EEE 34 Student Laboratory Manual v2.0

EEE 34
Electrical
Measureme
nts
Laboratory
Student Laboratory
Manual
v2.0 December 2015
Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Institute
College of Engineering
University of the Philippines Diliman
Table of Contents
Table of Contents................................................................................ i
List of Figures
.........................................................................................................
iv
Introduction
.........................................................................................................
vi
Course Syllabus
........................................................................................................
vii
Class Policies
.........................................................................................................
ix
1 Safety Practices in the Laboratory
[1]
................................................ 1
1.1 Care in handling and use of a multimeter..................................................... 1

1.2 Laboratory Rules and Regulations................................................................ 2
2 Laboratory Equipment, Tools and Components.................................. 3
2.1 Laboratory Equipment.................................................................................. 3
2.1.1 Power Supply.......................................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Function/Signal Generator...................................................................... 8
2.1.3 Analog Oscilloscope
......................................................................................................................
10
2.1.4 Digital Oscilloscope
......................................................................................................................
12
2.1.5 Equipment Calibration
......................................................................................................................
13
2.2 Laboratory Components
..........................................................................................................................
14
2.2.1 Passive Components
......................................................................................................................
14
2.2.1.1 Resistors
...................................................................................................................
14
Resistor Value Reading
................................................................................................................
15
Potentiometer
................................................................................................................
16
2.2.1.2 Capacitors
...................................................................................................................
17
2.2.1.3 Inductors
...................................................................................................................
18
2.2.2 Active Components
......................................................................................................................
19
2.3 Laboratory Tools
..........................................................................................................................
20
2.3.1 Multimeter
......................................................................................................................
20
2.3.1.1 Analog Multimeter
...................................................................................................................
21
Using the Multimeter to Measure Voltage, Current and Resistance
................................................................................................................
22
Zero-ing the Meter Scale
................................................................................................................
24
Connectivity/Continuity Test
................................................................................................................
24
2.3.1.2 Digital Multimeter
25
2.3.2 DArsonval Galvanometer or 1mA Movement
......................................................................................................................
27
2.3.3 Protoboard/Breadboard
......................................................................................................................
28
2.3.3.1 Protoboard Wiring
...................................................................................................................
29
2.3.3.2 Debugging/Troubleshooting Circuits [11]
...................................................................................................................
30
ii
3 Electrical Measurements
........................................................................................................
32
3.1 Theory and Practice
..........................................................................................................................
33
3.2 Error and Linearity
..........................................................................................................................
34
3.2.1 Error
......................................................................................................................
34
3.2.2 Linearity
......................................................................................................................
34
3.3 Accuracy and Precision
..........................................................................................................................
36
3.4 Circuit-Level Analysis of the Multimeter
..........................................................................................................................
37
3.4.1 Practical Power Supply
......................................................................................................................
37
3.4.2 Characteristic of the 1mA movement Galvanometer Scale
......................................................................................................................
38
3.4.3 DC Ammeter
......................................................................................................................
39
3.4.4 DC Voltmeter
......................................................................................................................
41
3.4.5 Ohmmeter
......................................................................................................................
43
4 Experiments
........................................................................................................
45
Experiment 0: Basic Measurements
..........................................................................................................................
47
Experiment 1: Debugging Circuits
..........................................................................................................................
52
Experiment 2: DC Measurements (Current)
..........................................................................................................................
57
Experiment 3: DC Measurements (Voltage)
..........................................................................................................................
61
Experiment 4: Resistance Measurements
..........................................................................................................................
66
Experiment 5-a: Introduction to Oscilloscopes (Analog)
..........................................................................................................................
71
Experiment 5-d: Introduction to Oscilloscopes (Digital)
..........................................................................................................................
79
Experiment 6: AC Detection Diodes
..........................................................................................................................
87
Experiment 7: AC Analysis RLC Circuits
..........................................................................................................................
94
Experiment 8: Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
..........................................................................................................................
98
5 Documentation
......................................................................................................
101
5.1 Documentation Guidelines
........................................................................................................................
101
5.1.1 Technical Development
.....................................................................................................................
101
5.1.2 Paper Format and Appearance
.....................................................................................................................
101
5.2 Online Submission Guidelines
........................................................................................................................
102
6 Project
......................................................................................................
103
6.1 Project Guidelines
........................................................................................................................
103
6.1.1 Project Proposal
.....................................................................................................................
103
6.1.2 Project Testing and Construction
.....................................................................................................................
104
6.1.3 Project Documentation
.....................................................................................................................
104
6.1.4 Project Presentation
.....................................................................................................................
104
6.1.5 Criteria for Grading
.....................................................................................................................
105
6.2 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
........................................................................................................................
105
References
......................................................................................................
107
iii
Appendix A: Sample IEEE Paper for A4 Page Size
...........................................................................................................................
109
Appendix B: Some Notes from Transducer Datasheets
...........................................................................................................................
110
Appendix C: Some Notes from Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Datasheets
...........................................................................................................................
112
Appendix D: Available Components in Instruments Room*
...........................................................................................................................
113
iv
List of Figures
Figure 1. Connecting wires..................................................................................... 3
Figure 2. Alligator clips........................................................................................... 4
Figure 3. Controlled-voltage supply (left) and controlled-current supply (right)
modes.................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 4. Controlled-voltage supply mode with 8.8V used to power-up a simple
circuit..................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 5. Triple output power supply unit (PSU)..................................................... 6
Figure 6. Programmable DC Power Supply (Triple Output)..................................... 7
Figure 7. Sig-gen set at 1.0001kHz and 10Vpeak-to-peak (Vpp) level...................8
Figure 8. Sig-gen probe. The circuit-end are red and black alligator clips while the
sig-gen end is
a BNC connector.................................................................................................... 8
Figure 9. Analog oscilloscope self-calibration using built-in 2Vpp 1kHz squarewave signal.
.............................................................................................................................
10
Figure 10. Oscilloscope probes.
.............................................................................................................................
11
Figure 11. Digital Oscilloscope
.............................................................................................................................
12
Figure 12. Resistor types based on composition material and tolerance level. [5]
.............................................................................................................................
14
Figure 13. Resistor Color Code. [5]
.............................................................................................................................
15
Figure 14. Potentiometer: actual (left), electrical model (middle) and usual
electrical symbols
(right). [6]
.............................................................................................................................
16
Figure 15. Different types of capacitors, both non-polar and polar. [7]
.............................................................................................................................
17
Figure 16. . Ceramic capacitor value reading. [8]
.............................................................................................................................
18
Figure 17. Different types of inductors. [9]
.............................................................................................................................
18
Figure 18. Analog multimeters.
.............................................................................................................................
21
Figure 19. Analog multimeter selector knob. [2]
.............................................................................................................................
22
Figure 20. Analog multimeter calibration scale. [3]

