expansive,

pain and

displeasure with

con-

194

AN

INTRODUCTION

tractive movements

and

is

correct

roughly

TO

in

It must
in

are

frankly

of them

none

wholly

free

conclusive

hardly

be

to

survive, which

conscious

could

thrive.

to

oblivious
to

factors

important part.
modes

Wundt

of

alleges

On

in

changes

for

guiding

are

regards
doubt.

the

Many
any

with

evidence

the

competent

certain

in

is at all

play

an

of the

advance

definite

unpleasantness.
views

these

have

experimenters
the

to

prime

levels,
they certainlyrepresent

of the

connection
constancy
alleged physiologicalreactions.
in

viduals
indi-

and

constant

corresponding to his six

reported such
psychologists have

which

upon

its

circulation

the

and

failed

organism

the

there

pleasantness

for

other

behavior,it

hardly have

can

respirationand
other
simple feelings. Some

changes

creature

out-distanced.

certainlybe

their lower

that

could

conditions

best

development of animal
they

the

Any

pain have, therefore,been

pleasure and

clear that

events

simply

earache

and

riences,
expe-

circumstances

competition with

almost

could

conditions.
the

out

It

pleasurable experiences

the

in

specieswould

in the

animals

Clearly, too,

to

secure

affords

shunned, painful

toothache,

physical well-being, and

Whether

than

are

phenomena.

speciesof

that any

headache,

hardly expect

and

of them

none
difficulties,

disastrous
physiologically

wholly

was

they correspond

experience, they

gratuitouslysought

of

be

conceptions

general such experiencesare

scarcely be expected
which

that while

common

sought, rather

which

productive

from

in

sory
sen-

cannot

all these

that

explanations of observed

side of

creature

of

supposed

because

application to simple

admitted

features

broad

lation
formu-

breaking down.^

speculativeand

measure

certain

to

is

be

its

The

unpleasantness, but

far without

very

of retreat.

movements

pleasantness and
pressed

PSYCHOLOGY

The
rest

been

present
as

unable

affective

to

open

to

mental

author

grave
strate
demonstates

195

FEELING

of

of the development

in advance

lessons of experience and

critical intelligence.
A

Feelings.

Complex

"

distinction

which

logically should

have

which

seemed

be

likely to

if postponed
do

to

with

difference

the

feeling, sometimes
*

these elements

other

in

and

accompaniments.

agreeable idea, or
or

memory,

possiblefor

analysis of

an

any

purposes

that

with

with

an

in which

The

tone,

then

are

process

which

and

use

What

The

simple

of

experience is

we

we

should

an

able
agree-

tive
retrospec-

our

tifically
scien-

this,for

do

word

it to the

in which

or

entire

used

to

about

come
a

technical

concrete

rience
expe-

disagreeableness is
factors

simple feeling, affection,or

terms

be

to all intents

it has

feelingas

other mental

an

obviously

may

all. Thus

the

agreeableness

designate the special part

are

spicuous
con-

also

feelingof the

is represented in its pleasantness,unpleasantness,

the like.

Strictlyspeaking

(See Fig. 50.)

one

can

hardly classifyfeelingsexcept

into such

rudimentary

our

acceptance of agreeableness and

own

only

not

agreeableness devoid

agreeableness in

feelingat

no

element, but
present.

involve

oppositefeeling,or

disposed to apply

are

literature

ideas beside.

perception

or

psychologists who

term

modern

particularexperience. Indeed,

memory,

experienced either
and

the

agreeable perception. It is perfectly

it is quite essential that

idea, emotion,

of

simple elements

agreeable emotion,

an

to isolate the

us

has

This

tion.
affection,is clearly gotten only by abstrac-

conscious
an

stood
under-

'

'

experience pure

always

earlier,but

chapter.

complex feelingswhich

never

We

the

drawn

readily

more

between

but sensations

the

feeling,or

somewhat

designated

the

and
affection,'

mentioned

been

this point in the

to

be

now

may

groups

as

are

already represented

in

disagreeableness

196

AN

INTRODUCTION

primordial distinctions.

as

and

higher

One

adopted.

from

lower

chieflythose
and

50.

In

to the

lower

nutritional

relation

the

of

state

some

it is not

pleasures
those

which

nected
con-

The

of

simple feeling to total feeling

simple feeling, or affection, like
with

8e, sensory,

constitute

total

of this kind

general character
case,

of the

but

it may

taste

/,

or

complex

same

well

with
as

direct

lower

with

the

be

questioned

misleading.

than

the

The

one

for
But

and

pleasure and
that

the

society and

the

it may

relations.

the pleasure in the

kind

with

undoubtedly

relief of hunger

the

importance

of human

to do

smell, for example, and

and

experience, because
more

have

distinction

connected

are

as

experiences.

be thought of

latter have

the

those

passions.

and

psychologicallysomewhat

pains of moral

be

to

aesthetic

value,

pains of

and

thirst,may

to

purposes

justificationand

whether

(e.g.,agreeable

processes

this showing such

on

and
moral, intellectual,

has

senses

feeling.

higher feelingsare

For

of the

use

odors) and

SF, may
represent a
be combined
pleasantness, which
may
to
imaginal, or ideational, elements
states.

this distinction

feelings,so-called,are

immediate

and

posed
pro-

distinguishes

application of

physical appetites

illustrate

To

"

the

the

the

disagreeable tastes
with

assertion,a good
of fact, been

matter

the

with

connected

this

of the older of these

that

closelyrelated

most

as

feelings.

it appears

Fig.

Despite

classifications have,

many

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

seem

if,as

instance

pleasure in

the

we

believe

is

tively
qualita-

other, and

197

FEELING

especiallyif

obliged to admit

spring fiowers,or
retina,we

the

by

begin

may

play of beautiful
call in

to

question

value, but also the intrinsic

which

sets

inner

essence,

mean

to

cases

abundant

against one

over

for

assert

settingsof

differences

ableness
is

quite of

Another

piece with

do

in

point

ideational

and

sensuous

of fact working

of this distinction
the

based

but

simply

the

upon
upon

of sensation

Again,

obvious

just examined,

one

not

is too

to

of

life,or
have

so

far

the

same

as

another
should

we

they

are

comment

either of the
of complex

just

result in

between
basis

division

'affection'

the

such,

as

in the

reference

form

the

of the

aesthetic

as

feelingsarise,or

But

to

each

and

tions,
psychological classifica-

under

they

all refer

philosophical sciences,

is appropriate.
conditions

feelings.

exigenciesof practical

recognize.

offered

personal

to

perfectly legitimate,and

are

and

one

required that

all,in

to

that

clearly involves

encounters

of experiences which

groups

ences
experi-

feelings. The

cognitiveaccompaniment

frequently

divisions

these

from

distinction

to ethical and
feelings,to social feelings,

All

agree-

require discussion,and

to

feeling-tone or

its

of

to

idea.

or

one

it

however,

other.

out

intellectual

or

ideational

group

of the

not

in such

apart, the

one

particularssimilar,recognizes

many

chological
psy-

do

not

mean,

duration

that

We

and

classification ostensibly different

described, but

the

distinction

are

sensory

disagreeableness of

the

and

of

order.

We

simple feelings.

these

only

not

there

the

strongly that intensity and

urge

like

in

the

colors upon

truth

same

that

moment

fragrance of

facts that are, in their

another

of essentiallythe

peculiarly

fine type of pleasure elicited by the

and

rare

find ourselves

we

are

They

which

are

certain

fications
classisorts

classifications of the

198

AN

mental

INTRODUCTION

concomitants
of

problem

the

TO

of

PSYCHOLOGY

feeling elements

themselves.

classification

presented by

essential characteristics

fications
classi-

rather than
feeling-tones,

our

of pure

This

exhibits

entire
of

one

feeling,which

the
be

now

may

profitably mentioned.

undifferentiated

vagueness

and

which

it off from

sets

this the
that

Certain

it is

finds

transformed
In

process.

item

of

should

possible

they

with

margin

by

to

make

them

This

has

been

evaporated in the

has

to

any

They

adverbs, which

the

feeling-toneare

we

which

vision, and

observe
we

is

always

seem

demand
may

it were,

two

in

them
in

are,

the
but

of their presence,

aware

they

as

never

apparently
to

to

function

substantive

as

or

attach.

attention

has

led

interestingsuggestion that attention

reallythe

ments
ele-

varied

most

may

objects of attention

to

the

always,

There

indirect

it.

within
of these

case

in

are

hostilityof feeling-toneto
to

differences

apparently homogeneous,

They

forthwith.

kind

some

authorities

experience

psychologicalmaterials,they

focal.

the

adjectives or
of

feeling-tone.

pleasantness as such,

themselves

experience, keenly

destroy them

verb

is

so

be able to attend

are

of consciousness.

of

moment

all other

of mental

sort

to

do in the

cannot

we

connect

become

the

much

the

discriminate

to

feeling-tone. They

themselves

So

feeling

agreeable experience

whole

should

we

of

experience, it is apparently essential that it

while

fashion

upon

the

exactly the

an

of

agreeableness

that

exactly what

of
and

the

order

our

be

is

This

and

that

idea.

attend

sense

proper

is

agreed by psychologists

commonly

to fix attention

forthwith

one

it is

It

"

character

and

that,if in the midst

attempts

one

sensation

in any

cannot

we

the

that

case

Attention.

and

Feeling, Sensation,

opposite sides of

one

and

some

and
the

199

FEELING

This

way

that sensations
doctrine,i.e.,

and

process.

much

older

of

objective elements

the
we

will,share

we

may

the

get this by

we

experience,the
with

same

In

others.

in

distinctions

previous paragraph,
general
peculiar

the

sense

thinks

it is

makes

This
share

it mine

rather

is not

thought is in

any

way

more

one's

It

deeper than

the

in

of

in what

that

that

and

's

man

in

the

deeper

's b'ody of knowledge,

one

particularcontent

thought, is the personal attitude toward

vidual.
indi-

the

character

simply
in

and

real

indifference

means

the

broad,

very

actual

of

matter

in

truly than

more

the items

significantthan
even

equivalentto saying

of his character.

and

in

final

the

mentioned

attitude

mental

about, is revealed

formation

Whatever

"

those

as

feels much

one

This

of one's

all these ideas and

meaning.

Before

leaving the specializeddiscussion

properly devote

certain of its relations

Feeling
the

ception,
per-

sense

unquestionably true

personal

temperament.

may

sense

vidual
purely unique indi-

feeling represents

that

way

In what

their

object,

same

immediate

no

Attitude.

Personal

and

validity of such

and

if

yours.

Feeling

one

can,

subjectivelyreact.

part of the experience, which

than

we

ns

attending. Feeling,

event, it is the

any

give

purely individualistic

our

we

can

we

of

process

in which

way

experience

our

practicallythe

hand, represents

other

part of

the

stating

ideas

at

By looking

is

get what

of

experience which

our

others.

with

both
and

on

is

perhaps another

same

chapter

doctrine

that

that

one

moments

to the

Conduct.

and

few

"

We

to

control

feeling represents

view
the

feeling,we

consideration

of

of conduct.

indicated

important

of

at

the

is committed

outset
to

of
the

primitive guide by

AN

200

INTRODUCTION

of which

means

toward

conduct

environment

is

Certain

enough.

is

stimulus

meantime

or

immediately accepted. Behavior

because

they

which

useful, with
the
If

view

and

human

those

the

forthwith

applies them

conduct,
that

form, this view

one

such

that

the former.

human
endure

Of

maintains

tend

that

always
in

behavior, it has
a

of

gests
sugtions
reac-

is at least
behavior

which

logically
bio-

are

our
a

to

general point of

this
the

instantly comes

course,

beneficial

types

higher

upon

of the ethical hedonist.

we

is

offered,it

level,then,

those

to

directlyor indirectly,by
pain

involving

injurious.

adopts the implications of

one

of behavior

agreeable,there

are

about

appetizing,and

be

not

sponse.
re-

corresponding parallelism between

disagreeable and

food

or

apparently satisfyingand

are

is

this

strongly that whether

made

of

is offensive

of process

on

general parallelism between

food

evidence

no

kind

other

any

ensuing

wander

to

whatever

foresight. If agreeable but poisonous

are

low

agreeableness

the

often

evincing little or

by ideas

rather

plausible

of animals

and

seem

aimlessly,rejecting

controlled

activities

seem

of the

unhesitatingly accepting that which

in the

this doctrine

as

whose

likely to

in terms

kind

Fishes, for example,

and

and

simpler organisms

the observation

it is that

disagreeableness of the

somewhat

of the

long

simple, and
relatively

reasonably immediate

or

So

harmful

intelligencedistinctlysuggests reactions

scale of

in the

from

away

the behavior

to

relativelystereotyped, it

are

is steered

beneficial types of reaction.

is confined

whose

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

ranges

stantially
sub-

doctrine

in its crudest

Taken

is

conduct

always

trolled,
con-

regard for pleasure

avoid

the

of

latter and

and

seek

facing the actual complexitiesof

to

be

recognized that

present pain for the sake of

future

we

often

pleasure,but

FEELING

conviction

the

only under

201

that

the

outweigh, either in intensity or

expected pleasure will

the

permanency,

tary
momen-

pain.
It is

to formulate

possibleso

successful

contradiction

is

generally very

nature

accurate

as

merely reflects
really based
it remains

criticized it
situation

the

considerations

of the

of

mother, sittingup

night with
have

pleasure which

be

such,

called

but

hardly

the

are

the

none

ever

in the

in

ing
secur-

are

sciously
con-

the

for

any

the

act.

to

say

recovers.

voluntary,

posed
sup-

Nor

would

that

she

Such

far

so

pain

horizon, except perhaps

acts

they

and

and

is

experience

to

doubt

no

motive, pleasure

be

thought of

by

child

part

long hours

moment

by
tainly
Cer-

relativelyrare.

hopes

less

facts,

that

she

in

actual

is to describe

one

processes

instinctive,and

they

is

getting from

when

care

it is

explicit control

an

controlled

mental

their conscious

concerns
are

she is

actual

of her

result

may

conduct

whether

psychologists alike

through

child, can

by the pleasure which

controlled
a

sick

her

it be fair to her

as

pain

and

or

motives

actual

tion
descrip-

unwillingness

the

if

that

its

human

succeeded

and

beings,

pleasure

into

never

ground

human

to

tired

to

the

has

of the

in terms

present

no

the

on

this

vanity,

insight

this view

that

But

accept such

Whether

moral

keener

upon

difficult.

to

large following. Ethicists

any

have

facts.

universal

true

unwilling

to make

position as

decidedly

the

to

this

to

as

such

as

be

are

tiently
impa-

banished.
Between
to

the

that

urge

two

pleasure

voluntary behavior,
other

regarding

be found

them

and

are
as

the real truth.

doctrine, the

of

extremes

pain,
at

least

of

no

if not
the

the

dominant

surely

tending

sole motives

is

consequence,

It would

one

be

ones,

perhaps

in
the
to

idle to main-

202

AN

INTRODUCTION

tain that pleasure and

of

pain play

acquaintance with

our

live.

That

the burned

for hundreds

text

TO

the value
kind.

of

The

pain
and

effects upon

pleasurable experiences
in

conduct

It is of

to

disagreeablenessmerely
lines of conduct.

For

psychologists that

we

elements.
untrue
or

But

to

on

of

to such

very

motivate

or

direct objects

deliberating about

thus

power

to

our

it would

hand,

from

summon

affective

disembodied

pure

line of conduct
We

in terms

thought

and

that

be

equally

that the expected agreeableness

or

that

from

ever
what-

weight
formulate

the

the

consequences

less oblivious

at the

closelyknit is the fabric

so

process

no

not

may

more

But

special effort divorce

has

that stress
be

may

consequences.

entire

our

no

decision.

we

urable
pleas-

agreeableness
the

ever

are

other

ourselves

to

feeling. Indeed,

time

of

have

the

other

thing, it is generally agreed by

facts to say

the

in determining

in

we

one

disagreeablenessof

decision

are

imagination these

or

memory

that

suppose

such

as

reflective choice, when

of

essential

other.

or

absurd

course

formal

conviction

energize

to

serve

fashion

some

as

of approval and

widespread

moral

experiments exhibiting the

children

incentives, imply

of the

of interest

doctrine

abundant

the

the adage which

hand,

in education

element

an

as

become

exploitthe

to

we

spoilthe child postulates

is to

rod

the

entire modern

in education

dynamic

the other

fire has

the

designed

On

in which

physical world

the

sermons

that to spare

part in the early stages

no

child dreads

of sin.

consequences

teaches

of

PSYCHOLOGY

our

we

could

not

thinking all

without
influence

feeling.
Feeling

doctrine
Wundt

and

and
stands

Voluntary

is

one

Action.

for which

sponsor,

that

so

"

It has

eminent

been
a

common

psychologistas

voluntary actions always

grow

203

FEELING

feelings,

out

of

act

ever

formulation
will

with

The

that

is

analysis
of

lines

defensible,

may

habitual

such

our

terms

carried
doubt

no

factor
another

subjective
of

pure

that
is

of

great
in

action

act,

the

that

to

the
to

be

feelings,

but

intel-

essentially
reflection,

particular
of

in

there

and

are

ranges

us

is
and

of

While

acts

our

and

rests,

cold-blooded

any

determines

prejudices
reason.

in

correct,

which

course

without

entirely

choice

alternatives.

of

many
out

Our

entirely

possible

two
and

rationality

the

are

while

description

moving
than

be

can

which

and

and

sheer

the

last

the

predilection

strong

aversion.

powerful

regarding

decisions

be

rational

implies
in

of

of

always

doctrine

Either

feel

we

the

ticular
paracts

they

which

perfectly

one

upon

feeling

our

be

the

not

lectualistic,

there

for

other

case,

upon

feelings.

may

but

the

toward
such

to

conduct

that

motives

by

our

of

The

connects

teaches

fo:pm

determined

back

go

he

familiar

more

choice

which

of

out

offers

Wundt

volitional

no

feeling.

to

response

which

emotion,

spring.

in

except

occurs

that

otherwise,

expressed

or,

conduct

our

psychologically

choose
stated
rather

one

in

rather
terms

than

of
in

XII

CHAPTER

EMOTION

of

feelings are

is naturally
it

Emotion.

and

Feeling

applies

of

in

these

general

to

and

drawn

definite

the

tend

kind,

between

from

to

vivid

shall

now

James

and

direct

used

characterizes

these

with
Some

writers

simply
feel

the

when

William

given

Instinct.

and

we

most

"

gone

perform
and
extreme

the

the
The

far

side

of

certain
Danish

an

204

to

fear,

suggest

to

which

the
we

Professor

group

is their
modes
to

mark

say

of

of
that

this

nection
con-

behavior.
is

emotion
what

instinctive

psychologist
to

which

intimate

instinct, it is

kinds

formulations

reasonable

Anger,

outstanding

as

certain

emotions.

coarser

instinctive
so

off with

This

sharp

eration
consid-

possess

emotion

emotions

and

psychological

James
the

have

as

grosser

reflex

of

tions
condi-

no

some

serve

may

attention.

our

designate

to

Emotion

forms

constant

devote

them

fact

non-emotional

conditions.

mental

other

is

there

ence
pres-

the

off into

shade

which

set

some

noticeable

and

to

by

Despite

that

so

emotions

hate, love, grief, embarrassment,

more

to

profitable

peculiarities tending

distinctness

parlance,

the

emotional

overt

more

ordinary

unpleasantness.

or

states, it is nevertheless
to

'emotion'

marked

by

forms

this term

mind

commonly

relatively neutral

be

of

states

all the

of

in

used

of excitement

states

to

Although

loosely

pleasantness

of
line

somewhat

of excitement

degree

that

emotions.

the

familiar

^Most

"

we

acts.

