CHEMISTRY TEST REVIEW

Unit 1 Test Review (Post-Quiz)

Table of Contents
Ionic Bonding and Structure .................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Worked example ............................................................................................................................. 2
Ionic compounds form when oppositely charged ions attract ............................................................. 2
Worked Example ............................................................................................................................. 3
Ionic compounds have lattice structure ............................................................................................... 3
The physical properties of ionic compounds reflect their lattice structure ........................................... 3
Melting points and boiling points .................................................................................................... 3
Solubility ............................................................................................................................................. 3
Electrical Conductivity..................................................................................................................... 4
Brittleness ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Different ionic compounds have a different extent of ionic character ................................................. 4
Covalent Bonding ................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 4
A covalent bond forms by atoms sharing electrons ............................................................................. 4
Atoms can share more than one pair of electrons to form multiple bonds........................................... 4
Short bonds are strong bonds ............................................................................................................. 4
Covalent Structures ................................................................................................................................ 5
Understandings ............................................................................................................................... 5
Lewis diagrams are used to show the arrangement of electrons in covalent molecules ...................... 5
The octet rule is not always followed/Other Weirdness ....................................................................... 5
VSEPR Theory: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion ......................................................................... 5
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 5
Electron Species Configurations ...................................................................................................... 6
Electron Configuration ............................................................................................................................ 7
Understandings................................................................................................................................... 7
The electromagnetic spectrum ........................................................................................................... 7
Atomic absorption and emission line spectra ...................................................................................... 7
Evidence for the Bohr Model ............................................................................................................... 7
Glossary .................................................................................................................................................. 9

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Ionic Bonding and Structure

Introduction
All atoms are neutral, even though they contain charged particles known as protons an electrons.
The number of protons I equal to number of electrons, so their charges cancel each other out.
Electrons are positioned outside the nucleus are less tighter held, and outer electrons (valence
electrons) can be transferred when atoms react together.

Commented [LL1]: An ion is a charged particle. Ions form

from atoms or form groups of atoms by loss or gain of one
or more electrons.

The atoms is no longer neutral, but has an electric charge (ion)

Elements that have a small number of electrons (Group 1-3) will lose electrons to form
cations (+). This is metallic behaviour, as they are metals.
Elements that have higher number of electrons in their outer shells (Group 15-17) will
gain electrons and form negative ions called anions. This is non-metallic behaviour,
and these elements are the non-metals.

Worked example

Commented [LL2]: Metals form cations by losing valence

electrons

Commented [LL3]: Non-metals form anions by gaining

electrons

Deduce the charge on the ions formed from these elements:

(i)
lithium
(ii)
sulfur
(iii)
argon
Solution
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Li+
S2Noble Gas: does not form ion

Transition Metals have an electron configuration that allows them to lose different numbers of
electrons from their d sub-shell and so form stable ions with different charges.
i.e. copper can exist as Cu2+ and Cu+; these can be distinguished by colour
Polyatomic ions are made up of more than one atom which together have experienced a loss or gain of
electrons and carry a charge.

Ionic compounds form when oppositely charged ions attract

Ionization: the formation of ions where electrons are transferred between atoms occurs when an atom that
loses electrons passes them directly to an atom that gains them.
i.e. Na + Cl -> [Na]+ + [Cl]Note: Na and Cl have the electron configuration of a noble gas after ionization
Ionic bonds are formed between oppositely charge ions resulting from this electron transfer held
together by electrostatic forces; ionic compounds.
Forming these ionic compounds involves balancing the total number of positive and negative
charges

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Commented [LL4]: Ionic bond is due to electrostatic

attraction between oppositely charged ions

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Worked Example
Write the formula for the compound that forms between aluminium and oxygen
1. Check the Periodic Table for the ions that each element will form.
a. Aluminum in Group 13 will form Al3+; oxygen in Group 16 will form O22. Write the number of the charge above the ion:
3
2
Al
O
3. Cross-multiply these numbers:
Al2O3
4. Write the final formula using subscripts to show the number of ions: Al2O3

Ionic compounds have lattice structure

Force of electrostatic attraction between ions in a compound cause the ions to surround themselves
with ions of opposite charge. The ionic compound forms a 3D crystalline structure (ionic lattice).
Can contain very large number of ions and can grow indefinitely. The formulas are simply an
expression of the ratio of ions present.
Coordination number expresses the number of ions that surround a given ion in the
lattice.
Simplest ratio is the formula unit (empirical formula).
Lattice energy is the measure of the strength of attraction between the ions within the
lattice.

The physical properties of ionic compounds reflect their lattice structure

Melting points and boiling points
High melting and boiling points (forces of electrostatic attraction between ions in the lattice are strong
and require large amounts of heat energy to break)
Melting and boiling points are generally higher when charge is greater (increased attraction between
ions.
Volatility the tendency of a substance to vaporize. Ionic compounds have a low volatility or being
non-volatile.