.............................................................................................................................
23
Figure 21. Zero-ing the meter scale. [4]
.............................................................................................................................
24
Figure 22. Hand-held digital multimeters.
.............................................................................................................................
25
Figure 23. Bench digital multimeter.
.............................................................................................................................
26
Figure 24. 1mA movement.
.............................................................................................................................
27
Figure 25. Protoboard. [10]
.............................................................................................................................
28
Figure 26. Protoboard wiring of two complex circuits: messy wiring (left) and
clean wiring
(right). [10]
.............................................................................................................................
29
Figure 27. PHD Comics: Debugging. [12]
.............................................................................................................................
31
Figure 28. (a) Simple resistive circuit, (b) ideal voltmeter, and (c) practical
voltmeter
.............................................................................................................................
33
Figure 29. Input-output relationship showing linearity.
.............................................................................................................................
34
Figure 30. Difference between accuracy and precision. [13]
.............................................................................................................................
36
Figure 31. Practical voltage source (left) and practical current source (right). [14]
.............................................................................................................................
37
Figure 32. 1mA movement inside structure (left) and its electrical symbol (right).
[15]
.............................................................................................................................
38
Figure 33. Measuring current using the galvanometer as the ammeter.
.............................................................................................................................
39
Figure 34. Extending the range of the ammeter.
.............................................................................................................................
40
Figure 35. DC Voltmeter structure using 1mA movement.
.............................................................................................................................
41
Figure 36. Measuring voltage using the galvanometer with a series resistor as the
voltmeter. .. 41
Figure 37. Ohmmeter structure using 1mA movement.
.............................................................................................................................
43
Figure 38. Measuring the resistance of an unknown resistor using analog

ohmmeter.
.............................................................................................................................
44
Figure B. 1. Typical response curve temperature versus resistance of UEI447
NTC Thermistor.
110
111
Figure B. 3. Resistance as a function of illumination.
...........................................................................................................................
111
Figure B. 2. Basic Centigrade temperature sensor (+2
+ 150).
Figure C. 1. LM741 operational amplifier pin-outs.

...........................................................................................................................
112
Figure C. 2. LF353 operational amplifier pin-outs.
...........................................................................................................................
112
v
i
Introduction
Taking electrical measurements is an essential skill that every engineer
must learn and master. Without it, we will not know how to evaluate and improve
things. This is an essential part that somehow shapes the kind of technology we
have today further on what it would be like tomorrow. However, taking
electrical measurements is not a simple read-and-record task. This skill requires
that a student must be able to determine (and hence apply):
a. what kind of measurements or experiments are best suited for a
particular application;
b. which tool or set of tools are essential to accomplish such task;
c. how to analyze, verify, and interpret or make-sense of the acquired
data, and;
d. how to properly report data such that others can understand them
without vagueness, ambiguity and/or confusion.
EEE 34 (Electrical Measurements Laboratory) is the gateway of students in
familiarizing with the common equipment, components, and tools being used in EEE
instructional laboratories
while observing safety practices. The main goal of the course is to provide
students a further understanding of the theoretical concepts gained in EEE 31
(Introduction to Electrical and Electronics Engineering) and currently learning in
EEE 33 (Electric Circuit Theory) by implementing actual circuits and investigating
the practical issues in measurements through hands-on experiments.
This student laboratory manual aims to provide the students (as well as
laboratory instructors) a complete, uniform and coherent document in achieving
the course goals and objectives. This will also give laboratory instructors more
time to focus in teaching and guiding the students with the hands-on rather than
providing the offline knowledge. The delivery of the content, however, still
depends on the prerogative of the instructor. In summary, this manual aims to
present EEE 34 in an efficient and effective way.
My sincerest gratitude to Siegfred Balon, Adrian Salces, and previous &
current EEE 34 instructors whose work built the foundation of, and hence further
improved, this course; to Jaybie de Guzman for bringing up the concept of writing
this laboratory manual and in his contribution in providing some of the content.
Finally, I wish to thank my past EEE 34 students for inspiring me to write this
laboratory manual.
Engr. Patth Rick L. Ramirez

