INTRODUCTION
Cleanroom contamination can arise from a number of sources. These may vary depending upon the
type of cleanroom, its geographic location, the types of products processed, and so on. Nevertheless,
these sources can generally be divided into the following groups 1:
People
Water
Surfaces
HUMAN SKIN
Before proceeding to look at gowning, it is worthwhile to consider the human skin ecosystem. The
human body is an intricate system that hosts trillions of microbial cells across the epithelial surface
and within the mouth and gut. These microorganisms play a role in human physiology and organ
function including digestion and immunity. The microorganisms also affect the outside
environment as they are shed from the skin or deposited through different orifices. This latter issue
has important implications for cleanrooms. The outer layer of human skin can host up to one
million microorganisms per square centimeter4. The population, as well as the diversity, varies
according to anatomical locale.
NUMBER OF MICROORGANISMS/cm2
Scalp
1 million
10 million/gram
Back
100
Groin
1 20 million
Forehead
100 1000
Hand
10,000 100,000
Armpit
1 10 million
Feet
1 million
Research suggests that a typical person sheds 1,000,000,000 skin cells per day of a size 33 m x 44
m x 4 m -- equivalent to a rate of 30,000 to 40,000 dead skin cells shed from the surface of the
skin every minute. Of these, Whyte indicates that approximately 10% of particles carry
microorganisms5. There are, on average, four microorganisms per skin cell. A term commonly used
to describe skin flakes with adhered microorganisms is microbial carrying particles.
The significance of this is that people are not only a source of contamination, but also are an agent
for transferring contamination possibly to locations that could pose a product risk. Microorganisms
are spread from sneezing, coughing, and touching. While microorganisms suspended in the air are
less of a concern, should such organisms gravitate towards a product or critical location, they may
present a significant risk.
Human Microbiome Project
Our understanding of the risk the people pose to cleanrooms has been advanced by the findings
from the Human Microbiome Project. The Human Microbiome Project (HMP) is a United States
National Institutes of Health initiative. The project goal is to identify and characterize the
microorganisms found in association with both healthy and diseased humans (the human
microbiome). The human microbiome describes the aggregate of microorganisms and their genetic
interactions that reside on the surface and in deep layers of skin, in the saliva and oral mucosa, in
the conjunctiva, and in the gastrointestinal tract.
Some of the most illuminating HMP research has been with the human skin. The skin is a complex
ecosystem, supporting a range of microbial communities that live in distinct niches. These niches
are affected by available nutrients as well as by several non-nutritional factors such as pH, humidity,
and temperature. With the skin, however, as epithelial cells are continually being shed, many
microbial communities on the external surface are rarely stable6.
The outcomes of the HMP research have shown that there is a high population on, and a
considerable diversity of microbial species across, the outer layer of the skin. There are
approximately 1000 species of bacteria from 19 phyla on human skin. Of these, most bacteria can be
categorized into four phyla:
Proteobacteria (16.5%). This is a major phylum of bacteria that includes a wide variety of
pathogens such asEscherichia, Salmonella, Vibrio, Helicobacter, and many other notable genera.
Bacteroidetes (6.3%). The phylum Bacteroidetes is composed of three large classes of Gramnegative, nonspore-forming, anaerobic, and rod-shaped bacteria7.
Reasons for the topographical variations relate to the physicochemical properties of the skin. This is
especially so for temperature, pH, amounts of oil, and moisture8. From this, there are three main
ecological areas of the skin: sebaceous, moist, and dry. Examples of microbial divergence include
Propionibacteria and Staphylococci species dominating the sebaceous areas (with a high oil
content). Dry, calloused areas (arms and legs), Gram-positive cocci (primarily the Micrococcaceae)
are found on the arms and legs and Gram-positive rods are found in high numbers on the torso.
Staphylococci and Corynebacteria are found together with some Gram-negative bacteria in moist
areas9. These types of microorganisms generally reflect the types recovered from cleanrooms 10.