Lange

have

view.

They

EMOTION

differ,to be
contention

each makes

which

which

are

the doctrine

out

is that in

features

because
The
view

strike,afraid

we

James-Lange
of

emotional

the

are

to which

theory

of

results

we

all the

The

"

eliminated

in

are

and

motor

everything which

specificfeeling

of

that

of the face in anger

that

characteristic

which

this

The

like rage

many

of the most

important

those

of the heart

under

not

that

situation

one

of

is

only felt when

movements

as

are

of anger

case

have

may

some

made.
"

or

changes
which

and

in

the
rate

the

tonicity of

of the
the

becomes

heart-beat,and

actual
is

kind,

muscular

diaphragm,
of

are

this doctrine

that the emotion

but

instinctive

comprise

violent tension

face often
of the

all of the

These

muscles, particularly those

the

entirelylucid apprehension

an

justifying anger,

one

and

Defenders

voluntary control.

maintain

the

as

of

are

suggests

of the violent

such

sense

if these

in emotions

movements,

that

perfectly real

disappears.

once

experiment

anger,

The

course,

because
obviously difficult,
and

the

glandular expressions
is most

at

anger

the

of

performance

angry

common

generally held

referring admits,of

movements

other

puts the
cry,

expressions of the emotions, but it maintains

and

bring

previously existing emotion.

now

are

ments
move-

tremble."

Emotion.

the distortion

the

we

muscular

these

we

expression has

clenching of the fist and

by changes

James

way,

because

because
of

ence
experi-

instinctively.To

sorry

Theory

main

through certain

dramatic

in the most

the

emotional

an

contributed

are

reflexlyor

made

by saying that *'we feel

case

details,but

brought about

consciousness

our

essential

some

characteristic

the
in

in

sure,

205

among

of most

hands,

blood

muscular
others

"

in

of the voluntary
arms,

and

chest,

vessels,by virtue

of

scarlet,changes in the power

profound

alterations

in the

AN

206

INTRODUCTION

breathing.

of

them

the

sum

the

But

without

of

instinctive

not

of any

shows

himself

for

anger,

modification

these untaught

mark

beginning

of the
of

light of

and

of

consciousness

our

unlearned

The

reader

brought about

memory,

will

tend

reactions.

The

original expression of fear

in the nature
but

after

one

of times, one

of the
has

been

emphasize

case,

an

in the

the essential

many

individual

that

of

native

these

or

of anger

is,

entirely unique experience;

subjected

naturally learns what

of one's memories

by

readily infer, in the

experience

to

it

instinctive,and

constitutes

will

previous analysis of

our

the

performances

which
activities,

motor

doctrine

James-Lange

emotion.

as

in

master

the

child

Every

These

example.

when
in

when

or

thus

inherited,

to behave

passed

ception
per-

are

and

emotions.

commoner

the

from

embarrassed,

group

the

which

native

are

therefore, fairly to be regarded

is the

view

reactions

objects

of these

expressions of
are,

of motor

same

of fear.

emotion

the

particular

any

bear, inspected at the

same

when

at

zoologicalgarden,

has to be taught how

one

angry,

power

iarly
pecul-

looks

one

reactions,which, fusing with

by emotional

afraid, when

in the

animal, constitute

acquired. No

many

the

intervening bars, elicits a great

particular group
out

constitutes

wholly lacking in

the

the

of the

called

disturbances

be

may

distance

The

changes,

sensory

up

of its cage

bars

color.

these

sets

part of the experience. If

experience

emotional

might be mentioned, but

by changes in the feeling-tone,and

total of these

behind

the

will suffice.

accompanied

emotional
bear

affecting both

consequences

of these movements

Each

PSYCHOLOGY

glandular system

illustrations

these

the

other

Many

and

muscular

TO

to

the emotion

to

of previous similar

expect, and
situations

number

the
may

effect
enter

207

EMOTION

situation

which

does

to

give

tone

in

any

complete

way

the

doubts

that

these

motor

accompaniments

No

one

to

The

expressions.
whether

of

by the movements,
constitute,as
emotion

in

not

it

and

James

soon

sensory,

reactions

violent

as

result

as

theory

show

to

of

of

dogs,

on

The

The

states.

is

of the

animals

any

attempt

view

of the

points of

to

the

named.
these

consider

writer

that

theory

brain

the

under

do

as

out

sense

elicit

may
as

did

reaction

the
may

the
to

is not

contributions

criticisms
discussion.

Psychological Review,

activities, particularly

nearly all

than

This

Vol.

are

See

XXIII,

of

is based

upon

prevented by operation

was

seemed

emotion

between

criticism

of

from

lower

behavior

emotions

of

thoughts call

shame

or

But

development

emotional

an

line

impulses
body

the

stimulus

touch.

or

readily

as

glandular

the

where

of the

change in

that

inter-relation

other

surfaces

the

see,

the

of anger

certain

receiving incoming

the

of

essence

insultingremark

an

intimate

an

adrenals.

the

of

the

case

the

dispositionto attack the validity of this

certain
physiologicalexperiments, part of

fear-anger type and

experiments

in

some

of

processes,

reaction

ground

the

on

tend

from

elicited

so

of the responses

we

vividly and

as

been

has

There

from

pendent
inde-

occasioned

original emotional

originalexperience. Moreover,

those

their

to and

changes

maintain,

something

e.g.,

perceptions. The thought

the

acteristic
char-

is, therefore,

non-emotional

The

the ideational

and

emotional

which

debate

these

Lange

"

about,

comes

memory

called

instinctive nature

or

Emotions.

to

course,

quite

commonly

sponses.^
re-

question.

Stimuli

is,of

whether

or

raciallyhereditary

possess

field of consciousness

distinguished from

as

emotions

grosser

feeling is entirelyprior

in the

changes

catalogue of natural

point under

real

emotional

the

full

itself call out

not

head

viscera

the

region.

In

and
this

suggest relatively little

the
in

valid
an

place

to
It

detail.
as

by

251.

upon

is not

against the

article

1916, p.

enter

the

the

main
author

208

AN

INTRODUCTION

readilybe transposed
when

as

milk.

Just

emotional
clear, ^

learns

far

how

of his

babies

that

It is sometimes

of these reactions

Neither
is

there

some

in

represented
that

when

to

evidence

to

the

of certain

case

stimulus

child's response

altogether

the stimulations

alleged, for example,

of darkness

seems

in the

react

glandular reactions

and

motor

of the

taste

is not

various

naturally afraid

are

the

of stimuli

it is clear that however

But

and

dispositionto

another,

to

sight of his bottle

the

hunger

inherit

we

relativelyfixed.

the

associate

to

stimulus

sensory

specifickinds

to

way

one

produce emotions, the

which
are

from

satisfaction

the

with

child

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

of fur.

and

be at all universal, but

indicate

that

one

children.

is encountered

are

Certain

it is

calls forth

that

is of the instinctive

both

or

and

fear,

typed
fairlystereo-

form.
Ideational

Element

instinctive
be

the

and

that

understood

ideational

Emotion.

in

intend

in any

parts of the process.

and

evolves.

Mental

disease

apart,

fear in general, impersonal anger

general. One

in

is afraid

is angry

one

embarrassed

by

one's

at
a

Watson

primitive
anger

"

stimulus

in

stimulus
"

the

unpublished

emotional

reactions
any

"

removal

particular object

apprehension
various

and

constriction

or

the

stances,
circum-

free

stimuli

as

movement;

follows:

(2)

bodily suppo-rt,possibly loud sounds;

feeling stimulus
gentle stroking or tickling.
of

"

"

stances^
in-

all these

of

is

one

group,

In

tion,
situa-

or

tentatively reported

their
of

rected
undi-

in

thoughts suggested

has

paper

life

embarrassment

or

special individual

intellectual

an

the

utmost

have

not

particular situation.

together with
^

of

not

mental

as

so

does

one

of the

are

increasingly

they become

moment,

must

overlook

to

way

These

the

emphasizing

aspects of emotion, it

motor
we

In

"

three

(1)
fear

"

fectiona
(3) af-

209

EMOTION

appreciation

is momentous.

Only

when

To
is

revert

to

object of

an

is apprehended

he

great bodily sufferingdoes

as

he become

tration:
earlier illus-

an

interest in

amused
in the

other, may
the

and

potential

same.

of

source

stimulus

emotional

an

tional
emo-

this intellectual

of visual sensation,one

sheer matter

be, as

total of the

sum

object of horrified fear

an

case,

the

simplest instances

bear, which

the
one

in the

Even

state.

the

to determine

instance,enter

each

fear.

to

The

conspicuous as
of

in emotion

intellectual element

emotional

of the

example,

of

subtle

Emotion

the

is therefore

experiences, as

trasted
con-

perhaps be connected
fessor
Pro-

fact of interruption to on-going processes.

upon

all the

Mental

Interrupted

experiences, may
defended

has
out

when

this

the

more

stimulus

which

calls

Whatever

blocks

thwarts

our

momentary

fear,and

in

there

tendencies

of

mental

typically

activity.

general

be

can

incidents

is

anger

emotions

judgment

are

ordinary flow
forth

that

instinctive

two

violent emotions
the

be said of

thesis

particular view,

interruption to

may

point,

no

sensations,ideas, and

of

competition for expression.

or

relativelymore

pleasure. At

intensity of emotional

primarily called

that

ciation,
appre-

distinctly less

be

with

which

Phenomenon

other

Dewey

passed

of aesthetic

resonance,

in

condition

The

with
with

the finer forms

wholly lacking. Emotion

"

range

to

more

intricatelycombined.

are

Activity.

the

to become

properly speak of emotion, is this

can

we

highly complex

coarser

of intellectual

forms

cognitive element

the

is likely to

there

purely bodily

however, where

affections

In

experience.

for
evidence

from

pass

we

tends

the

onset

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of

are
are

may

in
be

doubt

no

of vigorous
life.
one
same
an

The

which

thing
emotion

210

AN

INTRODUCTION

is marked

by the

invasion

at the

are

processes

torrential

going

View

general view

about

reader

will,of

Darwin's

the

as

of the

instinctive

the

to

of

now

racial

the

doctrine

that

which

of

which

doctrine

involves

the

attitudes

savage

of

utility. Over
affectionate

moods,

as

an

franker

been

angry

set of muscular

an
so

because

two

forms

of

previous period

of

scorn

this
or

of

sort

in anger,

less restrained

and

highly useful.
*

principle of

as

the

the

group.

utilityof
the

the

'

tain
cer-

expression

it represents most

oppositesto

second

antithesis.

dog obviously have

exactly opposite
much

or

particular utility,but

against these,
are

at

lip in
no

so-called

its appearance

complete

now

of

of

tageous.
disadvan-

and

of the

illustration

upper

have

theory here implies not

group,

survivals

the

mentioned.

useful

stock

in social conditions

rule

of millions

that many

were

has

present equipment of

our

be

contention

obviouslymay

The

as

which, like trembling when

may

The

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bodily structures,

peculiarlyinept

seem

character

may

conception naturally raises

utilityof

encountered

performance

the

responses.

fact that

in mind

thing is the elevation of the

a

by

presented, it

emotional

This

views

history.

tions
emo-

with

going into complete details,one

is first the

reaction

joyful

connection

behavior, represent

reactions,some

Darwinian

There

succeeded

struggle for existence

the

Without
of the

of

high place,

upon

the

on

ancestors.

question as

be

have

we

our

bear

forms

fittest in

generations of
the

rest

the

brieflycertain theories of Charles

origin of

course,

views

well

as

the

whatever

In

may

In

"

which

be of interest to mention

of

excitement.

Emotion.

of

of emotion

Darwin

on.

interruption

flow of delicious

Darwin's

dislocation

and

moment

this momentary

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

of

The
second

nearly

contrasting emo-

211

EMOTION

have

all

at

lines along which

the

perplex

now

it may

of

Emotions.

have

been

suggested, but

winning

permanent

general favor.

which
derived

classification

subject

there

Superposed

love

of

of remorse,

these

behavior.
first group
content

upon

They
regarded

But
it is

as

in

as

which

are

this

presumably
to

in

sumably
Pre-

broad, general

are

finds

which

in

and

to

or

forms,

responding
cor-

sense.

emotions

as

and

remorse,

obvious

with

the

some

mal
representation in aniwith

possibleexception
the

of the

members

they depend

obviously

therefore

such

experiences has

fairly clear that

one

(offensive)

anger

recognized something

of its

it,and

secondary

group.

also

contrasted

as

they involve

primary

into those

employ.

last-named

elements
are

on

unequivocally primary.

many

of them

each

seems

however, obliged

foundations

in

of instinct

elements

which

positionto apply

are,

affection

these

upon

Each

We

as

be

or

gratitude, sympathy
pity.

in

succeeded

those

regard such emotions

should

to

has

confidently,it would

it attempts to

(defensive)

fear

and

which

appreciable uncertainty regarding the

to

safe to

seems

finally

of

division

and

in

we

needs.

essential

dividing line which

It

gest
sug-

classifications

That

involves

secondary. Were

or

satisfy all
it

none

historicallyprimary,

principleof

use

fundamental

most

are

found

responses

Many

"

emotion

whole

to

serve

be

of the

of

us.

Classification

the

at least

perhaps

tions
explana-

of certain

riddle

the

some
intelligible

render

possibleto

solved

completely

reactions,but they will

emotional

our

be said that the Darwinian

It cannot

tioual state.

grow

out

for

of

reasonable

sense

some

extent

derived.

another

of the elements

their

ence.
experito

be
sumably
Pre-

of the

AN

212

Mood,

INTRODUCTION

must

we

emotion

term

experience
off.

whose

Mood

is

throughout

while

such

term

still

to

facts

are

all inter-related

which

One

period of

reference

also to intellectual

The

familiar

division

and

*'The

stirred,the latter displaying

vivid
a

in

slow

are

interest

when

persistentbut
that

even

there

weak
are

interest.

distinction.

Moreover,
in

differences

intellectual

general estimate

While
upon

likely to

commonly

we

the
be

and

the

are

to

make-up.
and

easily

strong

latter

and

manifesting

in individuals,

general lines of

all kinds

equipment,
must

of

individual

affecting
be

memory,

recognized

in

peculiarities.

of dispositionas being dependent

prevalent emotional
good-natured

terize
charac-

to

phlegmatic types

these

of temperamental
think

mental
funda-

very

alert

variations

imagination, attention, etc., which

any

no

individual
are

traits.

stood
It will naturally be under-

roughly
there

with

sanguine,

into

evincing

considerable

they conform

when

' '

apply

intense, the former

more

aroused,

once

to

motor

roughly

in

types
a

that

mood.

the

and

has

serves

former

the

response,

means

to

habits

melancholic

The

feebler; interest.

This

looselyused

phlegmatic

choleric

and

sanguine

be

but
dispositions,

differences

gross

cheerful

thus

temperaments

psychological basis, but

certain

comparatively

is susceptible chiefly to

one

some

of

fairlymarked

time.

emotional

enduring

choleric,melancholic,

to

may

is somewhat

temperament

relativelybrief

be

closely related

are

and

phenomena..

can

apply

condition.

with

side

by

sentiment, mood,

end

we

endures,

mood

more

of

and

which

term

considerable

emotions

The

the

beginning

Side

"

is usually applied to

emotional

permanent

those

put

for they

temperament,
The

Sentiment.

Temperament,

emotion

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

who

attitude,so

that

temperamentally

one

is

responds

EMOTION

with

situations

to

most

or

less humorous

emotions

this point what

by dominant
call

we

whose

theoretical
to

social

entirely kindly character

forcefullyto

appeal. On

to their

tends

to dwell

the

upon

as

distress.

When

sentimental,we
is

There

such

to

is itself
Emotion

in the

Volition.

direction

one

character.

the

to

unemotional

is likely to

be

to many

of

view

must

entertain

we

"

cussed
dis-

matter

recognize that

important relation

well-balanced,forceful

meet

the

to

wholly

in life.

some

general he
individual,

cold-blooded, unsympathetic
things

our

geration
exag-

requirements of
in

our

character

The

relations.

great distinction, but

of the finer

to

ment
obviously, a senti-

most

human

tions
emo-

favorable

of

may

crises with

set

emotions, responding without

demand

person

we

ments
senti-

between

corresponding emotion.

