HISTORY OF

SETTLEMENTS
PROJECT
BP/624/2013
ASHANKH JAISHANKAR

1.Explain the salient features of settlement

planning during Egyptian period.
Location
The main consideration where to build was generally proximity to a waterway and height above
the floodplains. Adobe buildings are very vulnerable when brought in prolonged contact with
water, be it seeping groundwater or the rising Nile. Elevations, as long as they were inhabited,
kept above the slowly rising plains, where the river deposited its silt. When old houses crumbled,
new ones were built on top of the debris. This has been going on until recent times, when the
yearly inundations were stopped by the Aswan dam. The continuity of settlement during the
millennia is one of the reasons for the scarcity of data about ancient villages and cities, as
excavation is virtually impossible.

City quarters
Generally there was little town planning, and
what little there was looked a bit like the hieroglyph
for "city" with houses arranged rather haphazardly
around the crossing of two major roads. But in a
number of cases attempts at planning seem to
have been made, above all in walled
cities.
The town serving the pyramid temple
complex Hotepsenusret (Ha-Usertesenhotep as Petrie called it near modern Kahun or
more correctly Lahun) in the Fayum was founded
by Senusret II and remained inhabited for about a
century. The outlay of the city itself was

rectangular with an orthogonal street grid,

covering an area of 350 by 400 metres. It was
surrounded by a brick wall and divided into two
parts by another wall. Generally different social
classes did not live in separate city quarters. But
here there was a rich residential area, where a
handful of palatial 60 room residences were fifty times as big as the dwellings in the
poorer half of the city.
This part had also a wide street leading to the palace. The streets all over the city
were laid out in approximately straight lines. The alleys leading to the workers'
dwellings ended in culs-de-sac. The main street was nine metres wide, as opposed to

the alleys and streets in the residential districts which were sometimes as narrow as
1 metres. The streets had shallow stone channels running down the middle for
drainage.
Despite the love Egyptians had for gardens, there was no space left for them inside
the walls at Hotepsenusret. The whole area was covered with streets and one-storeyed
mud-brick buildings.
In this Hotepsenusret was very different from Akhenaten's specially created
capital Akhetaten - or at least some parts of it. There the planners included public
open spaces where trees were planted and inhabitants often had their own private
garden plots.
Actually, within the boundaries of Akhetaten there was mostly empty space. The
planners had given the new capital very generous dimensions;. These formed the
town centre, while the residential areas were north-east and south-west of them.
Akhenaten's workmen on the other hand had to live in crowded flats of 60 m, or
100 m if there was a second floor.The parallel streets were about two metres wide,
and practically the whole space inside the walls was occupied by houses.
It is interesting to note that the workers' settlement was walled in, while the city as
a whole was not. Some of the more affluents parts of the city were possibly not
surrounded by any wall, though most were: the temples, the palace and the royal
residences, the barracks, the offices of the administration, etc.

Residential areas
The Egyptians rarely planned much further than keeping a few spaces free for the
important roads of access, setting temple districts apart and erecting an adobe wall
around it all. Even 'planned' cities like much of Akhetaten
were at times a jumble of houses, alleys and courtyards in
what looks like a case of build-as-build-can; and where
originally there had been a street grid the rebuilding of the
houses changed the regular layout over the centuries..
Even if they liked living on ground level, Egyptian city
dwellers had at times little choice about adding
further storeys. Land suitable for building had to be above

the floodlevel of the Nile and still reasonably close to the river, and this was
relatively rare. Many Egyptians either preferred or were forced to live in these
crowded conditions. At Akhetaten where there was no lack of suitable land, some
private homes were still built in the same warren-like fashion.