The reason that Gram-positive bacteria predominate across the skin is because the skin is generally
a dry environment, and any fluids present on the surface generally have a high osmotic pressure 11.
Thus Gram-positive bacteria (especially the Staphylococci and Micrococci) are better adapted for
such environments, not least to being resistant to desiccation. Where other species occur this is due
to variations in temperature and with areas of higher sweat production12. For example, this can lead
to higher levels of fungi on the feet13. In relation to pharmaceutical manufacturing, the presence of
any such organisms remains problematic.
A further observation is that the ratio of the microorganisms recovered from the skin is relatively
evenly divided between the aerobic and the anaerobic. The aerobic microorganisms tend to live on
the outermost layers of the skin and the anaerobic microorganisms live in the deeper layers of the
skin and hair follicles14.
The information from the human microbiome project about the rich depth of variety of
microorganisms on the skin introduces several implications for cleanroom environmental
monitoring. The most important question of whether gowning practices are adequate to exclude all
microorganisms from the richest areas of the skin microbiome. This is a pertinent point given that
most bacteria free-floating in cleanroom air current are not free-living but are instead the result of
direct particle shedding of desquamated skin cells and subsequent re-suspension of skin detritus in
the air stream.
The answer to this question should lead to a consideration of:
1.
2.
The importance of the outer gown covering all parts of the body, including the forehead.
3.
4.
The level of training required for operators in relation to gowning and the way that gowning
qualification as conducted.
5.
How long a cleanroom suit should be worn for in relation to material integrity against
operator perspiration.
6.
The environment in which gowns are donned, where higher air-change rates might prove
effective.
7.
How often gowns should be recycled which involves washing and irradiation. At some point
the material fibers will weaken, thereby reducing the bacteria filter efficiency of the gown. The
wearer of the gown should know what types of testing is conducted on recycled gowns and what the
procedures are for rejecting gowns where a loss of integrity is detected.
Cleanroom microbiologists may wish to consider how concerned they are with each of the items
listed in excluding microorganisms found on all regions of the skin. There must be good
understanding of the environmental monitoring methods used to assess cleanrooms. These may not
show how good or bad gown changing and gown wearing is. These concerns are best addressed
through good gowning practices.
We put localized protection around the product to minimize the amount of contact with the
people.
The localized protection issue is achieved through local air protection, such as unidirectional airflow
cabinets and isolators. With clothing, personnel working in cleanrooms are required to wear special
clothing designed for the clean environments. Such clothing is necessary, as indicated above,
because the human body creates its own micro-environment of potentially damaging particulate
contamination.
To be effective, cleanroom clothing must:
Be cost-effective.
Fabric Categories
There are three broad categories of fabric used in the construction of cleanroom garments:
Woven fabrics. Woven or re-usable fabrics are the most commonly used fabrics in
cleanroom environments. Such garments are woven on sophisticated looms from yarns of
continuous filaments of polyester. The thickness of the yarn and filaments is important -- the finer
the yarn, the tighter the weave can be made, and the better the filtration. The pattern and tightness
of the weave is important to reduce the pore size to a minimum. The use of continuous filament
polyester means that there are few loose ends from which particles may be shed.
Laminated or membrane fabrics. Laminated fabrics are favored for some high-grade
microelectronic environments. These types of garments are not commonly used in the
pharmaceutical sector.
Disposable or limited life materials. The most common of these non-woven fabrics
are from spun bonded olefin and polypropylene. Comprising a densely interlinked matt of fibers,
these fabrics can provide good results for a limited period. Garments from such materials need to be
processed and decontaminated before use in the cleanroom. Disposable or limited use garments are
mainly used in those environments where protection of the wearer against potentially hazardous
products is required.
Garment Considerations
Garments are designed to provide protection for the head, body, hands and feet. In establishing a
system for garment selection, it is important to consider the broader aspects of cleanroom use:
suitability of fabric, garment style, layers, the nature of the tasks involved, costs, regulatory
requirements, and any specific customer requirements. The classification of the cleanroom will
inevitably be the major factor in determining the degree of personnel protection required and the
fundamental choice of garments.