Whatever

"

"

normal

of

another.

or

of any

of feeling to volition

life sustains
and

thought

exaggeration of this

an

conversely and

previous chapter

implies strong

oblivious

whose

prevalent sentiment

relation

regarding the

occasional

imply

invi4;ation to the

an

and

emotional

naturally alert

be emotionally responsive to

in

mood

foster

to

brought

are

not

are

an

designate particular individuals

mean

emotions, whereas

conduct

matters

emotions, for the cultivation

tends

and

of

be

may

essentiallyreciprocalrelation

an

and

abstract

upon

They

such

they

to

we

emotional

permanent

consequence.

persistentunderlying problems
apt

are

At

relatively permanent

the other hand, persons

social organization
human

when

their notice,but

are

be lacking in sensitiveness

likelyto

personal situations.

and

emotions

prime

dwell

to

more

of thought.

sentiment, i.e.,a

thinking tends

subjectsare

that

trains

of

and

buoyant

true

attitude,is

dispositionor
Persons

of the

type, it is equally

affected

be

likely to

213

On

the

other

214

AN

hand

some

INTRODUCTION

poised
shall
the

will

to

from

and

opinions
discuss

by

suggest

persons

volcano

TO

or

aiore

instinct

such

fully
and

in

their

we

consistent

emotion.

behavior

can

and

PSYCHOLOGY

later

hardly
efficient

chapter

an

active
for

look
conduct.
the

relation

tional
emo-

wellWe
of

CHAPTER

XIII

INSTINCT

touched
must

instinct, carries

of

region

that

matters

into

the

which

we

We

study.

our

closely into this part

more

reflex

Some

all

of

of

stages

our

in

In

action.

reflex

in

acts

generally
in

learned

sense

no

reflexes
are

certain

through

acquired

or

part

by
are

by their

being

it is that
which

not

the
are

like the

to

be

is of

to

important

so

one

not

boundaries.
215

passes

and
forms

voluntary

reflex

over

separated

from

involving

single stimulus,

the

ferences
dif-

similarities,

into

by

whereas
the

all,however,
as

at

they

of conduct

ordinarily conscious,
After

this

perfection

differentiated
the

the

birth.

whenever

forms

response

unconscious.

perhaps

stages

But

of

into
at

sucking
to

complexity,

muscular

their

are

in

autonomic)

come

life.

general, they

simple

part

and

once

presence

perfect

of

tense
pre-

at

impulses

are

innate, inherited

they involve

appear,

of

instinct

animal's

the

and

any

said

the

upon

instincts

appear

be

may

central

the

Others

making

discharge

the

mammals

young

character.
later

of

rest

acts,

the

for

pathways

Without

"

(both

system

muscles.

and

to

of

definition, it

in

precision

nervous

native

many

as

beginning

Instinct.

instincts, like

the

and

of

Nature

of

of

it did

us

equipment.

The

are

back

us

very

somewhat

look

human

In

the

at

upon
now

emotion, leading

of

analysis

Our

the
any

other

sharp

216

AN

INTRODUCTION

instinctive

These

capacity

situations

to

it must

solely

of

larger part of his

analysis of emotion

have

insisted

intimate
As
many

For
as

that

with

way

have

example, they

been

derived, and

All

complex.

knowledge is

as

assertions.

Before

grouping, it

may

in

up

emotions

grouped

out

we

most

is

too

probably

imperfect to

certain

with

that

instincts.

this

which

that

primary

are

must

be

regarded
of which

dogmatic

warrant

rough

practical
of the

view

peculiarities of

those

of the

and

Animal

the

higher

and

secondary,

are

classifyphenomena

upon

are

aggressive. At

or

the divisions
to

Human

supposed

some

the

and

perhaps clarifythe reader's

of

to

social,or personal,

as

defensive

entering

compared

Comparison
commonly

yet

point

to
as

knit

against those which

over

merely rough attempts

instincts

are

to

repeat

already. For

bring together instincts which

relativelysimple as

situation

of

grouping

commonest

to

he

Our

preceding chapter, there

altruistic,as

egoistic or

attempts

our

the

possible classifications

present the

as

in

out

which

instincts.

our

pointed

we

emotions

our

must

we

considered

have

we

remain

naturally led the reader

will have

points which

from

up

enduring motives.

more

anticipatethat in discussing instinct

extent

the

capital made

factors

dominating

as

rep-

only does

achievements; they

hereditary

throughout his life

foundation

adjustment

Not

with

total of

sum

the

individualistic

career

of the

in certain

being they form

begin his life

these

the

important

more

and

personal experience.

his

child

derives

adjust,

In the human

by

human

of the

many

is built all that

which

resented

meet

give the

to

serve

they comprise substantiallythe

f its abilities.

I upon

to

which

animals

lower

reflex activities

and

organism

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

human

animals.
Instinct.

animals

"

^It is
possess

INSTINCT

appreciably
is

truth.

the

nearer

construction

the

it

hand,

than

blind

in

man

nor

so

invariable

from

variation

animals,

reflex acts

by painful
chick

young

Commonly

the
more

kind

marked

In

the

out

and

higher
pear,
disapis lacking

or

by painful experiences. The

small

objects is
if it be
an

developed

into

less

the

even

cultivated.

object and
habit

given

strongly disagreeable

which
stincts
in-

permanently, inhibited
has

objects. If those

to

the

fundamental

chick, again,

tendency

which

one

not

offers such

of

expression

dispositionof

The

moving

hen

be temporarily,

at

its first

because

or

instinct is forthwith

peck

is sometimes

susceptibleto

be stamped

promptness

some

the maternal

may

instincts

are

as

another.

to

last indefinitely. Any

taste

or

burning acid substance, the instinct

some

On

have

men

of them

consequences.

follow

to

with

away

such
young

opportunity for its development

appropriate time,

is followed

may

the

by

practically all exhibit

instinct may

an

many

the

chick's

shown

operation

some

are

individual

one

either because

passes

displays any

animals, however,

in their

appreciable alteration,and

the

man.

essentiallyinstinctive

an

in the

nor

Even

supposed.

at

find in

we

fact that

the

more

animal.

any

Neither
so

be

impulses of

rudimentary

that

as

have

of its first intricate web.

to

seems

animals

adult

the

nor

ment
state-

contrary

which

any

instinct

elaborate

remarkably

other

child

the

Certainly neither

than

Professor

man.

Undoubtedly

highly perfected instincts

spider in

does

others maintain, however, that

and

James

than

instincts

more

217

be

strong

supplied
coated

may

be

be

with

gravely

disarranged.
The

plasticityof

Indeed, because

human

instinct

is much

of its variabilitythere

more

familiar.

is little appreciation

AN

218

INTRODUCTION

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

of the really instinctive character

The

conduct.

reactions

embarrassment

the

widely

vary

individual

same

of marked

at different times.

or

with

tend

One

of these

another

one

tomorrow.

instinct

is of

with

compared

the

from

summon

of

this

when

speechless

is

by

children
rude

to

are

and

sions.
expres-

today, and
that

say

the
As

ill-organizedtype.

the

pale.

frightened,others

instincts

all human

reader

abundant

can

doubt

no

confirmation

individuals

Notoriously, some
grow

dumb

made

simply

observations

others

when

and

animals, probably

own

in

be

may

general and

statement.

angry,

reactions

people,

Still others

ill-mannered

to

Some

their distress by

face.

or

sion
expres-

rendered

are

in

and

common

blushing.

variable, and

his

The

of words, which

This

very

decidedly more

are

cause

individuals

express

hands

rush

often

adolescents

Others

of

movements

overwhelmed

is

blush, but

never

situations.

embarrassing
awkward

different

in

embarrassment

however, rarely

which

circumstances

to

of human

forms

essentiallyof the instinctive kind, and

are

yet they may

of many

Some

flush
become

persons

teiid to babble

like

on

Tennyson's brook.
Human
make

Instincts.

"

^Let

rough list of the

return

us

to the

now

important human

more

attempt

instincts,

and

to

the

following list; vocalization, imitation, emulation

suggest

working grouping. Professor

rivalry, pugnacity,

anger,

resentment,

to

gives

James

sympathy,

or

fear,

eonstructiveness,play, curiosity,
sociability
acquisitiveness,
and

shyness,secretiveness,
cleanliness,
modesty, shame, love,

jealousy, parental love, and

instincts to

hunting.

MacDougall

nizes
recog-

repulsion,curiosity,
flight,
pugnacity, self-

and
abasement, self-assertion,
the latter he evolves

sympathy

the parental instinct.

and

indirectly moral

From

indig-

INSTINCT

regards

He

nation.

gregarious habits,
the

his

in

Watson,

minor

as

instincts

study

recent

and

Instincts

which

the

racial situations.

He

related

Under

instinct appears
are

in

in

instincts,appear

another

with

anger,

only with

On

and

emotional

provide

for the continuance

of the

which

for the

of the

social unit."

overlap

two

or

even

tender

forms

which
of

of

sented
repre-

base

Some, like
then

are

appear

plicated
com-

earlier,

experience.

Still

recently accepted

preserve

the

life and

of the individual; (b) those which

for the welfare

those

and

most

would

traits.

Pillsbury has

which

provide
(c)

which

foundation
he

servative
con-

tives.
deriva-

upon

the various

groups

instincts

servation
con-

this

so-called

the

recognizes (a) ''those instincts which

and

group,

relativelylate
the

and

of

instinct

its various

the

general fruits

the

grouping

and

pity, and

as

instinctive

with

definitely

more

the

involving fear and

as

fundamental

the

also

as

general, such

other

but

with

do

its aggressive form

sympathy

all the

not

less

to

complex tendencies, finding their

more

by these three

sex

form

personal affection.

non-sexual

belong

to

of the

properly the primary

expression

emotions

and

defense

distinctlysocial

to

speaks thus

all its modifications.

definite

others, of

its defensive

under

built the

of

primitive tendencies, of

The

psychologicalcharacter, are

are

of sex,

purely physiologicalhave

of the body.

These

the

groups.

more

maintenance

construction.

to

vocalization

distinguishes certain

Ribot

to

of behavior, lists locomotion,

attack,migration, mimicry, and

leading

shelter,rest, play, sleep, as

of daily life.

sharply marked

those

and

reproduction,

to

obtaining of food

foundation

219

make

Evidently
three

of the

race

and

welfare

some

for the

of the tribe

of the

groups.

family,
or

instincts will

AN

220

As

INTRODUCTION

suggested, the value of

been

has

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

classifications is reallydependent upon

"st

or

to

which

purpose

it is designed to meet.

classification like that

of Ribot

be

carried out,
satisfactorily

to

throw

into

pertain

most

relation

to

added

an

those

individual,then
is

be

likelyto

modern

evolutionary conceptions of mind.

undoubtedly

of evolution
has

been

his mental

as

in

developed

life of the

race,

instinctive

equipment

in hunger, thirst,and
the

upon

relations and

may

be.

be

found

the

we

have

between

then

in the

one

point

At

for
justification

noted, the
those

sum

acter
of this char-

or

social unit, whatever

another
each

tend

centering first

group

in

of the

total representing

impulses which

Superposed

calling for effective social

tribe
or

The

is represented

demands

leading speedilyinto the

in the family and

tion
protec-

enemies.

animal

anger-fearreactions.
to

are

in the

food, rest, and

and

adjustment

which

individual,the earliest

to

of situations

group

living

Presumably

these demands

to meet

the

successful

is the

that

relate

the assaults of climate

from

the

In the process

influences

to

partly social.

which

those

exigencies are

with

other

forms.

in the life of the

as

is

his physical organization

as

response

partly physiologicaland

like

developed,

well

was

as

There

in connection

use

of simpler antecedent

creatures, out

its

of classification in that

itself rather

has

can

which

grouping

desires

one

of society and

it lends

Man

If

convenient.

most

readily to

if it

considerations

such

in this type

advantage

wishes

one

then
instinct,

be best.

distinctlyto the evolution

last

of

If

MacDougall,

or

would

foreground

the

the

mentioned

the particular inter-

distinctlygenetic phases

the

uncover

of these proposed

any

to foster

this series will

instincts
a
on

rude
the

which

balance
hand

one

the purely personal interests of the individual, and

on

the

INSTINCT

other

shall

we

in

see

instinctive

control,

which
and

social

rational

tendencies; but,

there

whose

without

helpless

really

cannot

at

obviously
instincts

those

the

of

cost

society

oppositedirection.
his

to

The
the

individual, and

the

come

of these

rational

must

between

is in the

tendency

is

group

individual

balance

of voluntary

from

apart

even

As

belongs.

organization

exploit the individual

to

he

chapter, the great function

approximate

an

tend
those

which

to

evolutionary grounds

on

be

always

later

is to introduce

action
raw

social group

of the

those

221

the

without

own

group.

Theories

of the

certain

of the

its origin. Of these

the

moment

of Instinct.

one

mention

may

which

three.

for

the

At

first describe

shall

we

some
a

regarding

important theories

more

we

It will throw

"

of instinct to survey

the general problem

light upon
moment

Origin

present

probably

enjoys the largest following.

(1) The
English

reflex theory,

instinct
of reflex acts
animals

the

with

connected
as

the

built up

in forms

less fortunate

for the
may

This

view

no

of the instinct

that
possibility

be very

tend

to

many

of the

to

attribute

mental

the establishment

many

unsuccessfully,so

that

neither

forms

of instincts

the further
out

provides

powers.

it necessarily carries

that

original

animal

lower

essentiallyto accident,and
assumption

their

the basis of this

indeed, the doctrine

meagerly supplied with

has

On

the

in

when

part in the

necessary
;

survive

that

so

advantage

an

companions disappear.

view, intelligenceplays
establishment

at

are

thus

conjunction

useful
sufficiently

are

them

struggle for existence,and

ceives
Spencer, con-

of the accidental

out

in

often

most

of Herbert

name

which

possessing

is perhaps

which

with

of these

accidents

they

the

nor

it

turn

animals

AN

222

INTRODUCTION

thus

endowed

tions

are

survive.

well known

grave.

very

of

taken

alone, may

their

one

at

is then

with

lay

this

it strains

event

food

up

to

explain

apparently obliged

to

bees

theory

next

is

of

alone

instincts

may

In

any

ance
in accordand

their nests

construct

instances

as

is

lapsed intelligence.

of

that

of this view.

adherent
out

taken

reasonably be cited

psychologists Wundt

Among

arise

singlestep

sprang

highly improbable.

and
may

assume

mentioned.
difficulty

of

The

(2)

one

any

complex instinct

credulity. The

wasps

supplies

of the type

adopted

seems

one's

which

of

which,

(for any

once

useless), and

that

fact

consist

and

of instincts is

preservativevalue

into existence

the

concerns

not

relativelyuseless.

be

existence,one

in

and

of

the entire series of steps in

that

be

serious

relativelycomplicated acts,

series

If the

in the structure

both

extremely elaborate

are

varia-

accidental

as

is perhaps
forms, this difficulty

more

instincts

some

Inasmuch

to occur

of animal

behavior

the

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

the

probably
It

that

assumes

originallyintelligentand

acts

most

spicuous
con-

instincts

voluntary

in

character, that certain of these acts, being extremely useful

and

being oft repeated, get themselves

ingrained habits.
offspring and

These

so

appear

habits
in

established
then

are

the

younger

as

firmly

transmitted

to

generations

as

innate.

Evidently

this

without
The

one

other

which

is that

action is
is that

theory involves
it

can

hardly

of
intelligence

an

attribute

established

Both

these

that

they

assumptions are

the

be

fundamental
made

kind

of the lowest

acquired habits

well

two

are

may

tions
assump-

plausible at all.

expressed in
animal

tary
volun-

forms.

The

gradually become

transmitted

by

so

heredity.

vigorously challenged by

scien-

INSTINCT

tists of

The

repute.
to

acquired by
passed

ever

still under

of

and
zoologists,
the

enrolls

much

theory. It

has

of

istics
character-

any

lifetime

own

are

is

matter

hands

the

at

of defenders

the reflex

than

the latter

over

theory

position to explain the slow building

it

make

can

up

of the selective

use

intelligencein picking out

of

group

intelligence probably

lapsed

complex instincts,because
influence

jected
sub-

their final verdict.

await

great advantage

one

great

experiment
to

number

smaller

it is in

in that

of

theory

his

been

offspring. The

and

shall have

we

that

in

to his

discussion

active

Meantime,

individual

an

the

by

disbelieve

or

by heredity

on

particular has

arraignment

doubt

biologistswho

of

in

second

severe

very

223

of useful

groups

coordinations.

theory of organic selection is represented

The

(3)

psychologists by Professor
that
in

consciousness

the

in

just

i.e.,
by aiding

its

the

in the

in its attempt

of

It maintains

probably present and

significanteven

same

it may
that

way

By

the

be

the

assistance

in

may,

intelligencemay
selection

or

more

or

elimination

for assent

characteristics.

are

ever

to

of
The

certain

theory

the doctrine

It rather

theory, urging
preserved

and

view

the

that

no

this

the

demand,
of

in the

plastic
ever,
how-

acquired

in this matter

only spontaneous

are

Indeed,

influence

of the transfer

transmitted

of

up.

phases of

aligns itself

makes

instincts

when

some

makes

beings,

rudimentary

accidentallybuilt

conceivably exercise

developing instincts.

the reflex

less

be

exigencies of

of these

theory, be kept alive during the period

and

to

organism

its life to the

intelligence,
organisms

being slowly

assumed

it is in human

adjustments which

accommodate

to

surroundings.

forms

Baldwin.

J. M.

organisms, and

low

very

of value

is

among

with

variations

by heredity. But

it

INTRODUCTION

AN

224

of

possible presence
in

life,and

in

useful

According

keeping

are

last

of these

two

is developed in parallelwith
the first theory,
at

Clearly if

turn

we

of reflex and

the

to

find from

we

for the

look

must

we

theories

instinctive

in

evolution.

animal

life history of the

acts, and

although

present, and

consciousness

encounter

we

vidual,
indi-

human

evidences

we

at

basis of
of intelligence

appearance

do

not

find

we

do

find

developed capacitiesof voluntary control,

any

lished.
estab-

the

beginning unmistakable

the

the

intelligence

On

instincts.

the

of

active and

getting themselves

relativelylate point

forms

low

species alive during

the

instincts

the

to

in

intelligenceeven

assigningsuch intelligencean

indispensable part
period when

PSYCHOLOGY

the reflex theory in recognizing the

from

obviously differs
animal

TO

early

very

In

stage the outcropping of definitelyvolitional processes.

child the act of nursing will

the normal

after birth; but

of the

food

child for any

if the

supplied it,there

the

taste

and

violent refusal to accept it. There

as

was

earlier in the

remarked

be

definitelymodified

So

far

while

as

instincts

stages of

our

early

age

an

That

Instinct
evolution

reflexes

modify
ever

been

never

believed
and
any

ancestral

inherit

we

can

not

inherited

only admit
in

the

proved,
to

be

the

Intelligence.
"

and

that

primary
in

comes

forms

is by most

of

their

competent

fact.
In

the

general

process

particular generation necessarilycarries

conditions

some

at

of behavior.

acquired habits

the

may

by voluntary action.

dominant

are

these

evidences,

many

life history, intelligentcontrol

to

parents has

from

and

children

observers

ourselves,then,

concerns

also overt

be

chapter, that instincts

controlled

and

dislikes

reason

may
are

diately
imme-

almost

occur

instinctive

forms

of
over

of be-

INSTINCT

either

havior

which

extant

circumstances.

them

are

become

tend

organs

On

them.

manifesting

the

conditions
instinctive

behavior,

gradually

disappear.

instincts

of

wit, the
of

soon

the

objects

supplement

Many

human

only

because
of

advance

and

with
in

instincts
of

the

the

acquisition,

group

of

radically

for

the

of

mention

instinctive
alter

to

crucial

the

whole

the

furnish

tendencies
texture

whose
of

our

which
The

is

to

removal
social

not

in
sistent
perare

tive
instinc-

instinctive

traits

these

instinct.

render

instinctive

suffering, the
only

of

conduct

child, the

in

come

value,

they

of

gence
intelli-

may

they

because

to-

effects

organism,

which

tion
func-

features

the

utmost

of

may

experience.

control

lines

they

indicated,

racially indispensable.

forms
to

also

but

of

times

guidance

service

modes

general

the

of

temporary
con-

broad

about

unaided
still

direct

mother

many

arise

to

disused

which

individual

its

species

that

that

the

to

upon

the

motives

and

the

stincts
in-

they

the

in

chance

voluntary

are

experience,
powerful

of

love

and

displace

individually

both

begins

act

to

or

of

of

particular

out

of

when

know

we

organism

advance

life

many

environment

the

begin

can

to

in

such

measure

always

already

knowledge

as

Glearly,
disappear

the

call

is

the

in

some

the

Undoubtedly

of

that

hand,

in

to

there

adaptation

its environment

As

fail

is that

probable

to

other
and

atrophy,

to

useless

threaten

to

as

under

entirely

harmful.

wholly

likely

pernicious

so

or

is, indeed,

positively

only

are

partly
It

times

at

are

225

pathy
sym-

interest
name

would

fabric.