Institute
vi
i
Course Syllabus
EEE 34 Electrical Measurements Laboratory

I.
Credits
II.
Prerequisites / Co-requisites
III.
Schedule
1.0
unit laboratory
EEE 31 (prerequisite), EEE 33 (co-requisite)
1 meeting/week, 3 hours/meeting
IV.
Course Description
V.
Course Goals
VI.
Course Objectives
Laboratory procedures and practice, data collection and analysis,

laboratory documentation, standard electric instruments and circuits, basic
electric circuit behaviour, transducers.
a. To understand concepts and practical issues in electrical measurement

b. To gain knowledge of the operation and interaction of various electric
components and transducers in electrical circuits and measurement
systems.
c. To develop skills in proper laboratory procedures and practice, data
collection and analysis, and laboratory documentation
d. To familiarize the use of analog and digital electrical measurement
equipment such as oscilloscopes, multimeters and signal generators
a. Set-up and characterize simple electrical circuits and electrical

measurement systems.
b. Describe the behaviour of a circuit as electrical characteristics of an
electrical component or transducer are changed.
c. Demonstrate safe and proper laboratory skills and create properly
formatted and meaningful laboratory documentation
d. Incorporate the use of electrical measurement equipment in the
analysis and characterization of simple electrical circuits.
VII.
Course Schedule and Content
Session
#
2-3
Session objectives
Clarify class policies and note important ideas
about
the course; demonstrate proper use of
laboratory
facilities and equipment; Emphasize safety
practice in
the laboratory
Introduce passive components used in EEE
resistors,
capacitors and inductors. Perform basic
electrical
measurements
Perform different methods of making DC
voltage and
current measurement; identify when each
method is
Topic
Syllabus Discussion,
Laboratory equipment
procedures and practice,
Safety
Quiz
Electronic component value
reading, Basic Electrical
Measurements
DC Measurements
applicable; specify the degree of accuracy of

any
measurement made and identify the main
causes of
error.
Perform different methods of measuring
resistance;
identify when each method is applicable;
Specify the
degree of accuracy of any measurement made
and
identify the main causes of error.
Resistance Measurements
viii
5
6-7
8-9
10
11
12
13
Assess basic laboratory, instrumentation and

measurement skills; review and apply learned
concepts and skills from the first two
experiments.
Describe the operation of a triggered sweep
oscilloscope; make basic measurements using
an
oscilloscope; specify the degree of accuracy of
any
measurement made and identify the main
causes of
error.
Experimentally determine the voltage across a
conducting diode; explain concepts involved in
making
peak and RMS voltage measurements of AC
signals;
account errors introduced by non-ideal
characteristics
of the diode on the measurements made.
Review and apply learned concepts and skills
from the
experiments 3 and 4.
Perform measurements using the basic and
advanced
features of digital instrumentation and
measurement
equipment; enumerate the benefits and
drawbacks of
digital measurement equipment as compared
to analog
measurement equipment.
Determine the inductance or capacitance of a
device
using input-output time-domain waveforms;
specify
the degree of accuracy of identify the main
causes of
error.
Describe the operation and electrical
characteristics of
commonly-used transducers and sensors;
perform
measurements using transducers, sensors and
electrical measurement circuits; account errors
introduced by non-ideal characteristics of the
transducers and sensors on the measurements
made.
14-15
16
1st Practical Exam (For

topics
covered in meetings 1 to 4)
Oscilloscope Fundamentals
AC Measurements (Power,
RMS, Peak-to-peak Voltage,
Phasor, Power factor)
2nd Practical Exam (for

topics
covered in meetings 6-9)
Digital Instrumentation
(Signal
Generator, Digital
Multimeter)
Inductance and
Capacitance
Measurements
Transducers and sensors
Transducer Project
Project Presentation
VIII. References
Larry D. Jones & A. Foster Chin, Electronic Instruments and
Measurements, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1991.
Joseph
Carr,
Elements
of
Electronic
Instrumentation
and
Measurements, 3rd Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1996.
Albert D. Helfrick and William D. Cooper. Modern Electronic

Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques, 2nd Edition,
Prentice-Hall, 1990.
Alan S. Morris, Principles of Measurement and Instrumentation, 2nd
Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1993.
IX.
Requirements
Safety and Work Ethics
Laboratory Reports
Practical Exams
Project
X.
Grading System
[100,92]
(92,88]
(88,84]
(84,80]
(80,76]
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
10%
45%
30%
15%
(72,68]
(68,64]
(64,60]
(60,0]
2.50
2.75
3.00
5.00
No 4.00 nor
INC.
ix
Class Policies
Laboratory Instructor
Name:
Office Room:
Email Address:
Consultation Hours:
<name>
<faculty room>
<email address>
<TBA>
The following may change depending on the prerogative of respective

laboratory instructor:
a. For every laboratory task, a student must form/join a group (maximum of 3 depending
on available workstations). Groupings (either random or choose-your-own) may vary
from task to task. It is the responsibility of the student to acquaint with his/her groupmates at the start of every experiment. UP students are expected to be versatile and
thus can work with all kind of team-mates.
b. Pre-Laboratory (Pre-Lab) report must be submitted in class before any