One important issue with gowns is the maximum length of time that a gown can be worn. As people
perspire, the integrity of the gown will weaken. Complicating factors are the temperature and
humidity of the cleanroom and the variations between people. The length of time will also depend
upon the grade of the cleanroom. In aseptic areas, such as ISO 14644 class 7 / EU GMP Grade B
areas, gowns are typically worn only for the length of the shift (normally four hour periods to enable
operators to take breaks). In lower grade cleanrooms, a gown might be worn for several sessions
during the course of the working day.
Other factors affecting the lifespan of the gowns that are subject to recycling are repairs and the
number of permitted washing cycles. With repairs, it is prudent to have a repair policy. This will
vary across facilities, and again, it will be affected by the cleanroom class. With aseptic areas, if a
gown becomes torn it is normally discarded. In other grades of cleanroom, a gown can be repaired
depending upon the size of the hole and the impact on the material. Some organizations set a
maximum size for any hole or tear and for the number of times a gown can be repaired.
Gowns that are recycled are subject to laundering. Gowns are washed by special washing machines
with suitable detergents, dried, folded, and then wrapped in cleanroom packaging. For gowns that
are to be used in aseptic areas, such gowns are irradiated. A policy should be in place outlining how
often a gown can be processed -- typical times range between 20 and 40 times. To make the tracking
task easier, many gowns sterilized by irradiation or gassing are fitted with barcodes and scanned. It
is further important to establish the extent that the sterilization process affects the integrity of the
gown material.
In order to assess the contamination risks from re-laundering, gowns are subject to particle
counting. There are different ways to do this, although the most common means is the Helmke
Drum particle emission test. With this, the test method simulates particle shedding of clothing
under movement. The garment under test is tumbled in a rotating drum (approximately 10
revolutions per minute) to release particles from the surface of the cleanroom garment in a
controlled manner. An automatic particle counter is used to sample the air within the drum to
determine the average particle concentration of the air during the initial ten minutes of the test. The
common standard is the IEST "Recommended Practice RP-CC003.3: Garment System
Considerations for Cleanrooms and Other Controlled Environments".
An alternative measure is the Body Box test. This method simulates particle filtration and release
under real wear conditions. As a consequence it measures the contamination of the cleanroom by
the clothing/wearer. For this, particle counters determine the quantity of particles generated by the
wearer/garment that are emitted into the chamber.
CHANGE PROCEDURE
Cosmetics, such as powder, rouge, eye liner, mascara, and lipstick must be banned in cleanroom
environments. Jewelry, such as rings, watches, necklaces, bracelets, earrings and other items,
together with all forms of visible piercing, are commonly not allowed in cleanrooms.
The best method of changing into cleanroom garments is one that minimizes contamination getting
onto the outside of the garments. Change areas can vary in design, but it is common to find them
divided into three zones:
1.
Pre-change zone. Outside of changing rooms 'tacky mats' or polymeric flooring can be
positioned to help reduce the level of particles carried on footwear 16.
2.
Changing zone. The changing room design contributes to the assurance of appropriate
personnel access and microbial contamination control. The changing room should be provided with
filtered air. Intermediate (bag) filters will typically be suitable for this purpose, though High
Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filtration may be used. The air pressure should be negative with
regards to the manufacturing area corridor, but positive relative to external adjacent areas.
3.
Cleanroom entrance zone. This must be of the same grade or class as the main
cleanroom into which the area leads.
Ideally there should be separate routes through airlocks for material required in cleanrooms. Taking
items through personnel change areas should be discouraged.
TRAINING
HAND SANITIZATION
Good personal hygiene is a requirement of all pharmaceutical cleanroom activities. However,
studies show poor compliance is common in relation to basic hand washing technique. Hand
hygiene and glove hygiene are important given the high numbers of microorganisms found on the
human body including the hands and the risks posed by hands as a means of contamination
transfer. Microorganisms associated with hands are found mainly on the surface of the skin and
under the superficial cells of the stratum corneum. The dominant species is Staphylococcus
epidermidisthat is found on almost every hand, together with other species of Staphylococcus and
species of the generaMicrococcus17.