CHAPTER

ELEMENTS

We

are

of

synthesis
mental

prepared
all the

enable

The

It is not

Rather

is in

mind

is in

is to
will.

In

distinct

of

problems

whereby

our

also
which

then,

that

and
thus

thoughts,
certain

obligation

hitherto
of
to

involved

posely
pur-

the

to

analysis ^nd

it is
group

means

muscular

our

give expression

decisions.

of volition

is to
and

but

special

over

will

our

aspects

force.

There

and

are

character

description

than

received.
Control.

Motor

explain
in

at

the

to

analyzed

concern

control

able

'will.'

recall

processes,

These

maintain

intimate

more

To

consider

to

mind

directive

already

wishes, and

our

called

intentionally

name

is to

power

the

applicable

will.

to

volitional

our

that

active

have

we

become

This

designated

as

an

sense

large general

merit

Stages

as

still remain.

secure

sensations,

feelings

and

be

understood

of

all

writer

to

sign one's

To

phases

and

they have

be

true

very

way,

we

of

present

of

descriptions

parlance generally

practical advantage

movements
to

many

of

and

essentially a

conduct.

our

common

considered

will.

described

to

term

when

think

To

is

purpose

control

of the

view

the

is this

entire

analyses

special faculty properly

any

what

attempt

prime

intelligentlyto

of intelligent control

has

ACTION

imaginings, reasonings,

memory,
us

will.

to

preceding

operations.
of

acts

VOLUNTARY

OP

now

XIV

the

"

Psychology

existence

voluntary

action.
226

of

is

under

the

muscular

From

the

no

ments
move-

beginning

ELEMENTS

of

baby 's life these

spontaneous

fairly be

held

that

enlarge

of

first

of

of

the

become

in

all

period
the

to

the main

which

ing
outstand-

control,

motor

repeat, although

must

we

to

baby's mastery

object which

an

grasp

he

following stages:

the

undirected

in which

muscles

of

progress

learning

of these

stimuli, some

Chapter IV,

phases of it.

sees),might well remark

A

psychologistmay

acquiring

not

watching the
(as

In

of

need

we

certain

upon

of his muscles

(1)

random,

movements

sketched

this process

account

observer

An

in

description

some

sewing.

refer,we

well

may

features
and

for

the

uncontrolled

these

writing and

the reader

But

way.

227

tions,
ultimately they do, into effectivecoordina-

organized, as
like

occurring

are

responsible

which

in

manner

movements

impulsive

or

ACTION

VOLUNTARY

OF

in

occur

being

outside

impulsive
to

response

the

body,

ments
move-

sensory

some

sumably
pre-

inside.^

(2)

period

in which

larger muscles

slowly

intermediate

An

of the

movements

imperfect

is very

and

The

emerge.

useless

many

controlled

few

trol
con-

movements

are

always included.
(3) A final period in which
is achieved

movements

and

skill in

the

making

the essential
fall

superfluousmovements

away.

coordinations

(4) New

that the three

Some

of the

early

here

The
in
and

pathways
over

the

movements

referred

to

organs

substantiallyuniform.

of

are

pathways

through
mainly

are

arej"opened up
sense

at

on

stages inevitablyoverlap,but

pre-formed
movements

be taken

may

and

by
are

the

not, like

and

system.

nervous

of the

pressure

given

any

instinctive

course

the

time, so

any

non-instinctive
of the

the

stimuli

reflex

act

resent
repThe

type.

coming

paths, fixed

account

which

processes

the

to

as

during the
subside

to

ideas

and

of

All

just how

they

disagreement.

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be most

to the

helpful

held view
to

as

it be understood

have

deal

to

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by

is

we

it tends

that

is

sensations

that

but
skill,

motor

the

tion
ques-

of radical

source

it will perhaps

widely

one
brielfly

sketch

of the objections

proceed some

we

motor

with

that

outset

(1) the

are

this

how

the

at

particular

desired, (2)
as

if

reader

All

events.

coordination

the

agreed

used

are

mous
unani-

it.
Let

we

psychic

IJiese circumstances

indicate

and

gaining

the

to

energetically employed

also

are

in

employed

are

is

Such

"

from

acquiring control, and

mastered.

to

as

to

of development.

course

far

busy itself elsewhere, as

and

gradually

of these

nature

consciousness

process

psychologistsare

exact

agreed that

Control.

all reference

such

accompany

Unfortunately

are

its way

on

Gaining

evidently omits

this

as

in

Involved

Factors

Mental

mental

phases

control.

complete

an

substantially these

through

passes

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

INTRODUCTION

AN

228

originally got

control, with

special regard

which

characterize

(a) the period when

heing

learned

(b)

automatic,
employed

are

instance,as
Let

lead

been

are

(3)

the

forms

supervise series of
used

fact that

in

when

to

serve

movement

has

become

of mental

sonably
rea-

control

such,

movements

is

for

piano playing.

sensory

regularly to
nature

what

cue

differences

any

new

period after it

it also be understood

explain the
from

to

and

forth

its power
to

points

mental

is called

movement

the

of the

nature

cue

and

main

the

motor

of the

that
and

we

have

ideational

consequences.

sensory-motor

constantly emphasized. What

no

we

obligation to
states

in general

This

follows

circuit,which
do have

to

has

explain

ELEMENTS

fact that

is the

by

remarked

be

any

sensation
exists

there

at

rather

idea

or

in the

blockage

some

elicit

the

It may

only

neurones

that

or

reason

is that

movement

stronger idea

some

is followed

other.

some

normally

fails to

229

idea

or

than

that

once

competition with

into

is

particularsensation

particularmovement,

also

ACTION

VOLUNTARY

OF

it

comes

sensation

or

and

overcome.

to the

Owing
in

on

of ascertaining just what

impossibility

child's

the

obliged

muscles,

we

behavior

of adults

are

the

Obviously

but

Part

Every

of the

the movement
the

about

For

too.

and

of Movement.

Ideas

example,

if the

likely also

sensations

impulsive movement,
itself. The

we

to

arm

is

see

it.

easily when

sensations
Movements

contact

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to.

notice
with

coordinations

the

it.

child

little

at

by which

movement

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the

control

catch

looking

or

movement

waits, then,
catch

of

memory

the
be

may

attention

most

object already
red

ball is

his hand

by little the various

will be mastered.

are

we

which

some
a

view

images of the

movements

in

feel

spontaneous

recalling the

presumably

the

any

aroused, the

other

one

that

of movements

they produce changes

being attended
to

by

by

voluntary

occurrence

attention, whereupon,

repeated.

of

caused,

raised,we

again elicit

can

development

the accidental

kinaesthetic

aroused

"

is apt to produce

and

organized that by calling into mind

upon

situation.

voluntary muscles, however

sensations

are

ferences,
important dif-

best of the
and

his

use

coordinations.

motor

origin of voluntary action maintains

kinaesthetic

sure

the

to

study of the

upon

present many

Sensations

kinaesthetic

learning

acquiringnew
make

must

we

is

he

fall back

to

conditions

two

movement

sensations

so

when

Played by

produces

while

mind

goes

fairly

comes

muscular

in

AN

230

This
is

INTRODUCTION

view

maintains

further, that

speedy displacement of

(called 'resident'
the part

control

as

kinaesthetic

of

'remote') reporting the objectiveresults

than

the

images
only

of

write

to

tions
sensa-

(called

act, rather
word

auditory
thus

may

in

they arise

of the

The

movement.

wish

we

verse

guide the hand, the kinaesthetic

to

cue

of

fact

mere

and

sensations

and

images

there

grows,

images

by James, because

in favor

moved)

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

serve

the

as

imagery being

entirely absent.
this

Whether
reader

must

general theory

Criticism

(a) that

by,

occurs

and

about

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out

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the

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imaginal
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not

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ever,

theory

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closed,

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to

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mental
Be

bring

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you
to

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out

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musical

employ

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importance

to

cue,

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knitting

and

movements.

or

ing,
crochetIf

accomplish the
experiments
control.

have

you

instrument.

of visual

try

sensory

something
on

them

to

mental

backward.

easily experiment

cues

kinds

other

imputed

'

echo

movement,

unfamiliar

some

to

considering. Any

relatively novel
try

what

use

elements, if

they probably enjoy but

incomprehensibility.'

you

Men

can

movements.

eyes

'

been

write

and

some

before.

that

primacy

such

have

we

material

detect

all,it should

(b) that kinaesthetic

ideas, and

like

word

women

and

habit

again bring

can

merely supplementary

any

eyes

similarly
done

If effective at

asserted

all,are

at

of sensations

rarely, if

it is irrational

its appearance.

It is further

employed

image,

its

is caused

sensation

principle of

general neural

sensation,or

points. It

at two

movement,

succeeding movement

some

the

muscular

movement.

same

caused

by

the

to

kinaesthetic

every

after,a

contrary

suppose

as

facts the

the

for himself.^

principallydirected

been

has

is said
and

to determine

try

with

squares

with

sible,
pos-

sary
neces-

the

ELEMENTS

be

it is alleged, may

by

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only

thoughts' often

foresee

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of

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of it,until
until

learn

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the

subject

or

in

information, and

and

wherewith

to

this

of

and

process

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its

wishing

of them

willingtheir

interest is centered
in

sake, as

own

kinaesthetic

sensations

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control.

the

ideas

other

hand

objective result of the act,

of daily life,we
more

indirect

begin their

doubtless

forms

control,we
important
instances
way.

controls

But

part.
where

say.
in

the

the

probably

chief

of the

predominant

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hardly

adult

there

more

more

remote.

of other

use

the

Any

always
thetic
kinaes-

fail to play

an

abundant

are

minor

very

expertness is gained, in any

and

the

occupations

with

can

of

is in

children

learning

use

medium

interest

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for

movement

it apparently figures in only

Certainly as
become

make

tatives
represen-

initiate the

thus

the

in most

as

of motor

cannot

movements

recurrence.

as

when

of control.

processes

and

in the muscular

and

The

way.

of the

gymnastic feats,we

some

cannot

we

indispensablemental

think

sense

afford just this

the memories

their results afford the

sentative
repre-

preciseidea

accidental

some

rence.
occur-

literal

any

originalspontaneous, impulsive movements

necessary

its

some

in any

have

our

follows:

as

actively wish

it feels like,and

occurred

Muscular

formulate

may

cannot

movement,
what

know

it has

It is

4mageless

of

implies having

movement

muscular
we

that

Principles

it and

of it in the mind.

anticipatea

it has

its antecedent.

of this view

general aspects of

is to

act

an

circumstances

as

being dogmatic

certain

on

will

To

Without

"

provided

this function.

serve

Formulation

Tentative

views

latter

the

231

movement,

of

combination
with

ACTION

elicit

to

by defenders

generally added

Control.

used

some

associated

become

VOLUNTARY

OF

act, the

idea may

lead

232

AN

through

an

may

INTRODUCTION

associative

in order

air out

to

thus lead to the

find

desiringto
a

desk

drawer.

The

author

reinstate

to

thinks

the

for movements
forth.

are

just

Reverting
follows

sensation

movement

for its

cue

(2)

The

stages of

cues

this

XXVI.

the

original

the other

it

hand

serve

the

as

cues

called them
times

at

operate

of sensations

in

ideas

and

control.

points mentioned

beginning

at the

summarize

may

fact,

idea

which

position

our

become

has
may

and

movements
are

serve

as

associated
the

as

mental

and

after

of the

memories

their results.

largely employed

more

forms

time

James'

to

dental
acci-

Probably

in the

early

speedily sharing this

tending wholly

originallyaltogether disconnected

interestinghypothesis
see

the

are

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motor

Ideas

an

or

first used

cues

duty with them

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kinaesthetic

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those which
well

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as

spontaneous

them.

in

that

then

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with

when,

as

series of movements,

forms

motor

discussion, we

this

On

sensations

may

other

to the three

idea

actually serves

this may

coordinated

images

potent in

as

street,

same

reactions

movement

quite different from

But

the

and

one

factors.

kinaesthetic

fashion.

same

of

in

Kinaesthetic

the

quite different ideas

quite clear

and

tendency of all such mental

like skating, the

Two

the

on

first exploresa pocket and

image of

that

down

evidence

the

One

movement.

look

different

very

movement,^

is equally clear

to

Moreover,

coin,one

kinaesthetic

the

cases

to

given

room.

act.

same

obviously lead

may

order

the

PSYCHOLOGY

to

nexus

in

window

open

or

TO

explain

the

Principles of Psychology,

to

displace

with

neural

Vol=

move-

basis

of

II, Chapter

ELEMENTS
ments

thus

may

ultimately

come

233

ACTION

VOLUNTARY

OF

to

serve

for their

cues

as

production.
series of movements

(3)

initiated may

once

in many

relativelylittle supervision,but
be constant

affords

Writing

attention,only

of

and

now

arises which
difficulty
the pen

point

v/ord

the

or

and

sound

as

the

controls.

Objective

Studies

of

the

in

brought
If

adults,

the rate

to

when

of

the

we

go

then

do

we

effort is

not

much

there

to

of

tion
forma-

has

been

accompanying

figure

the progress

made

telegraphic

messages.

by

than

is also

at

or

curve,

upward-pointing

line

new

51

Similar

curves

of

instead

making

an

Sometimes

others, and

learning

go

now

which

and
we

backward.

graphic

to send
are

when

approximately

rate.

represents in

person

plishment,
accom-

and

actually to

types of accomplishment.
the

of

periods during

advance

day by day,

or

impression, that

constant

considerable

occur

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that

serve

result

facts

common

task

rapidly

more

mastery

at

progress

no

once

all

substantially constant

either to make

other

of

the

hand,

of habit

by hour

in the

made

seem

many

As

process

hour

find,contrary

our

very

the
or

any

"

ostensibly the difficultyof the

uniform,

may

Learning.

measure,

of progress
we

even

paper,

some

light.

to

arrange

we

field

the

e.g., when

"

from

sensations

interesting group

an

may

sight of

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blot.

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experimental studies

control

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adjustment

makes

on

adrift.

becoming focal,when

kinaesthetic

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of the pen

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then

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go

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in the

on

requires new

catches

pen,

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illustration.

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excellent

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the

direction,or

sensory

with

on

go

and

receive

available

It will be

representing a

form

seen

for
at

straight

angle of forty-five degrees

234

AN

with

the

INTRODUCTION

base

fallingback again, and

points presenting roughly

spoken of
advance

as

being made,

The
the

end

learner

of the

It would

be

than

51.

"

The

great mistake

during
number

of

time.

to

training

words

going

on

be sure,

plateaus. But
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number

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days. Some

weeks

line

per

the

unit

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experimenters

occasional

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seems

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to

no

ditions
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definitely

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made

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or

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in

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BSACTICI

or

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ing
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level

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PSYCHOLOGY

line,is extremely irregular,sometimes

rapidly, then

up

TO

-nervous

as

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profitableadvance

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ELEMENTS

After

connections.
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of

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blunders

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for many
no

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sets of tennis

maximal

of experts, however,

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effect

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to

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in the

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indicated

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chapter.
have

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practice

moment

present

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rapidly

very

how

quickly. The

men

one

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psychological experimentation

dozen

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the

for persons

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a

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played each day

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is

evidence

length

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strongly suggests that

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purposes

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as

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music

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problem, conceived

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have

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learning, but

matters

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set

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way,

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being established.

play

to

interesting

do with

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regarding such

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in

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frequency of practiceperiods most

and

An

"

any

we

are

entertained

been

have

in

these foundations.

Learning.

corollary of these observations

new

firmly established,

become

in

235

crystallizingof the

bnilt upon

be

then

may

have

these

ACTION

in and

sinking

for the

ciable time

VOLUNTARY

OF

as

with

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memory.

reasonably certain

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In
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general, it

while

this matter
may

''line upon

precept" is morally wholesome

be

laid

line and

doctrine,it

236

AN

must

be

not

INTRODUCTION

understood

achievement

an

equal

be

flat

familiar

as

of
in

regions

conditions;
of

tangible
the
but

subsequent

PSYCHOLOGY

meaning

hour

each

amount

preconditions

TO

of

effort

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expended
There

outcome.

learning

judged

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tive
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sure

almost
themselves

to

all
the

CHAPTER

in

voluntary

AND

INSTINCT,

WILL,
Early

XV

this book

it

that

urged

was

in to

coming

acts

CHARACTER

help

the

out

hereditary instinctive equipment.

our

earlier and

appear

acts

phase

the

acquired

short-comings of

The

instinctive acts

primitive,and

more

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apparently built

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them.

There

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relationship, however,

which

deserves

upon

mention.
Instinct.