Commented [LL5]: Ionic compounds have low volatility

Solubility

Commented [LL6]: Ionic compounds are generally soluble

in ionic or polar solvents but not soluble in non-polar
solvents.

Refers to the ease with which a solid (solute) becomes dispersed through a liquid (solvent) to form a
solution.
Ions separate from the lattice in the solvent (i.e. NaCl in H20); they are said to be hydrated if
the solvent is water, and solvated if its another liquid
+H2O
NaCl(s) -> NaCl(aq)
NaCl(s)

->

+H2O
Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

This suggest solubility trends are based on the similar chemical nature of the solute and solvent.
Like dissolves like -> over simplification and generalized, lots of important exceptions

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Electrical Conductivity
Ionic bonds are unable to conduct electricity as ions are firmly held in the lattice and cannot move
When the ionic compound is either present in the liquid state or dissolved in water the ions will
be able to move

Brittleness
Ionic compounds are brittle (crystal tends to shatter)
Movement of the ions within the lattice places ions of same charge alongside each other, so
the repulsive forces cause it to split

Different ionic compounds have a different extent of ionic character

A binary compound contains only two elements; they must have very different tendencies to lose or
gain electrons.
Judge the tendency of two elements to form an ionic compound is by looking at
electronegativity values, Pauling scale of values.
Determining factor: electronegativity difference

EN = |EN1-EN2|
Covalent Bonding
Introduction
Covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the
positively charged nuclei
Bond length decreases and bon strength increases as the number of shared electrons increases
Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegative of the bonded atoms (shown by partial
charges, dipoles, or vectors)

A covalent bond forms by atoms sharing electrons

When atoms of two non-metals react together, each is seeking to gain electrons in order to achieve the
full octet; they must share an electron pair to achieve this.
The formation of the covalent bond stabilizes the atoms so energy is released as the bond forms.
The forces of attraction between the nuclei and the shared electrons are balanced by the forces of
repulsion between the two nuclei.

Atoms can share more than one pair of electrons to form multiple bonds
Sometimes not enough electrons to achieve octects on all the atoms; atoms have to share more than one
electron pair.
Double found: two electron pairs are shared between two nuclei (one sigma bond, one pi bond)
Triple bond: three electrons pairs are shared between two nuclei (one sigma bond, two pi bond)

Short bonds are strong bonds

Covalent bonds are characterized by bond length and bond strength

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This was created through the official mole

Commented [LL7]: A covalent bond is the electrostatic

attraction between a pair of electrons and positively
charged nuclei. A molecule is a group of atoms held
together by covalent bonds.

Commented [LL8]: Single bond double bound triple bond

-------- decreasing length, increasing strength --

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Bond length: a measure of the distance between the two bonded nuclei
Bond strength: described in terms of bond enthalpy measure of the energy required to break
the bond
Polar bonds result from unequal sharing of electrons
Not all electron sharing is equal; this is when the electron spends more time with one atom than another.
Dipole: a bond that has two separated opposite electric charges
+ -> partially positively charged
- -> partially negatively charged
Polar: used to describe bonds that are unsymmetrical with respect to electron distribution
Note: only bonds that are truly non-polar are bonds between the same atoms
such the bonds in F2, H2 and O2, because the different in electronegativity is zero;
they are pure covalent bonds.
Non-polar (0<x0.4)
Ionic x>1.7
Pure (0)

0.4

Polar (0.4<x1.7)

1.7

Covalent Structures
Understandings

Lewis diagrams are used to show the arrangement of electrons in covalent molecules
Lewis structure: simple notation of dots and crosses to represent the valence shell of all atoms in the
mole cure.

The octet rule is not always followed/Other Weirdness

Some molecules form despite the fact they dont have a full octet: BeCl2, BF3
Exceptions occur on the Z on the periodic table: P, S, Cl, Br, I, Xe, Be
Molecules with incomplete octets are said to be electron deficient and have a tendency to accept an
electron pair form a molecule with a lone pair, such as NH3 or H2O.
A coordinate bond is a covalent bond in which both the shared electrons are provided by one of the
atoms.