Hands must be washed with soap and water prior to entry to the cleanroom. Hand washing facilities
should not be located in an actual cleanroom, but rather in an area leading to the cleanroom
changing room. As an alternative, a hygienic handrub can be used.
Where gloves are required these should be put on using a method designed to prevent the ungloved
hand from touching the clean or sterile outer part of the glove. Once in the cleanroom, gloved hands
should be subject to periodic hand sanitization18.
When decontaminating hands with an alcohol-based antiseptic hand rub, apply product to palm of
one hand and rub hands together, covering all surfaces of hands, fingers and wrists, until hands are
dry (alcohol-based hand rubs are not to be used with water). The process typically takes between
thirty seconds and one minute. Follow the manufacturers recommendations regarding the volume
of product to use.
The technique for applying alcohol to gloved hands is similar to applying a handrub to skin. It is
important to ensure that all surfaces are covered. With glove sanitization, there are two alcohols of
choice: ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and isopropyl alcohol (IPA). Other alcohols, such as methyl alcohol
(methanol) are unsuitable19. Of the two alcohol forms, IPA is slightly more bactericidal than ethanol,
although ethanol has better viricidal properties20. Another factor is application to the skin, and here
IPA can be quite harsh. Thus, ethanol is more often applied to bare skin (often in a denatured form)
whereas IPA is more often applied to gloves.
These sanitizers have bactericidal action against vegetative cells but not spores. The concentration
of alcohol to water varies, although the optimal range is 60 to 90% (volume/volume). Below 60%,
bactericidal action drops, and above 90% there is insufficient water for the bacterial cell to absorb
water. The alcohol does not enter the cell and is unable to denature the bacterial proteins 21. Most
preparatory concentrations are 70%.
While most bacteria are killed after ten seconds of contact with alcohol 22, contact times in practice
are longer due to the variability of hand rubbing. Typical contact times are thirty seconds.
It is important that the selection of a hand sanitizer is qualified. There are different approaches that
can be taken for qualification. Most of these require individuals to wear gloves and to place their
hands into broth containing a high concentration of a non-pathogenic microorganism. Disinfectant
is then applied, and the bacterial reduction is assessed through placing the treated hands into broth
and performing dilutions.
ON-GOING ASSESSMENT
In higher-grade cleanrooms such as those used for aseptic processing, it is common practice to
assess the risk of personnel to the process by taking suit contact plates of the gown as worn by the
person as they leave the aseptic area. The gown must be discarded after the plates have been taken
due to the potential effect on the gown integrity when an agar plate contacts the gown.
It is good practice to begin suit sampling with a higher number of samples. These can then be
reduced over time. Some facilities perform more samples from the gown during gowning test
qualifications compared with routine sampling. Sites considered for selection include the top of the
head, the face mask, both arms, middle torso, and both legs. In terms of limits, for EU GMP Grade
B/ISO class 7 areas, the aim is often to adopt the same limits as per the limits applied to finger
plates. The action level for gowns is ordinarily 5 CU/25cm2.
Experience has shown that higher counts are obtained from the top of the head, perhaps because
this is the warmest region of the body. Care must be undertaken when sampling as so not to break
the integrity of the gown.
In addition to gowning control, a procedure should be in place for the notification of health
conditions by staff. Staff who are ill (coughs, colds, and so on) should not enter cleanrooms. This is
because the illness may affect product quality. It is important to control the potential risks from
personnel carrying
Infectious disease.
CONCLUSION
This paper has considered the personnel factor and the relationship between people and
cleanrooms. It addressed why people are a risk in relation to the skin microbiome, and how good
gowning practices can help to minimize that risk. The paper has also considered other factors that
can affect contamination risks from people, including the importance of good behaviors and the
necessity of hand sanitization. Capturing these various issues through procedures and imparting the
key concepts through training are a necessary part of cleanroom management.
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