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forms

choices cannot

These

the

there

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and

instincts.

two

or

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fullest

them

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competition among

not

one

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to

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forthwith

in the last

of attending. When

only

hold attention firmly,choice has occurred

expressive of

the

decision

in accordance

proper

moment,

in the

previous chapter.

with

Volition
237

will
the
thus

take

in the

in

of such

impulses and ideas which

and

duct
con-

the'

cumstance
cirin

succeed

translated

analysis a
one

by

to

unless

way,

Choice, decision, will,

Willing is therefore

process

impulses

instincts,and

more

or

persistent attention

our

our

simultaneously appealed

other

paralyzed.

of the

into action.

can

necessity for making

two

and

gaining

control

stimuli,by
be

sense

have

is

case

its developed

we

Attention

of the

nature

in

possiblealternatives.

among

effective until

be made

of the muscles, but

more

choice

involves

Volition

"

chological
psy-

competitor
the

place

ments
move-

at

the

procedure sketched
establishes

organi-

238

INTRODUCTION

AN

zation

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

instincts,as vvell as

among

random

our

among

taneous
spon-

movements.

If volition

the

furnish

to

serves

is not

Indeed, it

organize instinct,instinct

to

serves

much

too

types of human
and

that

process

of

nature.

Where
in

and

some

dominating
be

from

the

in

instinct

or

vicious,character.

of certain

At
for

consider

traits may

instinctive

of instincts

Or, looking
of

few

certain

moments

tion
situa-

at the

ment
develop-

proper

produce

ceeds
suc-

one-sided,

and

weak

all events, it is desirable

instinct,

essentiallya

his

group

side,the absence

instinctive

flabby character.

of

in

others,the result is

all the

other

is

man

development

one

great persistent

their roots

have

volition.

to

all the

that

say

of character

symmetrical

it may

should

to

purpose

evolution

the

imperious motives

most

less

no

that

we

tions
rela-

of these

of instinct to volition.
Persistent
in

Instinctive

Chapter XIII,

Influences.

provocation whenever

to

try and

bounds,

and

issues

except in

involving
there

instincts
in

the

which

Many

"jation and
remembers
names

play

gross

conduct.

are

for

of the

probably

few

larger part

individuals

deny the truth

that

will
of

forms

with

in connection

theless,
Never-

emotions, few

human

determining

this assertion.

and

which

and

human

impli-

the

instantly resent

of anger,

its

condemned

But

irritation,exasperation,annoyance

rudimentary

struggle

social group.

in

est
slight-

reasonable

frequently stimulated

more
a

it within

qualifiedway

welfare

the

are

out

thwarted.

are

relentless

ethics alike have

religion and

manifestations

long and

on

the

on

desires

expressions of

the

keep

It appears

anger.

appetites or

carried

has

pointed

was

of the earliest of these instincts to find

one

expression is undoubtedly

Civilization

As

"

if
are

will then

one

all
take

the trouble

emotions, such
the

of
plausibility

than

it

was

with

the

phases of the

other

shadow

fear

of

genuine

very

more

these

love and

the

that

case

vicarious
welfare

in

be

we

come

tions,
affec-

plays

life,and

human

So

part.

the

upon

in

abolished

wholly

it survives

an

some

is this

much

fear,

except in that

anxiety for the

as

of others.

considerations, brief

statement

that instincts

the motives
vividness
and

however,

this

of

to those

highly organized individuals

almost

suggest

The

the

lives in

human

type,

normal

every

suffice to

no

that

seen

pity, each of which

and

form, in which

These

the

prospects,

feelings,the human

tender

in certain

least,may

at

with

be

once

most

over

altogether predominant

an

themselves

economic

and

socialized

and

sympathy

important part
cases

takes

instincts
egotistical

more

of so-called

group

one

way.

generous

great

connect

it will at

case,

still hovers

Turning from
a

that

if

personal affections,to mention

of

course

is,thanks

fear

But

ago.^

precarious social

with
ill-health,
and

anxieties

all the

into account

Physical

centuries

few

persistentof

most

life,a far less frequent experience

of civilized

conditions

to the

recognized.

earliest and

of the

one

will be

other

indignation^

moral

and

instinctive motives.

and

emotional

assertion

the

in many

rudiments

jealousy, envy

as

Fear, again, is

similar

the

trace

to

239

CHARACTER

AND

INSTINCT,

WILL,

the

reader

play

the

brought
method

very

One

of

doubtful.

more

other

to

the

in

keeping alive

pursuit of

aspect of the

war

of the

truth

ing
part in determin-

into
definitely

conducting

perhaps

may

essential

voluntary conduct, and

difficult end.
to be

are,

dominant

of interest necessary

German

sentence

of

to

they

as

has

the
made

case

tant
dis-

ought,

foreground.
the

truth

of

240

INTRODUCTION

AN

Instincts.

Transitory
chosen

emotions

involve
all

periods of

which

life.

instances

The

"

illustrative of the

as

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

characterize

Certain

there

somewhat

particular forms

to

or

adolescent

is

period

more

vivid

with

at

earlier

an

quite unique
before.

of

and

age,

another

in

the

its earlier

radical

instinct

sex

in the

changes

that time.

at

stages and

developed,

As

is

similar

for her

development in

may

extend

to

be most

the

pass

none

in

whole

the

capable of
the possessor.
a

group

more

as

periodic

Intellectual
rarer

life,but
should

of the

range

These

compared

in

are

with

may
some

impulse, there

instinctive
of the
to

serve

is

ment
equiplife of

represent

tory,
particulars transi-

others, of

many

with

may

distinctly

character.
and
as

nevertheless
be

human

instances

two

full

no

expression. Despite

complete domination

more

ticular
par-

mother

have

which

of this

character

of instincts which

and,

of life and

largely without

incidental

somewhat

love of the

obviously can

the earlier years

to

in life.

particular situations
is the

occur

fear,this

or

definitelylimited

instinct which

women

has gone

its rise from

either anger

episodal character

child,an

childless

with

evidently more
to

ticulars
par-

bodily organization which

compared

periods and
Of

clearly takes

is met

some

indefinitelythroughout later life,but it is apt

acute

much

than
in

character

type of interest,once

This

by

compared with that which

as

The

experience.

one

nitely
defi-

more

characterized
in

sexes

are

particular stages

to

of human

generally

interest of the

discussion

indifferently

which

are

have

we

under

general truth

periodic in character,belonging
of life

which

mentioned

Aesthetic

Impulses.

those

Although

controlling influences

dominantly
involving

"

types

doubtedly
un-

in

genuine instinctive basis,

of

impulse which

lead

to

CHARACTER

AND

INSTINCT,

WILL,

pursuit of definitelyintellectual

the

individuals

said

are

have

to

undoubtedly

of

out

ends.

like.

the
what

curiosity,or

instinct of construction.

the

lived who

ever

did

who

the

thrill and

the

competitive and

stimulation

opposition of
words,

and

instinctive
instincts

in

which
have

the

include

in

constructive

inadequate
with

many

our

or

it is in

perfectlyreal

vestiges of these

sense
more

frankly

more

of

sense

any

catalogue of

is

It involves

something of imitation,
to

of

most

would

all that

term

artistic impulse.

the

to

of the

beauty, nor

single

it
self-expression,
it is saturated

But
can

however

be

no

native.

motives,
No

doubt

intellectualistic

and

own

poor

question

impulse for artistic

other

has

with

nature, of one's

terminology,there

over

lectual
intel-

professionalwork

of that of others.

predominates

other

'^

listed in the

whether

individuals

in

of the fervor

much

constructiveness,and

artistic production

not,

purely cold and

even

not

to

appreciation of beauty,

have

are

by the

out

impulse.

strongly the tendency

of

his quarry,

called
did

the outsider,with

play instinct,it often involves

in it much

that

instinct
"

reference

the

have

something of

with

game,

scientists,^who

We

possibleto

it involves

and

artist responds in his

kind.

any

involved
the

the

of motives

group

it be

of

of the primitive animal

heat

Similarly
a

to

did not

close upon

his work, however

it appears

tist
great scien-

no

he worked, who

combative

rival

on

carry

play instinct,

pursuit of his science presenting all

find the

not

the

overweening inquisitive-

an

the thrill of the hunter

something of

the

spring

called

be

Probably

feel

the field in which

about

ness

did not

These

may

hunting instinct in its intellectual form,

and

certain

Thus

scientific interests,

strong

scholarly interests, and

strong

241

and

struction
con-

that

all of

us

artistic

take

on

few

Instincts.

among

be

What

"

obvious

more

of

or

anger

and
and

craven

may

be

fear

that

would

Under

the

represent in fact

with

vanity

less distressingis the occasional

and
abasement, self-distrust,
normal

parental pride

Even

it constitutes

of ridicule to all
These
involved

instances
in
To

for

consists would
other

so

hand

fine

an

may

be

things
is the

self-esteem

as

little

But

self-

afflicted with

again
of

to

render

to

lessly
societyhope-

instinct

that

as

exploited to
and

an

of

point
object

folk.

will

surely suffice to

reasonable

no

business

they

unknown

neighborhood nuisance

sane

describe

the

affection

and

so

are

persons

altruism

Not

person

life is

ethical institution.

pure

timidity as

participationin

impossible.

the

Such

and

morbid

entire

flabby tolerance

spinelessand

inflated

so

one-sidedness

such

whose

fine and

social
anti-

an

impossible all ordinary social relations.

render

on

against

intolerable.
intrinsically

persons

individual

of

cloak
a

case

deserving religiousor

the negative

on

in the other

of ill-directed sympathy.

of many

and

by impulses of
one

sentimentalist

extreme

wallow

where

in the

create

individuality.Over

curse

any

Certainly

life dominated

speaking of

in

propensitieswill perhaps

before.

than

Balance

on

in mind

impossiblecharacter, and

set the

mere

and

of only

careers

involving organization

as

instinctive

our

side it is clear

the

the

Depends

had

we

of volition

development

balance

motives

large, such

determine

and

Character

Developed

Among

now

in the

individuals.

Well

the

to control

power

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

viewing mankind

but

impulses,

INTRODUCTION

AN

242

balance

with

doubt
there

of

exhibit that which

our

instinctive

precision wherein

if not
be difficult,
is

no

such

is

ment.
equipbalance

impossible. But

particulardifficultyin

dis-

cerning

groups,

more

or

marked

been

said, either

of the

instinctive

has

history of civilization

The

others.

one

in any

occurs

suppression,partial

the

from

or

it

when

exaggeration of

of the

243

CHARACTER

obviously arise,as

it may

degree, and
out

of balance

lack

the

AND

INSTINCT,

WILL,

complete, of

or

exhibits

the

process

the ordinary individual

through which, little by little,
such

develop

to

come
as

will permit

moment's

reflection will

agricultural form

an

make

quite different demands

those

needed

In

in

form

each

of life the

individual

the

that

instinctive

upon

the

particular balance

in these

will

both

community.
which

move

springs, but
and

economic

one

quite different

well be

may

to

quisite
re-

traits from

powers

instinctive

suited

best

of

group

of those

group

life,and

of

the

primitive hunting

great motive

found

are

stage

that

highly organized industrial

the

cultural

life of

essential to the

differ decidedly from

people will

the social structure.

to show

serve

his instincts

among

complex organization of

instincts most

to

equilibrium

an

has

from

that

tial
essen-

in another.

The

"

view

been

has

of Our

Sources

the

and

Volition

presented in this chapter that

to attend,
is, psychologically,

attention

we

volition.

In

one

may

attention

dwell

way
most

tend

everyone

to

to

compatible
catalog and

choose
with

into

those
these

the

by interest.

In

recognizes that

the

terms

topics of
of

classifythe general

range

of

to add

of

practical,

mind

interest.

conduct,

When

features

direction

lines of thought and

interests.

of

it remains
the

to will

process

the

crucial

wit, that

persistentlyupon

translated

in

that

this doctrine

with

is largely determined

fact, when
we

and

find

to

consideration,

common-sense

to

expect

connection

further

Controlling Interests.

we

of human

tends
This
that

means

action

most

attempt

to

interests,

INTRODUCTION

AN

244

predominant

find that the

we

in

varieties center

just

been

food, in warmth,

placed

group

derived
and

from

talents

down

direction.

grow

in

their

as

are

any

as

the

imperious

So

far

this character
instinctive

Even

common
more

talent,with

repute

common

is

be

found

more

himself

quite as innate

the

be

of the

in

to

men

for

striking than

is
as

vidual
indi-

are

of

purely

more
a

unknown

some

particular stock and

in

quite

interests

kind, but it is clear that they represent

of traits which

long

tendencies.

concerned,
any

of the

strictlyracial

as

one

this kind

may

conduct

is

that

that

through

of
predispositions

over

can

and
characteristics,

of interests which

control

abilityin

back

be traced

facts

the

decided

marked

same

unusual

festing
child early mani-

it will

person

attention

somewhat

and

cases

of the

are

developed

degree

set

individual

specializedgroup
have

such

up

by

individuals

be

to

genuineness of

the

inherited

Around

ancestry.

likely to

w^hich

of

are

quality can

the

tastes, prejudices,

of thing is likelyto escape

parents enjoy the

frequently

be

to

individual,but

in the family of the

interest in music
in

prestige,is

certain

are

involved

Often

in

interest

personal family heritage in

called in question. Here

be

general

racial traits.
there

kind

have

we

these

to

such
i.e.,

by inheritance

marked

both

individual

our

human

Nevertheless,

hardly

or

source,

talents

the

order.

common

This

concerned.
unless

in social

peculiar capacity

some

come

from

spring from

which

fellows,e.g.,

our

and

varying

our

widely distributed

most

by side with

all

in power,

community

every

enjoying
has

as

with

contrast

In

Side
with

share

we

and

racial instincts,
upon

our

commenting.

types which

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

highly
reason

in

no

such

general.
these

their accompanying

cases

of inherited

intellectual and

family

emotional

the

interests,are

abilities in

and

the immediate

all men,

be found

in any

of this

the

by
and

unusual

It appears,
individual

of individual

derive

may

individual

is to

in

individual

grows

genius

is

to

sense

ously
conspicu-

example

is represented

of

child

the

wholly

parents.

controlling interests of

the
one

variation

any

ordinary
and

necessarilybrought
sort

or

any

different

of three

more

the

of

elements

cannot

into

relation

It must

the

not

be

opposition of
The

from

all three

under

which

that

pass

Limitations

our

there

and

the

the

whole

have

may

it is often

emanating

mastery

this statement

that
as

to

in

it

extremely

from

groups

by little,however,
a

are

interests,

attain

group

is established

daily life

Upon

to

supposed

(3) respectively. Little

to

Certain

tend

one

As

be

another, and

one

controlling system
sources,

present

of interest

centers

with

distinguish influences

comes

at

'sport,'

of inheritance.

terms

develops, these

group.

difficult to

(2) and

which

interests,gradually

others.

implies
another

zoologistscall

and

(3)

mental

and

nervous

of organization is established.

groups

over

of

true

intellectual interests

in

talent

from

literal

no

commonest

of marked

the botanists
a

say,

explained

some

The

variations,representing in

organization what
that

any

variation,carrying

interests in

individual.

that

in

doubt, in lesser degree

commonplace
then,

be

(1) racial instincts,(2) family traits, and

sources:

or

type of thing represents in

appearance

and

discovered

of

This

intellectual

uneducated

of remarkable

person

to

Perhaps the

type.

of

instances

wise

element

other

245

authenticated

given

it peculiar abilities and

with

CHARACTER

well

is,no

what

wit, an

to

no

ancestors.

form

extreme

an

but

rare

outcropping in

the occasional
tastes

AND

INSTINCT,

WILL,

certain

it

system

is passed.

Response

to

Interests.

"

^Nor do

AN

246

INTRODUCTION

interests merely

our

The

cultivation.

which
best

we

conduct

in

their

springs of
An

our

origin,they

facts

and

perhaps

essentiallyreflex
other
have

been

disposed to

of both.

obligated by
The

flout

these

From

appear

one

thrown
upon

sooner

as

to

social

on

or

moral

for

our

the

the eternal

well-

in

is exhibited

least two,

are

at

one

highly naive,

psychologists

as

follow

the

an

category of the
are

their

principles,whose

local

or

us.

national

by

attempts

to

outcast,

mandate

to

the

or

social freak"

subjected
on

is

set

pattern

who

himself

etiquette

individual

the

anarchist

we

of most, if

to

sant
inces-

the

higher levels

rational

fication
justi-

In the thousand
usage

acceptance of the established

purely unrational

tive
instinc-

our

known

which

later urged upon

of

with,

whatever

mastery

our

speedily finds

eccentricities
back

or

born

of early childhood, the

of social customs, which

law,

as

is
and

activities in

in the unenviable

pressure

of

acter
the essentiallyinstinctive char-

it is that

childhood

tions.
ambi-

and

are

purposeful, many

admit

occasional

earliest

there

imitation,the

social pressure

usages

established

us

of social intercourse

imitative

upon

usage.

of

Certain

all,of the forms

rests

Although

reflective and

more

we

in which

characteristic

and

as

development

by social influences

forms

beyond

activity.
of the way

of imitation.
more,

Some

within

are

and

molded

the

acquire. But

to

seem

energy

are

the

not

we

interestinginstance
traits

desires

our

ical,
phys-

obliged

are

we

own

is essentiallydetermined

takes

of interests.

nucleus

sense,

history of

which

for

of the

barriers

create

within

character

and

by this great
some,

facts

direction,however, which

The
our

world

fulfilment

seek

free flingin their

obstinate

and

and

pass,

to

may

enjoy

financial

cannot

we

such

as

rugged

social, and

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

we

are

practices

effect that

''all

people

well-bred
exclude

to

but
a

only

to

' '

it.

do

the

one

lift his hat

to

in America

lady

steel knife

in

neither

country, and

of the Continent

in

in Asia

rational

no

several

is to

few

should

These

to violate

or

wear

should

questions

dictates of the

the

form

wear

ladies

Why

for men?

curious

are

persons

this

circles in certain parts

Why

reap

no

in

circles

in Manchuria

but

answers,

involved

usages

which

long ?

trousers

entertain

one

gentlemen in Europe

exactly reversed

be

usage

have

and

Europe

Germany,

States,while

lower

low

nor

should

Why

their hair short and

skirts in

high

in

for the purposes

United

the

is

polite society.

should

Why

prejudice is entertained

such

the

in

of

gentleman

247

of these mandates

one

walks

of

use

polite circles

in

fork

defy

self from

prejudice against the

of

To

CHARACTER

one's

should

Why

AND

INSTINCT,

WILL,

of social whirlwind

enough

courageous

experiment with.

to

From

Development
Moral

Control.

last two

Muscular

chapters, it will be

development

the gaining of command

as

this motor

muscles

our

securing
aims
of

our

ends.

instincts and
interests

those

bodily comfort
never

the

is determined

our

that

seen

the

in the

appetites. In
are

sustenance

most
are

with

of these

the

our

other

forms

social and

the

to

and

purposes

early stages of life,

in the

relations

soon

by the urgencies

related

foreground.
us,

but

as

and

more

with

to.