corresponding experiment. Separate Pre-Lab sheets are available in this manual.
A student will NOT be allowed to do the experiment in failure to submit the PreLab report. Copied work is intellectual dishonesty and will never be accepted.
c. Each group* must submit a laboratory report (Post-Lab) that summarizes the
experiment and answers the guide questions in the experiment through the
results obtained. Further observation and in-depth analysis will earn additional
merit. The laboratory report must be submitted in-print (not necessarily
coloured) two weeks after the experiment (due 30 minutes from official start
of class). Late papers will automatically receive a zero grade. The Post-Lab report
must be in IEEE paper format (a sample template is given in Appendix B).
d. For any submitted report, never forget to cite reference/s if there is/are any.
Failure to properly document and acknowledge an existing work is considered
intellectual malpractice.
e. Student/s arriving 30 minutes late will be considered absent and will receive no
grade for the laboratory reports on the experiment for that day. However, for the
love of learning, he/she/they can still join his/her/their group-mates in performing
the experiment. No make-up class for unexcused absence/s.
f. Student/s incurring more than three (3) absences will be advised to drop the
course or will be given a failing grade if the dropping period has lapsed.
g. Work ethics inside the laboratory must be observed. No phones or gadgets.
However, they can be used shortly for documentation purposes. Clean up your
workplace when done. Make sure to turn off all equipment and measuring
tools/devices before leaving. Components used must be returned properly.
h. Class standing will be available online at the middle of the semester.
i. In case of a class suspension, wait for announcements from the laboratory
instructor regarding deadlines and how the schedule of activities will be changed.
Also, inform the laboratory instructor for schedule conflicts (esp. Monday classes)
with scheduled departmental exams as early as possible.
j. All students should be aware of the safety practices, as well as the rules and
regulations, imposed
in the laboratory. These are available in the succeeding sections.
Initial requirements:
1. Join our Facebook group/UVLe section with name _____________ and passkey
______________. Announcements and other broadcast message will be
posted here.
2. Accomplish a softcopy version of the traditional student index card the
Student Information Card (SIC). A sample template with guidelines can be
found in our online group.
*Grading of course requirements to be submitted by group is INDEPENDENT of any issue
internal to the group concerned (e.g. student A did not participate preparing this/that,
student B is going to be late but the final report is with him/her, etc.). Although a portion
of grade is evaluated per group, the majority still is individual assessment.
1 Safety Practices in the

Laboratory [1]
Safety is always the biggest concern when working in a laboratory, particularly when
dealing with electricity. This concern covers not only valuable research work and equipment,
but extends to the lives of the people as well. More often than not, accidents happen due to
carelessness and improper handling or use of equipment. Most accidents can be avoided
through proper safety precautions and common sense. Here are a few of them.
1. Do NOT touch anything that you are unfamiliar with.
2. Follow instructions. They are there for a reason.
3. Be careful and do NOT hurry. Always watch where you are going and what you come into
contact with.
4. Do NOT eat or drink in the laboratory. (NO FOOD or DRINKS allowed inside the lab) You do
not want to ingest small parts, potentially hazardous chemicals, and other materials.
Spills can also cause equipment and electrical wiring to short circuit and catch fire.
5. Wear proper clothing. It is advisable to wear closed rubber shoes to avoid body contact to
ground when dealing with electricity. Those who wear contact lenses may be more
sensitive to the fumes and heat.
6. Do NOT work on electrical equipment when you are completely alone and never work on
live equipment when you are tired.
7. Unless it is impossible to avoid, do not work on live circuits. Always unplug/turn off
devices before working on them. If you are working on wiring, turn off all power. Turn off
the circuit breaker or fuse - or master switch, if necessary - and make sure power cannot
be restored accidentally.
8. Never touch electrical equipment while standing on a damp or metal floor. Also, never
handle electrical equipment when you or the equipment is wet or damp.
9. Ground all high-voltage points - remember, a capacitor can store a charge that can kill
you. Do NOT handle electrical equipment that is not grounded and never remove
equipment grounds.
10. Above all, communicate. Do not be afraid to ask questions if you are not sure about what
you are doing. A lot of damage can result from incorrect procedures. Also, report
anything out of the ordinary, particularly frayed wires, excessive heating, sparks, and
smoke that can lead to a potentially dangerous situation. Remember, it is better to be
safe than sorry.
Additional Precautions:
1. DO NOT TOUCH the power plugs connecting the table outlets to the floor outlets doing
so risks being subjected to an electric shock, and possibly death.
2. Take note of the limitations of the instruments and components (power, current, or
voltage). Make sure that you do not subject components and instruments to values of
voltage and currents that can destroy them.
3. When measuring voltage, it is good practice to use just one hand. Just clip one terminal
to one node and hold the other at the insulated part of the test probe, NEVER on the
metal tip.
4. In measuring current, shut power off before breaking the circuit. Insert the ammeter
before turning the power on.
5. Report damages as soon as possible.
1.1 Care in handling and use of a

multimeter
Before inserting the meter into the circuit be certain that:
The meter switch or switches have been set to the proper measurement function.
The meter test leads have been plugged into the proper test jacks.
The meter switch or switches have been first set to the highest voltage or current
range in measuring an unknown voltage or current. This will reduce the possibility
of meter overload and damage.
The polarity is being observed in measuring voltage or current.

Power is disconnected before resistance is measured in the circuit
In measuring current, the circuit has been broken so that the meter may be inserted in
series with the circuit
The voltage or current to be measured does not exceed the range or capabilities of the
meter. WARNING: Do not allow the meter to be connected for a prolonged time when the needle
goes to the left
of zero or beyond the full-scale

deflection.
1.2 Laboratory Rules and Regulations

(Approved by the UP-EEEI Faculty-in-charge of ALab/BELab as of December 2015)
1. Students are expected to conduct themselves in a professional and
courteous manner when inside the laboratory.
2. DO NOT BRING IN any fluid or flammable/explosive materials inside the
laboratory.
3. Food and drinks are not allowed inside the laboratory.
4. Bags and other personal items must be placed in designated areas during
laboratory classes.
5. Floor, wall and table electrical outlets in the laboratory should be used and
handled carefully. Report any damaged or broken utility outlets.
6. Be aware of power ratings, current and voltage requirements, warnings,
and special instructions on each laboratory exercises.
7. VANDALISM is not tolerated. This includes removal of equipment tags &
labels, writing on walls, cabinets, tables, chairs etc.
8. A student shall be held liable for equipment or damaged due to abuse,
misuse, negligence, or disregard of basic electronics know-how. Ignorance
of proper equipment handling shall not be accepted as an excuse.
Replacement or repair expenses shall be demanded to liable student who
inflicted damaged to UP Property.
9. As in the case of loss or broken electronic components, students are held
responsible to replace the items.
10.Equipment that is not yet/anymore in use should be turned off and/or
unplugged.
11.Laboratory equipment may not be taken elsewhere. All laboratory work
done with ALab/BELab equipment should be done inside the ALab/BELab.
12.CLEANLINESS and ORDERLINESS of the laboratory should always be
maintained. Students are expected to clean up their work areas after the
class and throw away waste materials in the trash bins provided.
13.Non-students and other students not enrolled in a class are not allowed
inside the laboratory
14.Students with laboratory classes at other time slots may join a laboratory
class with the consent of the instructor holding the class. The first priority
to use the Laboratory is given to students who are in regularly scheduled
class.
15.Students may not use the laboratory equipment/room without the
supervision of his/her instructor or permission from the laboratory facultyin-charge/technician.
16.Only UP ID will be accepted in borrowing laboratory equipment and
components. Students who fail to return the equipment /components on
time will not be allowed to borrow again.
Violation of the aforementioned rules and regulations shall be met with