Temple districts
Temple districts on the other hand were better planned. The outlay of individual
temples was basically symmetrical. Walls surrounded them. At Hotep-senusret the
brick wall on three sides of the temple was 12 metres thick and lined with
limestone.
Avenues leading through the city to the temple district were wide, suitable for
processions. During recent excavations near the great pyramids a paved street five
metres wide was discovered. Pavement of streets was rare, generally restricted to the
temple complexes themselves.
The temenos wall, the temple enclosure, could also have strategic value. At elKab the temple was built at the centre of the town, and its ramparts could furnish a
last shelter for the garrison in case the town itself were taken by an enemy. At other
places (Ombos, Edfuetc) the whole population lived inside the temple enclosure.
Bigger towns like Memphis or Thebes had a number of temples which at first
were separate, but were interconnected by sphinx avenues from the 18th dynasty
onwards.

Palaces
Royal palaces housed apart from the pharaoh's main family, his secondary wives,
concubines, and their offspring, also a small army of servants. The whole compound
was enclosed and separate from the rest of the capital, albeit close to suppliers of
services, temples and the seat of the administration.
Unlike the temples which were, at least from the outside, mainly symmetrical,
Egyptian palaces were at times a conglomeration of functional units not hidden
behind a unifying faade, even when they were built by just one pharaoh and were
not the result of successive builders adding onto an initial building. Akhenaten's
palace at Akhetaten was of this kind, the residence of the royal family was separated
from the main palace by the main avenue, but connected to it by a bridge

2.Enumerate the salient features of Art &

Architecture practiced in settlement planning
during roman period.
The Romans wanted their art and architecture to be useful. They planned their cities and
built bridges, aqueducts, public baths, and marketplaces, apartment houses, and harbors.
When a Roman official ordered sculpture for a public square, he wanted it to tell future
generations of the greatness of Rome. Although the practical uses of art were distinctly
Roman, the art forms themselves were influenced by the ancient Greeks and Etruscans.
In the late 600's B.C., the most powerful people in Italy were the Etruscans, who had come
from Asia Minor and settled in Tuscany, an area north of Rome. Although the Etruscans
imported Greek styles of art, they achieved much by themselves. They developed a very
realistic type of portrait sculpture. They were also the first to introduce the use of the stone
arch into architecture.
Architecture
The Romans put the lessons of the Etruscans to practical use. The baths and arenas are
tributes to the skill of Rome's great builders. Because of the use of the arch, the Romans
could build on a greater scale than the Greeks, who used the post and lintel (a beam
supported by two columns). The arch can support much more weight than the post and
lintel. Roman aqueducts were often three levels of arches piled one on top of another. And
their buildings, such as the Baths of Caracalla, enclosed huge open areas.
In the 1st century B.C. the Romans developed the use of concrete. It could be poured into
any shape for arches, vaults, or domes. Concrete enabled architects to build structures of
immense size. One such gigantic construction was the Temple of Fortune at Praeneste,
built by the ruler Sulla about 80 B.C. The architect used concrete to support terraces and to
build what was in effect a skyscraper. To build their open-air theaters, the Greeks had
scooped out the sides of hills, using the hills to support the sloping tiers of seats. But the
Roman engineers used concrete to support the three gigantic tiers of the Colosseum, their
main stadium for public entertainment. The tiers held seats for more than 45,000 spectators.
Sculpture

The Romans used a great deal of sculpted decoration to embellish their architecture.
Columns were often placed on the walls of buildings as part of the decoration. (They
actually supported no weight themselves.) Many of these decorations were copied from
Greek styles. In fact, many Greek forms were simply placed on the facades of Roman
buildings without any practical reason for being there.
In portraying their gods, the Greeks had been influenced by their ideas of form and beauty.
Roman sculptors were greatly influenced by the Greeks. But the Romans showed their skill
and originality in their portraits. They portrayed their emperors, generals, and senators with
a degree of realism unknown to the Greeks. Thinning hair, double chins, crooked noses--all
the physical traits that make one person look different from another--can be found in Roman
portraiture.
Painting
In A.D. 79, an eruption of the volcano Vesuvius destroyed the city of Pompeii, covering it
with layers of lava that hardened into rock. The wall paintings preserved in this rock tell us
nearly everything we know about Roman painting.
Painting was usually done as a form of decoration. In Pompeii, for example, paintings were
executed on the inside walls of the houses in fresco (painting on wet plaster). Often these
murals were used to make the room seem larger, by giving the illusion of depth, or to create
a pastoral landscape where there was no window or view.
Columns and other forms of architecture were often painted into the compositions or used
to frame the murals and add to the feeling of depth. A system of perspective was known and
used by the Romans. Red, black, and cream-white were among the most popular colors.
Roman painting achieved a high degree of naturalism through the artists' understanding of
perspective and use of light and shade. The Romans painted many charming scenes from
nature and portraits of children and beautiful young men and women. Religion, too, inspired
their art.