They

maturity

background,

of interests connected
moral

as

aims, for

our

immediately

wholly lose their significancefor

to

; that

proceed forthwith

first instance

is gained they rapidly lapse into

way

muscles

we

character

of the

early stages of

the

tools for carrying out

The

which
and

over

materials

necessarily directed

are

is established

control

the

over

of voluntary control

to

make

back

Looking

"

and

Intellectual

to

giving

definitely
the

growth

248

AN

of

the

features
control

growing
child

little

is

disciplined
hours

at

This

to

hold

is

reached,
muscles

the

is

able

in

gain

the

to

line

almost

to

power

process

of

Not

of

of

give

the

thought

if

himself

of

thought.

When

automatically.

is

for
future

own

in

gain

primarily

selected

The

necessary

his

upon

our

The

itself.

is

conduct

is

reflection.

sustained

thought

important

least

development

our

of

process

undiverted

to

attention

stage

incapable

quite

time

life.

later

over

adult

conduct.

the

this

of

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

intellectual

general

our

of

INTRODUCTION

carried

ability
decision
out

by

XVI

CHAPTER

MULTIPLE

AND

HYPNOSIS,

DREAMS,

SLEEP,

PERSONALITY

Over

that

of its own,

consciousness
Main

is characterized

which

lives and

"

by

the

Despite

part of

other

dream.
extended

the

and

ingenious experimental investigationsof sleep,there

The

complete agreement

no
physiologists

among

dogmatic

which

statements

must, therefore, be understood

rather

of individuals

than

as

general features of the phenomenon

in

Although
less excitable
mistake

to

sleep the

than

think

of it

the
say

sensations

whereby

the
show

in
are

may,

nothing of the

progress.

in
and

in

view

the pressure

is that

opinion

is

system

periods,it

tain
Cer-

clearly

would

be

completely inactive.
conditions

waking

of certain

clearly that neural

sleep

the

it

be mentioned.

may

sense

activities of

During

about

would

sleep,be quite ineffective;but

vegetative processes

relaxed,and
common

in any

which

of dreams

presence

as

causes.

of science.

nervous

during waking

Sensory stimulations

produce

central

made

expressing

the final verdict

is still

to its

as

often

are

of

peculiarform

call the

we

Sleep.

About

Facts

occupies

cussions
dis-

our

mentioned

to be

properly

sleep which

facts about

certain

dealt,are

hitherto

have

our

waking experiences,with which

againstour

the

249

reflexes,to

the

autonomic

of the

organism

excitation
blood

in the

sleep is to

of the

be

of

vessels

entire

system,
tained,
main-

are

some

kind

of the

is

brain

body is lowered.

regarded

as

an

instine-

250

INTRODUCTION

AN

tive

TO

is favored

reaction, which

by conditions

fatigue, of quiet,of habit, and

of

one

these

instance.

There

broken

are

it
of

down

to

Dreams.

falls very

the

recall

frequent inability to
which

rapidly until

the like.

it takes is

But

of dreams

view

commoner

not

memory

from

commonly
Freud,
all dreams

the dream

once

any

we

have

and

the Austrian

to the

started,the

by much

our

trains

or

of

the

sound, the

the

of

air,

which

course

tive
associa-

same

previously described

purpose

to

beginning

draught

imagination, but under

definite

presidesover

is

Our

awakening.

upon

chill of

that

occur.

excitation,a

sensory

ing
dur-

today is

is attributed

dreams

apparently controlled

principles as
with

divergence of

similar

presence

clothing,the

of the bed

pressure

between

extremely slight

an

forget them

we

is often

dream

depth

three-quartersof

is little question that the stimulus

There

the

auditory stimulus

an

sleep probably does

absolutely dreamless

control

in

continuous

the

sleep. Undoubtedly

rapidity with

made

diate
diversity of opinion regarding the imme-

opinion regarding

of

power

which

have

conditions

normal

sleep is reflected

of

causes

substances

awakening.

The

"

cell bodies

Experiments

hour, after which

fourth

cause

may

the

hour, then

an

and

by

that the

of their

given

waking period

the

during

no

during sleep

that

sleeper,increases for about

the

hour

sound

or

on

doubt

during waking.

sleep,as measured

the third

of

goes

quite certain,too, that under

to awaken
an

no

although

it in

induce

to

certain

restore

neurones

able

good evidence

is

there

of moderate

of expectancy,

be

to

seems

repaired, and

of the

be

may

of tissues which

the waste
is

alone

PSYCHOLOGY

in

tion
connec-

little

or

intention, such

no

as

waking thought.

psychologist,has recentlyurged that

represent the expression of suppressed wishes

which

dares

one

which

in

images

the

the

suggested by
that

in this way

and

given realization

could

otherwise

one's

gain

form

dream

offers

desires

and

which

training exclude
"

dreams,
from

of

the
from

work.

growth.

Certainly

fatigue. On
serious

the

who
other

matter, and

sleep for

any

any

definite
of

one

does

tissues

Similarlyit has

of

as

of

of moral

of

essential for

exhaustion

coming

phenomenon,

hard

secure
use

them

and

sleep

forms

and

the

to

hand, over-fatigue may

well

point

be

type of experience which

of

very

robs

us

period of time is likely to be

contained
shown

impulses

essential to many

can

above, that

been

thus

dream

society and

mental

not

physical changes under

the

The

great group

Experiments

mentioned

the

experience.

of

considerable

extremely disastrous.
clear, as

no

Thus

less symbolic

or

perfectly normal

indeed, be thought

may,

more

explanations

hostility

mind.

question that sleep is

no

Fatigue is

disciplinedmuscles

of

the

be

can

of their

waking

in this

inhibitions

waking

cherished

are

altogether prevent

which

fruition of

believes

imagination, which

the

repair of the physical and

the

and

there

Freud

freely cultivated.

Whatever

Fatigue.

of

might

acts

are

field for the

dream

ately
immedi-

those

wishes

and

the

prejudices

indulgence overtly in

than

hearing, because

no

symbolic and

are

themselves.

desires

convictions

moral

particular ideas and

the

quite other

in

251

during waking

is embodied

images

many

and

ideals

the

that

dream

represent situations

often

to

frankly confront

not

also believes

He

moments.

HYPNOSIS

AND

DREAMS,

SLEEP,

the

have

clogged with

invaded

by poisonous elements

waste

them

material,
thrown

fairly

use, in which

that the muscles

become

it

cells undergo

nerve

excessive
within

made

are

under

and

into it

the

used

tain
cer-

up.

fatigue
blood

is

by the action

252

AN

INTRODUCTION

of the body tissues.

from

Under

of

with

periods pf

rest

condition.

of

period

time

followed

rest, if

individuals

possible
length of
to

this matter

which
For

may

best

the

average

intellectual
is

without

best

likely to be

as

respite,if

one

is

needed

experimental

resting interval
minimum
recreative
severe

to

as

that

be

be

can

the

haphazard

rest

of any

does

exercise

character.

Mild

great

and

It is quite
the

correctness

work

intently

interval

of rest

can

the

life,engaged

upon

really concentrated
profitablyindulged

not

in

is then

which

rest

to

way

this of

The

this.

confirm
a

the

But

of work.

form

occupied

of mental

furnish

diverting

physical exercise

effect upon

operation.

The

best

strongly that mental

any

and

an

immediately succeeding mental

studies
and

is good, but

physical activity is itself tiring, producing

unfavorable

successfully day after

only

other

some

of

work

is to

evidence

should

one

two

or

Most

too

energy.

of sedentary

much

said

change

of

occupation.

such

hour

an

It is often

day.

and

length of

upon

person

tasks,

and

during which

follow

in

approximate

also the

and

evitably
in-

are

of saying that they waste

way

with

intervals

the

advantage,

labor

of work

is another

ascertain

to

spurts

original freshness.

large part of their time

very

considerable

disproportionatelylong periods

regain one's

This

consequence.

plishment
accom-

of the organism

such

organize their daily lives

to make

manner

but

of work

maximum

'spurt' for

can

pressure,

by

is to

one

the

periods

the maintenance

One

under

of

enable

shall

as

Evidently the highest

"

combination

the recuperation

complete.

Work.

compatible with
in robust

and

Effective

efficiencyimplies such

conditions

normal

fatigue is prompt

Conditions

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

of

fatigue

physical fatigue

indicate
are

in

the

quite
last

be

to

and

brief

so

the

on

oblige us

to

it is

for

serious

other

hand

start

at

obviously

in

period

much

Pillsbury

some

without

for

one

result

of

preference

be only

of effort be

few

Production

of

sleep

hypnotic

to

There

viduals
indi-

not

mean

work

in the

some

that

what

can

evening.
to

some

be

to

point of fact

the

by

in the

appears
in

may

work

however,

mean,

best

day

expenditure

leads

dreams

naturally

to

of normal

sciousness
con-

interest.

state

in

Hypnosis,

"

wide

operators

condition

throwing

is

of

the

as

scientific attention

can

transfer

hypnosis.

induced

the

which,

sembling
particularsclosely re-

many

attracted

condition

result in
at

of

Skilful

years.

which

their

periods

Hypnosis.

sleep, has

normal

does

other variations

certain

are

suggests, is

recent

of the

peculiaritiesare

habit, which

upon

which

the

of these

time

the

It does

and

these

that

changed.

comments

word

that

subject of sleep and

The

is

this

incapacitated for

is

training, and

to

any

It

up.'

shown

This

advantage.

afternoon,

saying

subject

extent

regards

as

accomplish

can

in the

some

steam/

abbreviate

efficiencyto

particular time.

persons

morning,
It goes

best

to

any

to

as

undertaking

investigatorshave

considerably

altogether at
that

of

ordinary individual

the

long

so

not

tired,

'getting up
in

that

and

period of 'warming

other

and

in

be

ought

possible.

as

they work

that

is

to

not

beginning

interest

the

vary

when

it ought

the

rest

still feeling dull

one

observation

there

task

as

leave

to

as

common

253

length of the interval of

The

analysisone.

HYPNOSIS

AND

DREAMS,

SLEEP,

waking

by

But

person

in
in

ordinarily

special processes

patient into

tion
condi-

first resembling light slumber.

are

many

methods

for

producing hypnosis.

Some

254

successful

are

with

Practically all
by

can

often

normal

be

enough,

in

brows
the

down

earlier operators
upon

some

nose,

so

strain

over

the

were

wont

the

from

rotating mirrors.

ticking of

hand.

the

Once

time

in

time

to

signal will
As

normal

of the

then

or

if left

little while

of his

Suggestion
feature

of the

in

pressed

life,we

subject

him

assures

any

become

simply

may

indefinite

an

sink into

may

period.

From

this
of the

by the command
up

after

initiative.

Hypnosis.

Perhaps

"

the

is the

all subject in

effects of suggestion. If

to

condition.

again, or he

arouse

hypnotic condition

are

accustomed

become

to suggestions given by
susceptibility

waking

palm

the

on

alone, he will generally wake

own

times

at

flashing of light

the

hypnotic

ordinarily be aroused

may

operator,

operators have

operator, who

the

on

sleep, the
and

the bridge of the

is falling asleep, almost

he

bring

of the

Many

fairly pronounced

or

with

fixation of the eyes

involve

subject has

stimulus.

trunk.

have

upon

gentle passes

little above

Others

deeper sleep lastingfor

sleep he

of

stroking gently the

employ

Other

that

to

serve

slightlydrowsy
a

to

metronome,

directions

following the
from

and

arms

muscles.

used

of

sleep'while

that to look at it would

eye

siderable
con-

very

procedure, the

possible,soothing

if

bright objectheld

of the

deeper forms

the

of the patient,occasionallymaking

hands

is repeated

the fixing of attention

^talk

is to

of

others.

hypnotized

attempt

into the

detail

common

and

desire to be

if the

drawn

the

Whatever

device

common

fail with

slightlyaffected,and

be

can

monotonous,

some

another,

least

at

all have

who

persons
or

number

hypnosis.

PSYCHOLOGY

given individuals,but

method

one

methods

TO

INTRODUCTION

AN

we

are

striking

able
patient'sremarkthe operator.

certain

told that

most

degree

In

to the

speck high

up

in 'the

sky

see

what

not

which

occasion
we

and

see

hear

in any

literal

to

sense

perceived in

confined

Indeed,

as

is

People

vary

affected
become

the

words

and

be

very

much

which

would

individual

not

then

in the extent
and

in

Symptoms
characteristic

than

hypnosis this
narily
is ordi-

the

operator.
on

by

which

to

they

they tend

are

also

to

ing.
repeated hypnotizit

conspicuous phenomena,

more

that

we

describing conditions

are

necessarilypresent

in the earlier

the

of suggestion.

suggestion,

describing the
understood

in

of

acts

increasingly susceptible under

In

with

exaggerated, and

much

one
essentially

hypnotic

by

accordance

intimated, the sleep is brought

have

we

which

process

to

and

perception

sense

But

they really are.

suggestibilityis

normal

bird

by the physicalobjects,rather

us

as

of

likely to

very

object be

we

the larger part of the things

that

are

are

discussion

our

to remark

suggestionsgiven

may

In

flyingmachine.

we

the

though

255

by looking sharply

machine,

the

told,even

are

we

had

we

wings of

HYPNOSIS

that

aeroplane and

an

the

detect

can

is

AND

DREAMS,

SLEEP,

themselves

in any

one

hypnotic experiences.

Hypnosis.

We

"

may

under

phenomena

(1) sensorial,(a) anaesthesia

the
and

roughly

group

the

following headings:

analgesia; (b) hyper-

aesthesia; (c) hallucination; (2) amnesia, i.e.,loss of

(3) motor,

memory;

(a) paralyses; (b) catalepsies; (4)

post-hypnotic effects.
(l)(a) It is ordinarily
insensitiveness

to

stimulation

painful.

be rendered
if cut,
to
may

be

with

contact

The

so
insensitive,

pricked,or
produce

burned.

easy

to

the

skin,
of the

back

that

produce

by suggestion
though

even

hand

it will not

may

be moved

(1) (b) Similarly it is

hypersensitivityof

be illustrated either in visual

or

sense

cutaneous

not

the
thus
even

cult
diffi-

perception, as
stimulation.

256

AN

If

coin

INTRODUCTION

be

pressed

normal

individual

circular

in

person

be

may

the

upon

this is

but

quite able

report of the design on

give

to

the coin.

be

after the cards

can,
a

he

to

Again,

this test it is of

make

card

marked

the

on

experimenter

in the

tree, he

be

what

sees

assent

he

to

the

(2)
which

upon

is

occurred.

has

usually almost
The

experience

may

be

piece of

blank

that

in his

of

sketch

appears

tered.
encoun-

he

actually

hand, he will

fictitious

suggested

forms

of

control,it

is difficult

such

case

the

subject really

simply gives verbal

he

adjusts his conduct

variation
from
gone

be

may

the

whether

regarding the
the

on,

to

fit the

them.

degree

to

hypnotic sleep different

but

after

deep hypnosis,

complete forgetfulness of
of the

memory

in

there

of

every

being aroused
what

they

operator describes

is great

preserved, because
the

many

suggestion and

subjects recall
there

in

the

least

at

outline

good

as

There

the

permit

tions
production of hallucina-

pencil be put

alleges,or

circumstances

the critical

to

way

being asked,

upon

the

whether

sure

some

the

is assured

if

trace

object. Despite
to

he

agree,

may

ordinarily

original with

ordinary individual.

presented with

be

subject

tree; and

the

sees

particular,he

the

out

hypnotized

ambiguous, but it is generally accepted

which

upon

paper

about

deeper hypnoses

If the

in

correct

pack of fifty

essential to have

side in

reverse

hypnotized

the

to

one

of the

course

evidence

is somewhat
that

note

if

as

identifyit.

to

(1) (e) The

shown

shuffled,pick

are

precision far excellingthat

To

asked

object

approximately

an

the

forehead,

usually all. The

plain cards, like calling cards, be

individual, and

of the

skin

generally perceive the

can

shape,

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

what

has

period is,however, obviously

subsequent hypnosis every

recalled.

detail of

Moreover, if,during

the

sleep, it

be

of the most

(3) (a) One

is often

which

used

as

hypnosis

of genuine

the

lids.

he

as

(3) (b)

inabilityto

be moved,

hypnotic sleep

the

eyes";

and

your

certain

will remain

their

chairs

two

the

and

achievement

with

out

rest

of

under

be added

to the

muscular

resistance.

(4) Amazing

as

as

in

disturbers
distress
most

hypnotic sleep that

will not

and

be

largely

morbid

dreads
on

scientific treatment

this

is often

nervous

of most
may

has

suggestion
even

more

generally

feature.

anxieties, when

or

considerable
of

This

weight

subject is

on

on

destroying the

awakening

encountered,

suffering for

consists in

the effects of

over

stock

peculiaritiesof

these

life of the

depending

suffering from

assured

body without

of

The

powers

therapeutic value of hypnotism

regarded

person

The

The

not
can-

unsupported.

muscular

many

into the subsequent waking

striking.

body

the

carry

they

heels resting

and

hypnosis considerable

are

hypnosis,the abilityto

been

that

capacity.

head

the

subject'sown

lift his

they will sustain

conditions
normal

is quite beyond

individuals,but

enough,

sure

of this phase of hypnotic phenomena

stretching the patient

says:

astounding length of time

an

these

Under

quite beyond

exhibition

for

point

the muscles, if put into

fashion

same

one

operator

the patient finds that he cannot

the

tense.

strain

practically

the voluntary

move

given position,the suggestion being added

rigid and

ticular
par-

of the presence

of the eyelids. At

open

may,
In

definite symptom

is the

the

cannot

you

struggle

of

oncoming

''Now

is

easily produced results and

muscles, especiallythose
in

recall

it

awakening,

upon

257

remembered.

be

to

HYPNOSIS

subject will

the

that

suggested

circumstance

certain

AND

DREAMS,

SLEEP,

these

freed

mental

from

the

length of time.
and

mental

trou-

AN

258

INTRODUCTION
is not

bles,however,
of

direct

detailed

explanation of

the

have

patientto

him

with
Odd

fish.

at

return

patient and

it may

only

certain

fairly

to

of why

account

after awakening

often

without

he is

patientthat

so, but

turn

he

has

executing
him.

to

operator's instructing

an

three weeks

of the

the victim

with

provided

of ten

the

time

and

experiment

without

out

of

cause

formance
per-

the part

suspicionon

subject that he is serving the

is

ingenious

an

Moreover, the whole

come.

of

basket

the

at

ing
later,bring-

out

cases

forthcoming

up

any

tion
type of demonstra-

common

in nine

seem,

be carried

may

of the

by

the fish will be

Not

place set.

are

suggestions

quite improbable object,like

some
as

any

out

and

certain hour

into

previously given

been

illustrated

be

here

is that

carried

way,

experimental purposes
would

type

lasting results

more

point here

the part of the

on

which

commands

that

remarkable

this

for this change of procedure.

often

are

enter

reasons

The

ways.

most

consciousness

cannot

say

given during hypnosis

in

the

it to

gotten in other

For

We

upon

dependent

today made

suggestion.