punishments ranging from, but not limited to grade deductions, a failing
grade, suspension or expulsion from the university or a combination
thereof. Replacement of damaged equipment or other properties shall also
be demanded of the violator.
2 Laboratory Equipment, Tools

and
Components
This chapter gives the student a quick overview on the common
equipment, tools, and components being used in EEE laboratories. The goal of
this chapter is for students to gain familiarity on how these things work and look
like. However, the operation and proper usage should be demonstrated in class.
The tools and equipment include the multimeters, power supplies, function
or signal generator, oscilloscope, 1mA movement and the protoboard. Note
however that the images shown here might not be the same actual tools or
equipment that we are going to use in our laboratory (a different brand or
version might be available). Nonetheless, their usage and operation should be
similar.
2.1 Laboratory Equipment

Laboratory equipment are electronic apparatus which are intended for
specific purpose or application. These are bench-type apparatus that should stay
on the station where these are designated. The cost for each ranges from tens to
hundreds of thousand PHP that is why safe and proper usage must always be
observed.
In EEE laboratories, we can find various laboratory equipment depending
on the work or needs of such respective laboratories. For EEE 34, we will use the
(a) power supply, (b) function/signal generator, and (c) oscilloscopes. The power
supply, as the name implies, generates or supplies power (usually DC) to the
circuit to be connected to it. The function/signal generator, on the other hand,
also supplies power but in AC form. Lastly, oscilloscopes are used to capture and
display signals, usually AC signals and in time-domain analysis.
Before we proceed with the discussion, it is useful to become clear on the
types of connectors we will commonly use. Shown in Figure 1 are connecting
wires the simplest and quickest way to connect components and circuits. These
are basically conducting wires, usually of made up of cheap metal, wrapped with
coloured insulator. The use of colors helps in defining nodes, as it conveniently
applies to all, in constructing circuits.
Figure 1. Connecting wires
4
Another common connectors are called alligator clips, shown in Figure 2,
as the conducting clip resembles the mouth of an alligator. The terminologies
here are quite intuitive because the thinking/analysis difficulty must not
depend on the identification of each tools or equipment.
Figure 2. Alligator clips
Alligator clips are just like connecting wires except that the end/s is/are of
the form of alligator clip/s (ugh cannot find another term for it). Connecting
wires, alligator clips, and other types of connectors represent the solid lines that
we use to construct our circuits in theory. From this point on, the reader must be
able to distinguish alligator clips easily from other types of to-be-discussed
connectors.
2.1.1 Power Supply

In most EEE laboratory courses, we will only deal with voltage supplies.
Current supplies, on the other hand, is seldom used unless the work is on power
electronics. Let us examine the single output DC power supply shown in the
figure below.
Figure 3. Controlled-voltage supply (left) and controlled-current supply (right)

modes.
The adjust knobs set the desired level of voltage or current. The major
knobs are for coarse adjustments while the FINE tunes in finer granularity useful
in setting supply with high accuracy. Shown on left of Figure 3 is the controlledvoltage supply mode (look closely green LED is lit on CV) while on the right it
is in controlled-current supply (green LED is lit on CC).
Throughout the course, we will only use voltage supplies so it is necessary that
our power supply is in CV mode. To achieve this, turn the current adjust knob
fully clockwise and the CV LED should be lit. While on this mode, be extra careful
that the red and black alligator clips do not get shorted. Otherwise, the supply
will force itself to go in CC mode (with a ticking sound). Such short-circuit event
is harmful not only to your circuit components but also to ones personal health.
Remember that it is not the voltage but the current that could be fatal.
The color code again is intuitive and we can see, is also uniform red for
positive and black for negative. Note that the GND port in the equipment is NOT
the ground of the to-be-constructed-circuit but the ground of the equipment itself.
The students are the ones deciding/designing which node is the ground for their
circuits. For example, suppose we have set 5.0V as shown on the left of Figure 3. This
voltage level indicates a potential difference of 5.0V between the positive and
negative ports (i.e., from the negative port, there is a voltage rise of 5.0V going to
the positive port). We can therefore use either port as the reference or the ground
of the to-be-constructed circuit. If the black clip is used as ground/reference, then the
red clip serves as positive (+) 5.0V. If the red clip is used as ground/reference
instead, then the black clip serves as negative (-) 5.0V. The students should not be
confused with this concept especially if we go into applications requiring bipolar
voltage supplies (e.g. +/-5V for operational amplifiers).
Figure 4. Controlled-voltage supply mode with 8.8V used to power-up a simple

circuit.
In Figure 4, the power supply is providing the circuit with 8.8V. However,
while the power supply is in CV mode, it also indicates a current of 0.01A. Is there
something wrong here? Actually, there is none. The power supply also indicates
how much current, with the set voltage level at CV mode, the circuit is drawing. If
we have set to 8.8V and the circuit is drawing 0.01A, how much power (in Watts)
does the circuit consume?
Lastly, notice the position of the decimal point both in current and voltage.
Suppose we target to get a voltage level of 0.1V. Since the supply only displays
up to tenths digit, if it displays 0.1V, then we are not certain if we have 0.1000V
or 0.1999V. Therefore, perhaps we can adjust from 0.0999V and stop turning the
knob just before it displays 0.1000V. Does that make sense?
Looking forward, imagine if all groups in one class uses single output DC
supply and a group needs at least 2 voltage levels each. Then, the workstations
will be filled with a bunch of DC supplies. With that, the laboratory also has triple
output power supply units (PSU). An actual photo is shown in Figure 5 .
Figure 5. Triple output power supply unit