3.Explain the development of Art,Culture and

civilization at the prehistoric period.
In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures beginning
somewhere in very late geological history, and generally continuing until that culture either develops
writing or other methods of record-keeping, or makes significant contact with another culture that has, and
that makes some record of major historical events. At this point ancient art begins, for the older literate
cultures. The end-date for what is covered by the term thus varies greatly between different parts of the
world.
The very earliest human artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose are the
subject of some debate; it is clear that such workmanship existed by 40,000 years ago in the Upper
Paleolithic era. From the Upper Palaeolithic through the Mesolithic, cave paintings and portable art such
as figurines and beadspredominated, with decorative figured workings also seen on some utilitarian
objects. In the Neolithic evidence of early pottery appeared, as did sculpture and the construction
of megaliths. Early rock art also first appeared in the Neolithic. The advent of metalworking in the Bronze
Age brought additional media available for use in making art, an increase in stylistic diversity, and the
creation of objects that did not have any obvious function other than art. It also saw the development in
some areas of artisans, a class of people specializing in the production of art, as well as early writing
systems. By the Iron Age, civilizations with writing had arisen from Ancient Egypt to Ancient China.
Many indigenous peoples from around the world continued to produce artistics works distinctive to their
geographic area and culture, until exploration and commerce brought record-keeping methods to them.
Some cultures, notably the Maya civilization, independently developed writing during the time they
flourished, which was then later lost. These cultures may be classified as prehistoric, especially if their
writing systems have not been deciphered
The Inca laid the city of Cusco in the shape of apuma, with the head of the puma at Sacsayhuaman, a
shape that is still discernible in aerial photographs of the city today.

4.Write short notes on the following.

A.Culture and Civilization

Civilization generally refers to state polities which combine these basic institutions,
having one or more of each: a ceremonial centre (a formal gathering place for social
and cultural activities), a system of writing, and a city. The term is used to contrast with
other types of communities includinghunter-gatherers, nomadic
pastoralists and tribal villages. Civilizations have more densely populated settlements
divided into hierarchical social classes with a ruling elite and subordinate urban and
rural populations, which, by the division of labour, engage in intensive agriculture,
mining, small-scale manufacture and trade. Civilization concentrates power, extending
human control over both nature, and over other human beings.
The emergence of civilization is generally associated with the final stages of
the Neolithic Revolution, a slow cumulative process occurring independently over many
locations between 10,000 and 3,000 BCE, culminating in the relatively rapid process
of state formation, a political development associated with the appearance of a
governing elite. This neolithic technology and lifestyle was established first in the Middle
East (for example atGbekliTepe, from about 9,130 BCE), and Yangtze and later in
the Yellow river basin in China (for example thePengtoushan culture from 7,500 BCE),
and later spread. But similar "revolutions" also began independently from 9,000 years
ago in such places as the Norte Chico civilization in Peruand Mesoamerica at
the Balsas River. These were among the six civilizations worldwide that arose
independently.[3] This revolution consisted in the development of the domestication of
plants and animals and the development of new sedentary lifestyles which
allowed economies of scale and productive surpluses.
Towards the end of the Neolithic period, various Bronze Age civilizations began to rise in
various "cradles" from around 3300 BCE. Civilizations, as defined above, also
developed in Pre-Columbian Americas and much later in Africa. The Bronze Age
collapse was followed by the Iron Age around 1200 BCE, during which a number of new
civilizations emerged, culminating in the Axial Age transition to Classical civilization. A
major technological and cultural transition to modernity began approximately 1500 CE in
western Europe, and from this beginning new approaches to science and law spread
rapidly around the world