Suffice

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

mental
experi-

an

demonstration.
The

psychologicalexplanationof
is not

and

happen

to

seems

at

develop

implanted

and

until

of the

can

is that

it

comes

to

from

severing of

the

fruition.

brieflyis perhaps
encountered

the marginal

appear

portionsof

focus, and

this

focus

operator.

The

practical effect

appears

to

begins to
time
In

is far

from

of

grow

it is first

general the

certain,and

that most, if not

to

hinge

consciousness
be

what

cases

many

the suggested idea

justify itself

be said

phenomena

post-hypnoticsuggestions

all clear,although in

explanation of hypnotic behavior

all that

these

the

the

upon

from

determined
situation

all,

the

by the
is

to

SLEEP,
eliminate

the

ideas, which

modify

DREAMS,

control

ideas

normal
the

259

influences

conditions

the

thoughts which

of

enter

Such

subject carries
thus left in

are

opposing

would

subject's behavior.

being absent,

actions the

HYPNOSIS

ordinary inhibitive
under

and

AND

to

ing
restrain-

by

out

his

possession of the

field.^
Trance

Mediumship.

mediums.

fakes

are

certain
time

and

time

'

ordinary

to

of them
such

they

the

and

hold

case

where

are

these

suspended

in

physical

that
these
*

harm

No

certain
the

In

air.

the

kind

one

or

the

be

number

often

done.

ters
mat-

powers,

lift

to

of these

claim

table

dependent

another, which

cases;

have

should

found

been

condition

trance

inexperienced person
may

they

practically every

and

cleverness

anything but

alleged clairvoyant and

persons

sentiments

regarding

contact

successfullyrepeated by stage jugglers

in

or

either

and

supernatural physical

clever tricks of

Meantime,

more

entirelyignorant. Many

upon

to

from

pretended supernatural capacities have

these

claim

all that

at

conditions

advice

and

carefully studied, they have

no

itualist
spir-

hysteria,pass

thoughts and

been

lay

sents
pre-

admit

to

they become

Under

to

abilitywithout

it

the

themselves

laid claim

have

as

'

of

impressions

sense

information

convey

of which

of the

question

where

express

spirit control.

to

purport

hypnosis

necessary

no

victims

condition

verbally or by writing
some

seems

charlatans, there is

into

less oblivious

of

of

proportion of the professionalmediums

individuals,
perhaps

to

it

Although

considerable

condition

similarities to the so-called trances

many

that

This

"

is

but

magicians who

and

tion.
prestidigita-

undoubtedly
it does

not

telepathic powers
any

attempt

basis
to

been

have

in

fact.

real

follow
which
It is

hypnotize. Serious

INTRODUCTION

AN

260

fair to say,

standing,

and

be

mind

basis of

is

opinion
recognize any

that

mediums

trance

of ideas

other

or

of

sense

mind

from

It is

physical signs.

tific
scien-

of competent

mass

it refuses

that

kind,

of well-established

appreciablebody

some

cannot

ordinary methods

our

quite of another

in

fessor
late Pro-

the

quite convinced

that the great

calling for belief

high scientific

them

by the communication

fair to say

of

men

among

been

through language

equally

few

possessed by the
the

on

perception,nor
to

have

James,

knowledge

explained

not

perhaps foremost

William
of the

that

however,

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

to

evidence

cations,
communispiritualistic

telepathicor
^

whether

living and

the

Multiple

"

out

us

analysis the

to

the

morning

of

find

he

may

Few

in

an
our

nings
beginmore

modern

varieties

several

comments

which

all

are

suggested by

form, the patient

that

previous life, his

before

of

chology
psy-

we

Alfred

are

symptoms
is

Binet
make

can

ably
prob-

upon

simultaneous

personality.

successive
to

studied

distinguishes successive and

He

the

way

personality.

type and

common

division

for the few

alterations
In

every

though
'multiple personalities.'Al-

last

hysteria,the
matter.

been

so-called

all reducible

the

of

the

in the

convenient

of

conflicts within

rudimentary

very

have

interestingphenomena

of

phenomena

experiences of

certain

so

divisions

abnormal

than

the

gradually into phenomena

kind,

suggest in

the

as

perfectly normal

are

essentiallyabnormal
of

Just

Personality.

being, lead

characters

between

or

dead.

dreams, which
human

living people

between

as

equable temperament,

been
he

is

somewhat
now

wake

up

entirely forgotten

along with

name

have

has

he

may

the

rest.

some

all

his

Whereas

lethargic person

extremely active and

of
of

his

from

attack, but

his

to

reverts

secondary
often

he

In

may

off from
In

he

state

the

of

case

it is
fashion

some

certain

telescoped

this kind

frame
of

thing

great delight
such

one

case

Personality.
the several
another

of

one

are

go

himself

to

in
In

Dr.
this

most

but

on,

follow

Morton

conduct

It is

reader

to

way,

differ from
control

of the afflicted person.

sometimes

quite hidden

from

access

to

over

Sometimes

the other.
some,

how
with

of

struggle

constant

secure

in

history of

Dissociation

characters

in

extremely

may

dramatic

Prince's
is -a

that

so

sonalities
per-

were

picture of

the

the

there

case

radical

ahead, and

out

comes

states

another,

one

personalities,whose

in the

speech and

may

completely

multiplication of

readily understood

any

again

personalities.

less

or

successive

upon

his old

to

complicated by

they co-exist side by side.

sense

difficult to

these

though

as

the

alternating states.

simultaneous

the

of

wholly, and

back

be

he

on,

again and

more

of the other

memory

later

similar

more

entirely

memories

occur

find himself

be

may

getting

it may

three

or

old haunts.

almost

or

new

up

beginning of

months

The

may

and
long lifetime,

his

the

to

or

in

time

type of alteration

of two

cut

weeks

character.

after

the introduction
each

build

to

they

on

disappear wholly

succeeds

throughout

only

point

some

original

state

This

home.

that

Suddenly,

accurate.

back

go

processes

memory

in

starts

261

disappearing entirely from

life,oftentimes
His

He

irascible bent.

somewhat

HYPNOSIS

AND

DREAMS,

SLEEP,

The

of

one

the
one

memories
at

least,of

the others.
Subconscious

Processes.

of all varieties
the

extent

They

to

all tend

which
to

"

These

exhibit

subconscious

in

eases

the

of
most

processes

multiple

sonality
per-

striking way
may

operate.

suggest that the divisions underlying these

disturbances

what

off

as

really

lost

when

reading

that

and

yet

five

feel

quite

absurd

who

man

find

did

not

heard.

In

the

activities.

bed

the

to

preparatory
in

the

as

is

of

perfectly good

is there
way

home

point and
one

and

marginal
our

that

has.

that
been

example

has

he

obliged

all tell the

elements

cutting

surroundings.

become

not

gone

too

of

the
this

type

of

preoccupied
past
his

awareness,

completely

the

steps.

story of the

our

the

adrift

conscious
sub-

to

put

on

society, only
the

out

of his

attire,

thing.
when

Who
on

the

turning

proper
These

instances

by

ordinarily
from

of

instance

part played

which

our

most

less

carrying

changing

the

if

way

stock

of

and

it at

or

The

clock;
to'

do

more

invasion

far

to retrace

same

in

so

same

are

we

notice

may

result

in

what

early evening

an

operations necessarily begun

a

we

guidance,

upstairs in

parts

thing is

of

'come

may

we

the

habitual

himself

we

preoccupied,

under

goes

dress

evening
to

keenly

our

later

be

may

focal

type
in

sense

striking of the

the

although

actually

was

things
of

the

that

sure

is

attention

minutes

this

absorbed

so

they

by the

access

notice

not

ten

or

bell

the

time,

do

elements
true

no

whole, but

the

get itself split

in

may

conditions

become

we

we

as

from

normal

of

consciousness,

our

then

may

margin

the

excluded

In

represented

of

concentration

severance

the

between

activity. Obviously

organism

the

to

mind.

the

in

represented

are

be

may

margin

of subconscious

quite completely
of

the

in

on

goes

type

which
be

there

peripheral regions

the

from

central

If

awareness.

our

highly intense,

becomes

and

of

margin

the

and

focus

distinction

the

with

connected

are

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

INTRODUCTION

AN

262

our

the
vent
pre-

actual

CHAPTER

XVII

THE

It has

been

of

thus

necessary

behavior

of human

elements

been

have

pointed

adjustive

activity making

materials

in

We

noted

have

in

emotion

way

in

which

life.

of

We

growth,

as

it behooves

us

in

The

Identity

of the

conviction, resting perhaps

intuitive

any
in

some

year

year.

of the
and

In

any

fact

high

among

of

memory.

is

an

much

moment

I
263

in
can

self

little upon

thus

analyzed.
lar
popuas

on

self continues

the

and

moment
to

are

this

today

from

tion
convic-

factors,

many

importance
recall

behavior.

tradition

on

to

identical
them

of

ment
develop-

deep-seated

event, contributing

persistence of

ranking
the

from

for

have

we

certainty, that

unchanged

way
to

reasoned

or

as

the

process

of social

dwell

to

There

"

of

principles of conduct,

experiences
Self.

the

exigencies

the

all this

modes

conclusion

of

adequate

practical results, the

its rational

personal self, whose

the

with

cope

ideals, its established

its cherished

toward

out

up

until

throughout

its great

of

one

feeling and

something
built

are

fit to

environment.

attitudes

observed

an

ideational

and

movements,

remarked

have

of character, with

Now

have

we

finally established

are

by instinct

uncontrolled

of

its

be

to

and

over

coordinations

motor

material

habits

and

mind

the

sensory

control

several

interconnections

its fundamental

determining

environment,

found

the

independently

their

of

use

with

extent

of

have

gain

deal

to

some

the -part played

this

raw

to

to

We

out.

order

far

certain

another, although

one

SELF

edly
is undoubtand

again

264

AN

INTRODUCTION

the

tomorrow

them

may

elicit the
that

play

of

sense

part, for

again

doubtless

contributes
dim

though

constant,

The

organism.

as

form

least

the

striking among

is the fact that after

normally

the mind

though

as

on

like

agent,

word

the

knows

determined
is

this

on

of

What

upon.

such

knower.

concerning

tends

which
of

the

interrupted

"

from

present
wills

content

of

the

at

an

perdurable

distinctlyto confirm

in

persistentidentity in

the

this

mental
ligious
re-

impressive body of

character

this

the

action

Finally, philosophicaland
furnished

sonal
per-

instant

the

describing

been

have

edge
^knowl-

subject, a

same

and

pain

subtle

consciousness,

of

goes

More

(con-scious-ness

the

found,
proNot

past and

of the

involves

the

unconsciousness,
the

notion

showing simply the

speculations have
doctrine

we

of

particular idea
or

in

of evidence

occurred.

presumably

feels the pleasure

moment,

states

the

knower,

instant, who

book

of

against something),

over

to

very

is suggested

disease.

forms

upon

out

own

own

my

tions,
bodily condi-

mental

form

any

the

fairly

of

the

immediate

that

derivation

the

its

is my

distress,and, if

interruption had

no

contention

is the

and

its hold

resumes

events, claims

of

stream

sleep or

fact

result

us

same

Another

disturbances

malign

more

the

recur

consideration

to

report

velop
de-

anticipationsalso

awareness

serious

basis of

the

total

this

great uneasiness

occasion
may

of

any

organic sensations,which

reflection to

yet unattained.

vague,

importance

by the fact that

much

the

of

reactions,so

motor

same

again there

to

and

memories

occasions, may

myself. My

and

ends

same

the

both

without
in

sameness

and

on

the

naturally and

come

desires for the

which

similar

very

feelings and

same

PSYCHOLOGY

last year,

of

events

appear

TO

of the

widespread

self.

soul,

tion
convic-

SELF

THE

Objections
There

of

much.

If

self

portions of

for many

be revived.

Desire

develop, despite
which

and

ways

as

existence

that of fourteen.

the

of

sensations

by which

change

to

slowly

"

the

Furthermore,
described
and

Obviously
than

sure,

be.

may

and

All

Character

very

the

viously,
Ob-

marked

organic

likely also

are

the

none

ries,
memo-

different.

extent

less certainly.

multiple personality
how

to show

serve

altogether

popular

different

the mind

but

self at

the self of four,

widely

of dissociated

not

it

desires

the

abilities.

some

recognize that such

is probably
common-sense

to

previous chapter

in the

must

be

cases

get
for-

cannot

such

changes in

it reports to

plastic the self

we

by, and

to

we

and

out

of

It has very

physical body
go

that

true

core

tastes, prejudices and

years

remember

we

anticipation similarly change and

is better informed

too, the

that

easily

past in memory,

these different stages is apt to be

at

be

cannot

's experience fade

of age

different

"

unchanging identity

own

fairly constant.

than

even

of its

Identity.

that the identity is only partial,

one

the

the

rest

remain

may

forty years

which

it is true

to

its retention

on

be frankly admitted

must

or

going

are

we

facts

Self

experience, it is also

former

our

of

Idea

While

to this view.

reconciled

of the

Common

however, certain

are,

much

the

to

265

flexible

fore,
things considered, therethe self possesses

identityas
of

the

tradition.

assumed

type

Two

by

cumstanc
cir-

additional

should, however, be noted.

Continuity

of

Self.

the

"

There

(1) undoubtedly

is

continuity in the life of the self which

like that

possessed by all living organisms.

is different in almost
which
same

it grew,
tree

is in

year

and

every

yet

after

we

year.

particular from

one

The

the

acorn

respect
oak

tree

from

speak of it unhesitatingly as the

It has

continuous

lifeand

266

AN

INTRODUCTION

we

recognize

this fact
however

widely its

season

and

of life

man

he

that

and

for

do.

mind

genuine

experiences

in

lapses

facts

moral

characteristics
tend

cohere

to

the

the

renders

continuity

such

alterations

evolutionary

adjustment

Self.

"

winds

be considered

our

the

great

phenomena

personal

despite

outstanding
is that

they

with

matic
syste-

groups

principles of organization. Intelligent processes

adjustment would, indeed, be impossible
While

case.

at

never

one

any

perfectly unified affair,the

and

unifying
to

grow,

organizing
Thus
of

the

far

problem

tradition.
the

both

actual
in

his

We

have

possesses

As

expanding

dealt only with

of the
must

content
own

self

the

completely and
intrinsically
long

it

as

tinues
con-

its boundaries

and

thoroughly its possessions.

more
we

then

of

this not

were

time

organizing tendencies.
it is always

a
as

of

many

personality and

mental

into connected

is (2)

through forgetfulness,

of

one

cumstance
cir-

of

there

Again

self may

the mind

normal

plants and

This

not.

shifting

the

behavior,
of

the

fact

preclude growth and

dissociated

of

continuity

this is the

Despite the fact that

lost from

are

despite the

in

of the

organized unity.

an

to

static conceptions of personal

in which

sense

do

it,

season

same

beyond

moment

to

Unifying Tendency
very

from

This

but

It rather

stages

living

speech about

vary

decade.

to

rigid and

to

as
intelligible,

of

may

presumably

not

more

seem

of

manner

appearance

animals

the

as

PSYCHOLOGY

feels this continuity as

of experience does

identity

our

obviously enjoys,

knows

change,

in

decade

from

of the

many

TO

self

of

person

the

and

general aspects

this emerges

as

inquire

now

certain

more

individual's
in

others.

from

popular

precisely what
idea
This

of

the

will lead

is
self
us

SELF

THE

conditions

briefly the

examine

to

267

under

which

the

sciousness
con-

of self develops.
Social

self does
a

slow

not

for

reasons

Things

some

They

his

afford

imitation.

for

and

idea

Such

is referred

thing shares

The

personal

begins to

On

by

every

tend

(1)

it.

to

embodied

person.

There

by

definite consciousness

It is his
are

soon

in

to

sufficient

as

important of the

most

the

to

of

emergence

is the

language
and

name

by

the

and

attention
human
and

accordingly be
of self appears

that

person

and

gradually

adequate meanings.
infli?,ences which

by

to

not

proprietorship.

exclusive

correct

fact

other

no

also taught him

think

interesting patterns

surrounded

in other

can

desires

repeatedly brings agreeable

of

use

to

his

strongly impel him

as

vastly

are

they minister

his

of

most

persons

is thus

draw

hand, while

unreliable,

Perhaps

into them

side he

modes

their

gift of intelligentspeech. And

pronouns

read

things.

permit this indulgence, persons

imitation

significantin the
child

the

made

in

appeals, and

and

best

of the self is the

least

and

to

exhilarating results.

contributions

he

the

much

and

the other

on

Moreover,

is obtained

control

motor

result of

fairly good

be

persons

satisfaction

the

wholly unique.

manner

or

and

comfort

the

of

early distinctions

the

uniform

Persons

child's

the

alleged

by the child's desires,by

variable

to

to

between

unmoved

are

more

ways

responsive

to

of

one

is that

his cries.

or

be

may

consciousness

seem

relatively stable and

are

;his gestures

Imore

that

believing

of behavior.

;in

There

of growth.

by the child

remarked

the

that

It

"

ready made, but that it is

appear

process

of Self.

Idea

confidence

reasonable

with

the

of

Origin

personality,

beings, and

as

cretely
con-

which

(2)

speak of himself
no

question that

amid

as

the

social relations

268

AN

and

in response

INTRODUCTION

PSYCHOLOGY

social incentives.

to

It is from

the

first

distinctlysocial phenomenon.
Content

of the

is at
it

TO

seems

this

of the

Idea

point employed
hazardous

very

to

introspective evidence
variety of factors
for
of the

face

involve

thetic

sensations

this

it is

To

idea

get

in the

indicate
is

in which

find

self

is apparently

image
Again

organic and

kinaes-

attitude

is held

and

dition.
con-

one's

upon

by others.

be closelyidentified with

likelyto

quite

visual

concept built
one

of self

mirror.

bodily

tent
con-

in life when

on

of the

to

of the

awareness

esteem

Later

think

it appears

which

the

available,we

simply

infrequently it

of the

case

verbal

the

particular

fill out

to

more

persons

figure as

it may

surmise

is

What

"

allege.

reported.

some

or

Not

Self.