(PSU).
In this DC supply (see Figure 5), Output A has fixed 5.0V supply (1000mA
overload limit) while Outputs B and C (250mA overload limit) are adjustable from
0V to 20V. The galvanometer scale indicates the voltage/current level of Output B
or C depending on the selection switch found at the bottom. The interface ports
here however is a bit different with that of the single output DC supply. Alligator
clips (for both ends) can be clipped on the metallic ports on one end and the
other to your circuit.
In any case, it is always a safe practice to set the desired voltage level first
in ISOLATION before using them to power-up your circuit (i.e. before turning the
supply ON). Imagine if the supply is already connected to your circuit and you
suddenly turned it on not knowing that the previous setting might be as high as
30V! Will the experience from what is going to happen be worth it?
Fortunately, our laboratories are now equipped with more advanced
equipment. Shown in Figure 6 is a programmable DC power supply. It is similar to
the one in Figure 5 but the settings and controls are now digital (keyword
programmable). Usage of this equipment is not difficult once the operation of
previously discussed power supplies are well understood. One evident advantage
of this one is the circuit does not need to be disconnected physically to isolate
from the supply. An ON/OFF button is available to switch these supplies. DC
supply #1 is ON as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Programmable DC Power Supply (Triple Output)
2.1.2 Function/Signal Generator

The function or signal generator (simply called as sig-gen) is an equipment
that is basically an AC signal source. The DC power supply is also a signal source
but gives only DC voltage.
50 BNC
Connector
Female
Figure 7. Sig-gen set at 1.0001kHz and 10Vpeak-to-peak (Vpp) level.
Students from their physics courses should already be familiar with

waveform concepts such as amplitude, frequency, period, as well as the
differences between a sinusoidal, square, and triangular waveforms.
Shown in Figure 7, as an example, is the sig-gen set at 1.0001kHz with
10Vpeak-to-peak (Vpp) level. Note that although it displays 10Vpp, the sig- gen
might not necessarily be able to supply the exact 10Vpp (e.g. it might be
attenuated to, say, 8Vpp). If that is the case, how do we determine if we are
using a true 10Vpp? One way to test is to use the oscilloscope and ASSUME
that, as a measuring tool, it is well-calibrated (see Section 2.1.5 Equipment
Calibration) and working properly. The same case might hold for frequency
setting but for most basic circuits, accuracy deviation of about 100Hz is tolerable
(e.g. 0.900kHz or 1.100kHz can most likely represent the true 1.000kHz).
50 BNC
Connector
Male
Figure 8. Sig-gen probe. The circuit-end are red and black alligator
clips while the sig-gen end is a BNC connector.
9
The only proper probe that must be used for sig-gen is the one shown in
Figure 8. Notice that one end uses red and black alligator clips (used for the
positive and negative respectively). Proper polarity should always be observed.
The clips are to be connected to the circuit (similar to the usage when dealing
with DC power supply). In other words, the color-coding is NOT a suggestion.
At the other end, the connector is a male 50 BNC connector. The female
50 BNC port is shown in Figure 7. BNC is used for a secured/locked match and is
not a straight-forward plug-and-play connector. The laboratory instructor must
demonstrate the proper mating and un-mating of this type of connector. Of
course, these are technical terms.
1
0
2.1.3 Analog Oscilloscope

Oscilloscope is a basic measuring tool used to display amplitude variation
of a signal over time. The functionalities and extended capabilities of digital
oscilloscopes can be easily understood with the understanding of the analog
ones. Analog oscilloscopes are basically bulky compared to digital ones mainly
due to the cathode-ray tube used for display (green phosphor grid shown in
Figure 9).
Figure 9. Analog oscilloscope self-calibration using built-in 2Vpp 1kHz square-wave

signal.
An example of oscilloscope probe is shown in Figure 10. One end is also a

male BNC connector type while the other end is DIFFERENT with that used for
sig-gen. In order to display a stable signal, it should be referenced/grounded
properly (i.e., signal is not floating). The probe pin is suitable for inserting to a
protoboard/breadboard. The probe cap with hook is an accessory that can be
used for clamping/probing on one leg (lead wire) of a circuit component, say, of a
resistor. These same probes can be used for digital oscilloscopes.
11
Probe Cap with Hook
Probe Pin (exposed when

Probe Cap is
removed)
Ground or reference
(negative) clamped with
an alligator clip
BNC
connector
Probe
Compensation
(attenuation
setting slide
switch)
Figure 10. Oscilloscope probes.
1
2
2.1.4 Digital Oscilloscope