B.The Renaissance art and

architecture
Renaissance Art and Architecture, painting,
sculpture, architecture, and allied arts produced in
Europe in the historical period called the Renaissance.
Broadly considered, the period covers the 200 years
between 1400 and 1600, although specialists disagree
on exact dates. The word renaissance literally means
"rebirth" and is the French translation of the
Italianrinascita. The two principal components of
Renaissance style are the following: a revival of the
classical forms originally developed by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and an
intensified concern with secular lifeinterest in humanism and assertion of the
importance of the individual. The Renaissance period in art history corresponds to the
beginning of the great Western age of discovery and exploration, when a general desire
developed to examine all aspects of nature and the world.
During the Renaissance, artists were no longer regarded as mere artisans, as they had
been in the medieval past, but for the first time emerged as independent personalities,
comparable to poets and writers. They sought new solutions to formal and visual
problems, and many of them were also devoted to scientific experimentation. In this
context, mathematical or linear perspective was developed, a system in which all objects

in a painting or in low-relief sculpture are related both proportionally and rationally. As

a result, the painted surface was regarded as a window on the natural world, and it
became the task of painters to portray this world in their art. Consequently, painters
began to devote themselves more rigorously to the rendition of landscapethe careful
depiction of trees, flowers, plants, distant mountains, and cloud-filled skies. Artists
studied the effect of light out-of-doors and how the eye perceives all the diverse
elements in nature. They developed aerial perspective, in which objects become
increasingly less distinct and less sharply colored as they recede from the eye of the
viewer. Northern painters, especially those from Flanders and the Netherlands, were as
advanced as the Italians in landscape painting and contributed to the innovations of
their southern contemporaries by introducing oil paint as a new medium.
Renaissance painters achieved the greatest latitude with the history, or narrative,
picture, in which figures located within a landscape or an architectural environment act
out a specific story, taken either from classical mythology or Judeo-Christian tradition.
Within such a context, the painter was able to show men, women, and children in a full
range of postures and poses, as well as the subjects' diverse emotional reactions and
states.
Painters, sculptors, and architects exhibited a similar sense of adventure and the desire
for greater knowledge and new solutions; Leonardo da Vinci, like Christopher
Columbus, discovered whole new worlds

3.Ancient Greek art and architecture

Architecture (building executed to an aesthetically considered design) was extinct in Greece from the end
of the Mycenaean period (about 1200 BC) until the 7th century BC, when urban life and prosperity
recovered to a point where public building could be undertaken. They had a strong bias towards temples,
the only buildings which survive in any number.
The standard format of Greek public buildings is well known from surviving examples such as
the Parthenon. The building was usually either a cube or a rectangle made from limestone, of which
Greece has an abundance, and which was cut into large blocks and dressed. Marble was an expensive
building material in Greece: high quality marble came only from Mt Pentelus in Attica and from a few
islands such as Paros, and its transportation in large blocks was difficult. It was used mainly for sculptural
decoration, not structurally, except in the very grandest buildings of the Classical period such as
the Parthenon.
There were two main styles (or "orders") of Greek architecture, the Doric and the Ionic. These names
were used by the Greeks themselves, and reflected their belief that the styles descended from the Dorian
and Ionian Greeks of the Dark Ages, but this is unlikely to be true. The Doric style was used in mainland
Greece and spread from there to the Greek colonies in Italy. The Ionic style was used in the cities of Ionia
(now the west coast of Turkey) and some of the Aegean islands. The Doric style was more formal and
austere, the Ionic more relaxed and decorative. The more ornate Corinthian style was a later
development of the Ionic. These styles are best known through the three orders of column capitals, but