VSEPR Theory: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

Introduction
The shape of a molecule is determined by repulsion between electron domains.
-

The repulsion applies to electron domains, which can be single, double, or triple bonding
electron pairs, or nonbonding pairs of electrons
The total number of electron domains around the central atom determines the geometrical
arrangement of the electron domains
The shape of the molecule is determined by the angles between the bonded atoms.
Non-bonding pairs (lone pairs) have a higher concentration of charge than a slightly more
repulsion than bonding pairs. The repulsion decreases in the following order:
o Lone pair-lone pair>lone pair-bonding pair>bonding pair-bonding pair

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This was created through the official mole

Commented [LL9]: In a covalent bond, the greater the

difference in the electronegativity values of the atoms, the
more polar the bond.
Commented [LL10]: Ask Dr. Haynes of 0<x<0.4 is nonpolar or pure

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Electron Species Configurations

Species with two electrons domains will position them at 180 to each other (linear shape)
Species with three electron domains will position themselves at 120, giving a triangular planar shape.
However, if one of the electron domains is a lone pair, this will not be seen; it is a part of the
central atom. Bent or V-shaped atoms occur when lone pair of electrons distorts the shape
slightly (117)
Species with four electron domains will position themselves at 109.5, giving a tetrahedral shape.
Determine the shape of a molecule
1. Draw the Lewis structure
2. Count total # of electron domains
3. Determine the electron domain geometry
a. 2: linear
b. 3: triangular planar
c. 4: tetrahedral
4. Determine the molecular geometry from the number of bonding electron domains
5. Consider extra repulsion caused by lone pairs and adjust accordingly

Commented [LL11]: When there are 4 domains:

0 lone pairs -> Tetrahedral
1 lone pair -> Trigonal pyramid
2 lone pairs -> V-Shape

Electrons in multiple bonds can sometimes spread themselves between more than one bonding
positions
Some molecules have delocalized electrons, electrons that are not confined to one location, and show
a tendency to be shared between more than one bonding positions.
i.e.
Ozone (O3)

Fig. 1: Resonance hybrid

Fig. 2: Resonance structure

Since both structures are equally valid, the trust structure of ozone is a blend, or hybrid of the two
structures shown above, resonance structures. The true structure is an intermediate form, known as
resonance hybrid (see fig. 1)

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Commented [LL12]: Resonance occurs when more than

one valid Lewis structure can be drawn for a particular
molecule. The true structure is an average of these, known
as a resonance hybrid

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Electron Configuration
Understandings
Emission spectra are produced when photons are emitted from atoms as excited electrons return to a
lower energy level
The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in discrete
energy levels, which converge at higher energies.
Atoms of different elements give light of a distinctive colour when an electric discharge is passed
through a vapour of the element.

The electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic radiation is one of the ways that energy moves. In this form energy travels in waves at
the speed of light.
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed () but can be distinguished by their different
wavelength (); different colours of visible visible light have different wavelengths.
The number of waves which pass a particular point in 1s is called the frequency
The shorter the wavelength the higher the frequency
=
Continuous spectrum is produced when white light is passed through a prism; all wavelengths
(frequencies) within a particular region are seen.

Atomic absorption and emission line spectra

When electromagnetic radiation is passed through a collection of atoms some of the radiation is
absorbed and used to excite the atoms from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.
Absorption spectrum is created
When white light is passed through H2 , an absorption line spectrum is produces with some colours of
the continuous spectrum missing. If high voltage is applied to the gas, an emission line spectrum is
produced.

Evidence for the Bohr Model

Electron moves into an orbit or higher energy level further from the nucleus when an atom absorbs
energy. The excited state produced is unstable and the electron falls back to the lowest state or
ground state. The energy the electron give out is one packet of energy (quantum or photon) is
released for each electron transition. The energy of the photon is proportional to the frequency of
radiation.
=
=
=

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Commented [LL13]: The distance between two

successive crests (or troughs) is called the wavelength.
The frequency of the wave is the number of waves which
pass a point in one second.

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, the line spectra allows us to prove that atoms emit photons of certain energies which give lines of
certain frequencies, as the electron can only occupy certain orbits. It can only change its energy by
discrete amounts; the energy of the atom is quantized.
Lines at the tops of the energy levels converge because the energy levels inside the atoms are closer
together at higher energy. When = the electron is no longer in the atom and the atom has been
ionized. The energy needed to remove an electron from the ground state is called the ionization
energy.
UV Light: Lyman series (Jump from n = x to 1)
Visible spectrum: Balmer series (Jump from n = x to 2)

Excited States

Infrared: Paschen Series (Jump from n = x to 3)

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Glossary
Continuous spectrum

Double Bond

Frequency

Triple Bond

Wavelength

Bond strength

Ion

Bond length
Cations

Bond enthalpy

Anions

Coordinate Bond

Ionic Bonds

Electron Deficient

Ionic Compounds

Electron Domain

Ionic Lattice

Coordinate Bond

Lattice Energy
Formula unit
Coordination number
Volatility
Valence electron
Bond

Linear/Tetrahedral/Triangular Planar
Shape
Delocalized Electrons
Noble Gases
Transition Metals
Polyatomic Ions
Solubility

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This was created through the official mole