In

descriptive

ideas, e.g., 'good fellow,' 'able man,' 'cad,' 'fool,'

by emotional

accompanied
the

as

It may

the

to

occur

in

designated
these

of depression

or

tion
ela-

be.

may

case

attitudes

descriptions

reader

that

there

of 'self

terms

are

ditions
con-

many

experience

which

to

quite inapplicable. Self-conceit,

are

self-consciousness
self-confidence,self-distrust,self-sacrifice,
these

"

these

and

instances

place several

others

many
two

comments

of the

terms

of character, rather
Such
In

the

or

directed
confident
and

place

so

far

one
self-conscious,

to

the idea

may

be

of the

be made.

first

are

to

apply ordinarily
than

as

to

In

the

tributes
general at-

to

specificmental

ences.
experi-

worry.

may

The

fident,
actually feels self-con-

one

's thoughts
self at all.

contemplating

his self-confidence

of anxiety and

On

self-confidence,self-conceit,self-sacrifice.

are

second

will suggest themselves.

an

consist

to

simply

self-conscious

feels self-

who

One

act

necessarily

not

are

performed

be
in

the

person

absence
is

likely

SELF

THE

afflicted with

be

to

his

269

inconveniently vivid

an

of

awareness

organic discomfort,his tremblkig knees, blushing

own

cheeks

awkward

and

thought only the

gestures, but

most

there

reference

remote

to

may

be

the

idea

his

in

of the

self.
therefore

It appears

to be

individual
mind

is
idea

of self and

*I'

complex

attention

of

neurotic

and

morbid

be

not

is

confused

is

is based

man

of

about

well

may

The

abrupt,

that the

in the

manager

severe,

be

considerate, gentle and

at

the

these

club

variations
For

is

likely to
the

several

of

conduct

each

entertain
chances

of
a

are

selves differ from

that

one's

the

continuous

and

accordingly

to which

up

one

ence
refer-

different habits

very

surroundings, and

very

of the

observed

as

man

divergent types of
be

His

different

may

be

the

distinct

another

by

acter.
char-

gruff,
may

companions
person

multiplied quite

'selves'

his

home

at

man

same

still

in

it may

so

office at the mill may

somewhat

one

that

complexities of civilized life

these

that

of the self which

affectionate.

encounter

may

of

such.

The

harsh.

even

constant

fact

in behavior

deportment
suggest

the

to

The

self,must

to build

different

to

with

symptoms

of the idea

the

be called upon

may

outsiders

In

given

the

to

as

differences

be made.

adjustment

come

of the self

actual

upon

unacceptable doctrine

the

differentiation

one

should

of

one

experience of

with

always conscious
There

is

attentive

sensations.

temperament.

less unified

experiences, the

then

feelings all belong

thoughts and
or

and

other

or

in

prove

occasionally engaged

now

complex

this

to

only

organic

may

of his 'self

content

only incidentally and

the

more

the

that whatever

own

man

'self

and

definite
in-

himself
though
idea, al-

appreciation the

far less than

appears

270

AN

his

to

INTRODUCTION

intimate

of this type

TO

acquaintances

are

selves of other

Moral

the

to

in

specific content
development

and

punishments

meted

and

agent

the

of

here

estimates

this

forms

one

of

finds

of

Moral

"

the

himself

the

get their

wrong

individual's

moral

the rewards

to

by society. In
treated

again therefore

is projected into

and

his reactions

to him

out

Self.

the

upon

right

course

through

individual

the

law

by regard for one's

peculiarly significantrelations

ideas

The

self.

ideas

attainments,and

Influences

religious ideas exhibit

and

Self

case.

men.

Religious

and

colored

the

of

perhaps especiallytrue

the

the

social position and

one's
possessions,
is

be

to

to be

apt

very

PSYCHOLOGY

and

morals

as

as

in

responsible

his personality, his

hood,
self-

of

his

reflective

goes

even

further

foreground

attention.

Religious experience in this respect

the usual

than

to

think

whose

Being

experience in

moral

of himself

character

penitence and

with

of

tasks which

have

*'One

"

the

of

the psychology of the future

of delineating the

observers.

become

words,

by

liarly
pecu-

companionship

be
In

more

than

history and

been

poets and

itself.

But
rude

them, with

dreamers, the

gift for

at

will have

present

face

to

in which

tions
descrip-

such

impressions of individual

literature

recognized.

interesting

most

typical forms

various

personalities,others
of

Supreme

may

the idea of

upon

Personality.

cannot

the

own

is, in other

struggle. There

personality reveals

types

with

perfect self.

Types
is that

his

as

dividua
compels the in-

it

in relation

as

is such

compelling emphasis

that

We

seers,

meet
some

few

these

of

here

mystics,

the

of them

great

pulsive
fiery,im-

gentle ascetic souls, but

vision

as

against

the

all

prosaic

SELF

THE

reasoning, and

of tedious

processes

their

of adequate expression for

the

scientists and

the

worth

scholars

plodding

of

Sometimes

facts.
emotional

this

trait

the

military and

sheer

force

industrial

man

doubt

no

and

has in him

represented by

all these

less

sway

imperious

the

of

mass

Meanwhile

Once

of human

to

of

look

may
we

to

stand

for

important it
man

shall

best, and

our

each

serve

in

the

individual.

by which
the

men

and

fecting
per-

and

dead

order

get located

higher

much

It is particularly

position

lost in the

loss to

tional
educa-

vastly higher

in

to

which

variations

go

When

our

contentment.

misfit may
a

into

hope for

society be in

that

and

boldly

out

their share

each

may

often hopelessly submerged

himself

elements

conjoined with

society that

than

happiness

settled down,

average

they exercise

are

exploit the useful individual

methods

The

men.

thoroughly assimilated
we

awakening

determining the special combination

for

are

in

' '

more

and
efficiency

to

of

compel by

the various

commonplace

doing

important

tumble

of

qualitiesfit him

his

procedure,

now

lating
calcu-

great leaders

succeed

and

abilities possessed by

methods

and

who

him

welfare

of methods

average

in cold

only just learning how

are

we

psychologists are

of human

of
and

fervor

to

great types, but

humanity.

be placed where

these

of

value

geniuses who

something of

and

is for the ultimate

mental

the

confidence

over

weak

capacities too
from

are

of personality,by aggressive capacity of hand

spiritualdevotion

the

of

find

we

powers

there

paramount

is married

brain; the religious leaders

or

the

it is embodied

Then

temperament.

varying

religious conviction

and

care

with

insight. Then

with

tension, sometimes

men,

271

tify
idenare

rough-and-

special jobs.

sance
through life,a nui-

society.

272

AN

INTRODUCTION

The

Summary.

self

from
be

may

it
few

reader

of

how

of

the

The
the

self,

and
in

its

which

practical

entirety

and

at

reader
his

is
which

character.

develops

the

by

any

will

theoretical

find

the

moment

most

interests.

the

lems
proba

of

and

sonality
per-

have

we

tangible

and

of

consciousness
but

nothing

result

of
is

fruitful

sketch

organizes

intelligence
The

given

ideas

the

familiar
in

view

examined

peoples

more

to

the

are

upon

however,

methods

of

have

we

discerned

book,

and

means

conduct
taken

whole

chapter

the

of
be

to

numerous

occidental

some

prepared

points

bearing

among

elements

self.
of

outline

how

this

considerations

the

to

and
In

presents.

doubtless

now

different

many

approached

prevalent
tried

is

"

appreciate

PSYCHOLOGY

TO

this

process

real

the

for

both

living
his

BIBLIOGRAPHY
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W.

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B.

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H. F. Hollings worth, Outlines
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H. S. Langfeld and F. H. Allport, Elementary Laboratory Course
in Psychology.
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E. C. Sanford, A Course
in Experimental Psychology.
(Requires
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apparatus for a few experiments.)
L. Witmer,
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of the Experiments
elaborate
more
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apparatus:
E. B. Titchener, Experimental Psychology, 4 Vols.
Qualitative
in
and
treated
different
are
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volumes,
and
two
two being for use
for teachers.
by students

C.

E.

273

274

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H.

H.

K.

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PSYCHOLOGY

Donaldson,

The

Outlines

Growth

NEUROLOGY

AND

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Brain.

the

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C. J. Herrick, Introduction
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SOCIAL
J. M.
F.

Baldwin,

Boas,

Mental

Mind

The

PSYCHOLOGY

Development,

of Primitive

E.

Nature
and
the
Cooley, Human
Introduction
Social
to
McDougall,
A.
Ross, Social Psychology.

W.

I. Thomas,

W.

Wundt,

Source

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OF

PSYCHOLOGY
E.
W.
I.
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J.
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G.

S. Ames,

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of

Folk

Social

Order.

Ethical

pretations.
Inter-

Psychology.

Origins.
Psychology (Trans.).

of Social

RELIGIOUS

EXPERIENCE

of Religious Experience.
of Religious Experience.
of Religion.
King, Development
H. Leuba, Psychological Study of Religion.
B. Pratt, The
Psychology of Religious Belief.
D. Starbuck, Psychology of Religion.
M. Stratton, The
Psychology of the Religious Life.
James,

Psychology

Varieties

EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY

J. M.

Baldwin, Mental
Development
S. S. Colvin, The
Learning Process.
F. N.
Freeman,
Psychology of the
How

K.

and

Man.

C. H.
W.

Social

Children

in

the

Common

Child

and

Branches.

Learn.

Gordon, Educational
Psychology.
S. Hall, Adolescence, 2 Vols.
W.
to Teachers.
James, Talks
C. H. Judd, Psychology of the High School
Subjects.
E. A. Kirkpatriek, Fundamentals
of Child
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the

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E. L. Thorndike, Educational
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E.

Meumann,

R. Schulze,
D. Starch,

ABNORMAL
Hypnosis
H.
A.
A.

and

PSYCHOLOGY

Psychotherapy:

Bernheim,
Suggestive Therapeutics.
and
Forel, Hypnotism
Psychotherapy.
Moll, Hypnotism.

H.

Miinsterberg, Psychotherapy.
and
Worcester, McComb,
Coriat, Religion and
Sleep

Dreams:

and

S.
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Freud, Interpretation of Dreams

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Psychology.
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Binet, Alterations

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Janet, The
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Major Symptoms
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Sidis and
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M.

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A.

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Diefendorf, Clinical Psychiatry.
Its Causes
H. H. Goddard,
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W.
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Fable
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F.

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Mental

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S. I. Franz, Mental
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H. L. HoUingsworth,
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H. D. Kitson, How
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the
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H.

W.

Miinsterberg,
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Mind.

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Psychology of Crime.
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E.

L.

Thorndike,

G.

M.

Whipple,
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Bridges, Point

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Manual

Yerkes

of Intelligence.

and

8ocial

Mental

of

Scale

COMPARATIVE

Measurements.
and

Physical Tests.
for Measuring Mental

Ability.

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A.

Forel, The Senses

of Insects.
in Evolution.
Mind
Hobhouse,
S. J. Holmes,
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L.

T.

H.

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L.

Jennings,

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M.
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the

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Baldwin, History of Psychology,

Rand, The Classical Psychologists.

SPECIAL
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TOPICS

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to

GENERAL

Vols.

PSYCHOLOGY

B.

W.
E.

Pillsbury, Attention.
Titchener, Psychology

B.

Sensation

of Feeling

and

Attention.

Ladd

and

Woodworth,

McKendrick
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and

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the

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and

Ladd

Woodworth,

Physiological Psychology, Chapters 4, 5, 6.

Memory:
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H. J. Watt, Economy
Training of Memory.
T.

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M.

Fernald,

R.

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Mental

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Galton, Inquiries

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Binet, Psychology

J.

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Dewey,

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277

H.

R.

Marshall,
Moore,

Pain,

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H.

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M.

Stanley,

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K.

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E.

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of

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C.

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T.

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The

of

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of

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Comparative

See

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T.
M.

Ribot,
F.

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Washburn,

of

Will.

Movement

and

Mental

Imagery.

Animals.

INDEX

7.

psychology,

Abnormal
Accommodation

of

Acquisitiveness,

218.

Affection,

Color,

and

theories

phase

elementary

as

successive,

centers

Chapter
36.

center,

system,

46^.

Blind-spot,
Brain,

Chapter

DARWIN,

210,

277.

184.

Dendrite,

fig.

DEWEY,

209,

4.

277.

aflfection,

as

analytic

as

tention,
at-

7 Off.

sciousness,
con-

Dissociation,
Double

S7if.

affective

as

element,

190.

Cerebral

laws

160/.
Cerebellum,

Cerebrum,

tion.
Discrimina-

see

personality,
personality.

see

nating
Alter-

250.

figs.

Ego,

see

Chapter

psychology,

XII;

in, 370)/.
tube, fig.

Eustachian

34/.

31-35.

Self.

factors

Excitement,

Chapter

see

Ear,

Emotion,

association,

and

35ff.

Character,

Color

sations.
Sen-

see

273.

Calmness,

Choice,
Cochlea,

39^.

sensations,

Dreams,

Child

cerebral,

Cutaneous

234.

CALKINS,

and

III.

sensations,

BRYAN,

Cortex,

functions
with

connection

Brightness

IV

Chapters

Disagreeableness
lOOff.
Discrimination,

and

structure
and

of

establishment

over,

Deduction,

22.

223, 274.
81/.

BALDWIN,

ous
nerv-

III.

V.

22.

Axone,

Chapter

cortex, 35/.

in

Association

of

74 ;

160)f.

cylinder,

of,

the

to

XIV.

Attention,

Axis

of

^dff.;
system,
control

of,

function

appearance

Coordinations,

simultaneous,

Association,

Auditory

and

nature

Consciousness,

tual,
intellec-

and

8.

psychology,

relation

Analysis,
sensory
70j5F.
205.
203,
Anger,
36.
Aphasia,

Autonomic

of, 92ff.

Concept,
173f.

19.

trast
con-

89/.;

mixtures,

Comparative

of
feeling, 195.
91.
After-images,
personality, 260.
Alternating

Amoeba,

complementaries,

80.

lens,

as

31.

affective

figs.
83;

XV.

Experimental

7.

31-35.

Feeling,
normal

abnormal,

ment,
ele-

190.

psychology,

Volition.

blindness,

bodily

ipheral,
per-

92.

Fovea,
FRANKLIN,

279

XI.
Chapter
figs. 23, 25, 27.
92.

6.

INDEX

280

FREUD,

250.

Fusion,

^2ff.

Mood,

Generalization

in

thought, 171,

212.

Motor

aphasia,

Motor

control.

Muscular

181#.
Genetic

psychology,

Genius,
GORDON,

and

sensations,

Kin-

see

aesthetic.

7.

association, 165/.
Nerves,

277.

Grey, sensations

of,

ness.
Bright-

see

Habit, Chapter IV.

Hallucinations, 118.

HARTER,
Hearing,

36.

Chapter IV.
Multiple personality, 260.

structure

of, 2\ff.
system, central, 29J5''.;
autonomic,
46jf.
definition
Neurone,
of, 2\ff.
Nervous

Object, perception of, 114)/.

selection, theory of,
Organic

234.

sensations

of, Mff.

223)9=.

Hypnosis, 253^5^".
with
Ideas, connection
images,
and
156/y
concepts, 175)5''.

Identity, personal, 263^.

Illusion, lis/.
lation
of, 152)9'; reImages, function
idea, 156/;

to

22^-ff.
Imagination, Chapter
Imitation,

as

to

Interests,

affection,

to

Perception, Chapter VII.

Personal
identity,see Identity.
Physiological psychology, 8.
PILLSBURY,
Pleasure,

219,

253.

element,

affective

as

Productive
218.

imagination,

Psychology,
methods

tion
rela-

XIII;

159/.

of, 1 ;
of, 3)/.; fields of, "Iff.
definition

8.

Psychophysics,

204.

emotion,

psychology, 7.
Reasoning, Chapter X
185^.

Race

of, 243^.

nature

relation

its

190.

190)5F.

IX.

instinctive,

Impulse, 215jf.
Induction, 183f.
Instinct, Chapter

tion,
voli-

to

Pain,

Introspection,3^.
JAMES,
114,
120,
137,
205, 206, 218, 232, 273.

204,

Reflex

in brutes,

relation

action,

to

m-

stincts, 215^.
Relations, in reasoning, 179)/.

Jealousy, 357.
Judgment, 174.

Relaxation,

affective

as

ment,
ele-

190.

Kinaesthetic,
function
motor

LANGE,
Lapsed

in

sensation,

110/.;

establishment

of

control, 229^.

RIBOT,

205/.

intelligence, theory

of,

ory,
mem-

277.

219,

Rhythm,

U^ff.

ROYCE,

191, 273.
XVII.

Self, Chapter

277.

and
Meaning
imagery, 159;
reasoning, 175/f.
Medulla
oblongata, 33.
Chapter VIII.
Memory,

in

material

of

Retention

138/.
Retina,
80^.

222.

MARSHALL,

Reproductive imagination, 158/.

in

Semicircular

Sensation,

canals, 99^.

Chapter VI.

and

ception,
per-

114.

Sensations,

of

sound,

94)9'.;of

INDEX

sight,
of

of

77if.;

smell,
of

101^.;

taste,

touch,

and

lOSff.;
of

112/.;

104f.;
ture
tempera-

167/.

sensations,

Thought,

274.

of

apparent

psychology,

Space,

see

objects,

125^.

Reasoning.

see

of,

perception

Touch,

see

130/.
277.

273,
Sensations.

vision,

Twilight

87.

7.

Vision,

Perception.
scope,

Time,

Sensations.

see

TITCHENER,

Sensations.

see

Social

or

IGSff.;

179.

reasoning,

Skin-senses,

by,

Sensations.

212.

Temperature,

association

46]^.

see

Temperament,

Similarity,

Span,

system,

Synsesthesia,

Taste,

212.

SHERRINGTON,

Size,

Sympathetic

ganic,
or-

movement,

110^.
Sentiment,

in

281

of

ness,
conscious-

see

Volition,

Sensations.

XIV,

Chapters

XV.

61if.
SPENCER,

Spinal
Strain,

WATSON,

221.

oord,
as

Subconscious,

Will,

28f.
affective

processes,

element,
178,

190.
26L

WUNDT,
274.

208,
see

219.

Volition.

190,

194,

222,

273,