there are differences in most points of design and decoration between the orders. See the separate article
on Classical orders.
Most of the best known surviving Greek buildings, such as the Parthenon and the Temple of
Hephaestus in Athens, are Doric. The Erechtheum, next to the Parthenon, however, is Ionic. The Ionic
order became dominant in the Hellenistic period, since its more decorative style suited the aesthetic of the
period better than the more restrained Doric. Some of the best surviving Hellenistic buildings, such as
the Library of Celsus, can be seen in Turkey, at cities such as Ephesus and Pergamum. But in the
greatest of Hellenistic cities, Alexandria in Egypt, almost nothing survives.

4.Byzanite art
Byzantine art, architecture, paintings, and other visual arts produced in the Middle
Ages in the Byzantine Empire (centred at Constantinople) and in various areas that
came under its influence. The pictorial and architectural styles that characterized
Byzantine art, first codified in the 6th century, persisted with remarkable homogeneity
within the empire until its final dissolution with the capture of Constantinople by the
Turks in 1453.
Byzantine art is almost entirely concerned with religious expression and, more
specifically, with the impersonal translation of carefully controlled church theology into
artistic terms. Its forms ofarchitecture and painting grew out of these concerns and
remained uniform and anonymous, perfected within a rigid tradition rather than varied
according to personal whim; the result was a sophistication of style and a spirituality of
expression rarely paralleled in Western art.
The earliest Byzantine architecture, though determined by the
longitudinal basilica church plan developed in Italy, favoured the extensive use of large
domes and vaults. Circular domes, however, were not structurally or visually suited to a
longitudinal arrangement of the walls that supported them; thus, by the 10th century, a
radial plan, consisting of four equal vaulted arms proceeding from a dome over their
crossing, had been adopted in most areas. This central, radial plan was well suited to

the hierarchical view of the universe emphasized by the Eastern church. This view was
made explicit in the iconographic scheme of church decoration, set forth in the frescoes,
or more often,mosaics, that covered the interiors of domes, walls, and vaults of
churches in a complete fusion of architectural and pictorial expression. In the top of the
central dome was the severe figure of the Pantocrator (the all-ruling Father). Below him,
usually around the base of the dome, were angels and archangels and, on the walls,
figures of the saints. The Virgin Mary was often pictured high in a half-dome covering
one of the four radial arms. The lowest realm was that of the congregation. The whole
church thus formed a microcosm of the universe. The iconographic scheme also
reflected liturgy; narrative scenes from the lives of Christ and the Virgin, instead of being
placed in chronological order along the walls, as in Western churches, were chosen for
their significance as feast days and ranged around the church according to their
theological significance.
The style in which these mosaics and frescoes were executed reflected their function as
static, symbolic images of the divine and the Absolute. The mature Byzantine style,
evolved through the stylization and standardization of late classical forms of Early
Christian art, was based on the dynamic of lines and flat areas of colour rather than
form. Individual features were suppressed in favour of a standard facial type, figures
were flattened, and draperies were reduced to patterns of swirling lines. The total effect
was one of disembodiment, the three-dimensional representation of an individual
human figure replaced by a spiritual presence the force of which depended upon vigour
of line and brilliance of colour. The Byzantine image was at once more remote and more
immediate than the naturalistic classical one. The effect of immediacy was increased by
the severely frontal pose and the Byzantine facial type, with its huge eyes and
penetrating gaze, and by the characteristic use of a gold background which, in pictures
of isolated figures, made the image appear to be suspended somewhere between the
wall and the viewer.

5.Effect of industrial revolution

In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle
class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry.
Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills
and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of
labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial
workers in the United States still worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry),
yet earned from 20 to 40 percent less than the minimum deemed necessary for a
decent life. However, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial
Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruelchild

labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the
Industrial Revolution