Digital oscilloscopes are more user-friendly than analog ones (CAUTION:
no equipment is designed as fool-proof). Since it is digital, extended
functionalities such as storage, acquisition, filtering, etc. are easily employed. As
mentioned in the previous section, working with this one (see Figure 11) is
relatively intuitive once the operation of analog oscilloscopes are observed.
However, our laboratories now are equipped with digital ones, even for
introductory courses such as EEE 34. Thus, a dedicated experiment was designed
to explore the functionalities of this digital oscilloscope.
In any case, if a relatively new equipment comes available, whatever it
may be, it is a good practice to read the user manual / guide first. Nonengineering individuals usually take their new equipment out of the box to use it
right away. They often disregard the user manual enclosed with it (e.g. got a new
mobile phone?). In doing so, they will not be able to explore the full capabilities
of their equipment and worse, to troubleshoot even when basic problems arise.
Figure 11. Digital Oscilloscope
1
3
2.1.5 Equipment Calibration

Un-packing new equipment assumes that it functions as expected. For
example, a power supply set to generate 5.0Vdc (as displayed/read) must read
an exact 5.0Vdc when measured by a voltmeter (as also displayed/read), just as
we expect it to be. In fact, there are four possible scenario for interpreting the
values displayed. Let us stick with the example given above, these are:
i. Power supply is correct, voltmeter is correct
ii. Power supply is wrong, voltmeter is correct
iii. Power supply is correct, voltmeter is wrong
iv. Power supply is wrong, voltmeter is wrong
In fact there is a fifth case and it is too widespread that it is worth
mentioning here. v. The interpreter/student is wrong all
along
How do we determine which one is the true correct? This is where
calibration comes in. Equipment must undergo periodic evaluation to determine
if they are still functioning the way they are expected to be. The mechanisms
inside these equipment degrade with time (e.g. magnets inside a multimeter)
and with frequent use. Thus, re-tuning is necessary, just like how a musician retunes a guitar. This is what we call calibration and is only performed by skilled
electronics technicians.
How will this affect our work or experiment? What if we do not know if the
equipment we are using are well-calibrated? Or it is already many years after the
equipment was last calibrated? For the sake of performing instructional
experiments, it is safe to assume that the measuring tool/equipment is the
one that is well-calibrated (like scenario [ii] above, but hopefully we have [i]).
Doing research experiments however requires all tools and equipment to be wellcalibrated. Going back to our example, even if the power supply displays 5.0Vdc
but say the voltmeter reads a different one, then we will ASSUME that the
voltmeter, as the measuring tool, reading is the true value then adjusting the
power supply might be necessary to achieve a specific target value.
1
4
2.2 Laboratory Components

Laboratory components are the components we see in our
schematic/circuit diagrams. Here we will discuss two basic types of electronic
components: (a) passive, and (b) active components. The former, being
passive, dissipates energy and hence introduce losses. These components do not
require a source of energy to perform their intended operation. On the other
hand, active components require a source of energy. Most active components are
non-linear and can amplify a signal. For example, if the input is 5V, then it is
possible for the output to reach a voltage greater than the 5V input (a form of
amplification).
2.2.1 Passive Components

This section will familiarize the students on the basic components used in
EEE instructional laboratories. It is expected that students already know the
principles behind their operation and the underlying circuit analysis (EEE 31/33).
2.2.1.1 Resistors
Resistors are the most fundamental and commonly used of all the electronic
components. Resistors basically resist or regulate the flow of current running through
the circuit.
There are several types of resistor based on composition material,

tolerance accuracy, and wattage. Each is suitable for a specific application. For
example, high wattage resistors are used in power electronics while film resistors
(known for low- noise characteristic) are used for radio communication
electronics. For instructional purposes, we are only interested with the resistance
value and hence a typical 4-band resistor (can handle up to 0.25 Watts) is
sufficient (see Figure 12).
Figure 12. Resistor types based on composition material and tolerance level. [5]
1
5
Resistor Value Reading

Determining the value of a resistor with four (4) color bands is
straightforward. Although the color-coding is intuitive (i.e., visible spectrum), the
student is encouraged to develop their own mnemonics to help them identify the
resistance more easily. For example, black suggests darkness or absence of
something so it represents zero (0). This helps rather than using B-B-R-O- Y-G-BV-G-W (G-S-None). Furthermore, the said mnemonics has 3 Bs & 3 Gs which
might result to confusion.
The additional bands on 5- and
6-band
resistors
provide
better
tolerance accuracy and additional
information
about
temperature
coefficient. These are high-grade
resistors and are too much to be used
for instructional purposes.
For resistor with 4 color-bands:
=
1st band
1st digit
nd
=
2 band
2nd digit
rd
3 band
=
Multiplie
r
=
Toleranc
4th band
e
(Gold-5%, Silver-10% and None-20%)
For example, if we have Yellow-VioletRed-Gold, then we have,
4 10 5%
or basically 4.7k.
How can we be so sure that we
are reading the color band in the
correct sequence and not the other
way around? Well, did we just mention
that the 4th band can only take on gold,
silver or none? Equivalently, the first
band cannot take on these colors.
Figure 13. Resistor Color Code. [5]
1
6
Potentiometer
Two wire-lead resistors have fixed resistance value but often times, we
need a specific and/or out-of-fixed-standard resistance value in our circuit design
and implementation. This makes variable resistor or potentiometer (dubbed as
pot) a useful tool. Potentiometer is a three-terminal component with variable or
adjustable resistance. It can be thought of as two resistors in series that
simultaneously change values with movement of the wiper (see Figure 14).
Figure 14. Potentiometer: actual (left), electrical model (middle) and usual electrical
symbols (right). [6]
A potentiometer is identified with its value (usually printed on its casing).

Suppose that we have a 10k potentiometer. Using an ohmmeter, the 10k or a
close value can be measured on end-to-end (in the diagram, it is 3-1 or 1-3 since
resistors are passive components and do not have polarity). We can get the
variable resistance by tapping the terminal 2 and using either terminal 1 or 3 for
the other end. Adjusting the wiper (corresponds to terminal 2) changes the
resistances of 1-2 and 2-3 resistors simultaneously. To assess our
understanding, suppose again that we have a 10k potentiometer and 1-2
measures 4k, then the expected value to be measured on 2-3 would be?
CAUTION: Adjusting the wiper on extreme positions (i.e., = 0 1, see Figure 14) can result in a technical short
on either leg which will draw overload current from the power supply if the circuit is not properly designed.
Short circuit events can cause fire. Thus, as a good practice, a 100
resistor or near-value is usually place in series with a potentiometer. In the event
that an unintentional short was set in potentiometer, the 100 will still be able to
regulate the flowing current. However, diagrams in our experiments do not
include this safety resistor. This is for student to evaluate mistakes on their
own. The smell of a burnt potentiometer is not an inviting experience nor
memory. Also, it is for students to develop critical thinking in circuit design
considerations. In summary, it is essential that students understand the
operation of each tool before they can realize its limitations and possible
precautions.
Some potentiometers available in our instructional laboratories are
packaged in a potentiometer box (combination of 100, 1k, 10k, 100k and
1M pots). However, some of them might have already been
damaged/burnt/shorted by previous curious students. Thus, it is also a good
practice to check potentiometers individually using ohmmeter before
using them. Singular potentiometers are also available in the laboratory.
The metal casing and the wiper knob, although made up of metallic
conductors, are isolated with the pins. Thus, it is safe to adjust the wiper while
holding the metal casing even if the circuit is powered-up. The size of pins of an
actual potentiometer may vary. The actual one shown in Figure 14 can be
inserted in a protoboard. In other cases, alligator clips can be used. Just be aware
that adjacent clips may get shorted since potentiometer pins are spaced
closely together.
1
7
2.2.1.2 Capacitors
Another essential component in electronics is the capacitor. This device
stores charges and maintains energy in its electric field. The SI unit for
capacitance is Farad (in honour of Michael Faraday for his major contributions in
the field of electromagnetism)
Although considered a passive component, there are polar and non-polar
types of capacitors. This depends on the materials used as dielectric inside the
capacitor. Some materials permit only one direction for the flow of displacement
current while others permit bi-directionality. Non-polars include ceramic, mylar
and film capacitors. Electrolytic and tantalum capacitors are polarized. Most
blown-up/burnt (usually the first affected in fault conditions) components in a
circuit are capacitors.
Figure 15. Different types of capacitors, both non-polar and polar. [7]
Extra care should be observed before powering- up circuit with polar

capacitors. How do we determine which leg is the positive/negative? If the
component is brand new, the longer leg should be the positive. In other cases
(e.g. legs are cut at same length), markings should be available on the body of
the capacitor. As shown in Figure 15, electrolytic capacitor indicates negative
band while tantalum capacitor shows the positive mark.
Capacitance values are printed either as-is (see electrolytic type) or by code
(see ceramic type). Let us examine the electrolytic capacitor in Figure 15. The
absolute maximum voltage it can handle is 16V. If charged above that value, then
the capacitor will explode. The capacitance is 4700uF which is equivalent to 4.7mF.
For the human brain, it is easier or convenient to process the information 4.7mF. Why
do you think that manufacturers prefer the label 4700uF as compared to 4.7mF
given the fact that they are just the same? Well, while you are thinking the reason
behind that logic, let us share a story of buying components in an electronics shop
EEE Student: (To sales assistant) 10 pieces of 4.7mF 16V electrolytic

capacitor please. Sales Assistant: Sorry but we do not have 4.7mF.
EEE Student: (Saddened because his long trip to the shop will be useless. Thinks for a
moment. Asked the sales assistant again.) Can I have 10 pieces of 4700uF electrolytic
capacitor please?
Sales Assistant: Okay, Sir. What voltage rating?
EEE Student: ($#@@#$!$@$^* deep inside.)
16V. Thanks! Sales Assistant: Okay. Wait for a
moment.
1
8
Haha! What a funny story! Students might encounter a similar experience.
Anyway, the main reason why the dot marking is highly discouraged is that it
might get erased easily. Mistaking 47mF for a 4.7mF can greatly affect the
circuit operation by design.
On another note, ceramic and mylar capacitors usually use 3- or 4character code to indicate the capacitance value. The reading is similar with
the resistor color bands only that the value is already printed here. 12
Note
however that the resulting value is not Farad but pico-Farad (pF or 10
).
Capacitance values are usually in the pico-, nano-, micro- and milli- range so
it would be easier to refer to the smallest unit. An example is shown in Figure
16, with value,
10
= 47000
= 47
= 0.047
The last character usually denotes the temperature

coefficient and can be disregarded for instructional
purposes.
Figure 16. . Ceramic capacitor value reading. [8]
2.2.1.3 Inductors
Lastly, we consider inductors as an essential component in electronics.
This device keeps magnetic flux and stores energy in its magnetic field. The SI
unit for inductance is Henry (in honour of Joseph Henry for his work on
electromagnetic induction). We will not discuss inductors in detail but shown in
Figure 17 are common types of inductors.
Figure 17. Different types of inductors. [9]
Some inductors look like resistors but in a closer view, inductors are more
curvy. The reason is that inside it is a wound coil of magnetic wires as
compared to the typical resistor manufactured using carbon. Transformers (a
magnet core with wires wound around) can serve as inductors.
19
2.2.2 Active Components

Active components are electronic components that require a source of
energy to operate. Most of them are non-linear and can provide signal
amplification. EEE 34 is not focused on active components but we introduce
them here anyway. Examples of active components are:
1. Diodes
2. Special-purpose diodes (e.g. Light-emitting Diodes or LEDs)
3. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
4. Field Effect Transistors (FETs)
5. Analog Integrated Circuits (e.g. operational amplifiers or op-amps)
6. Digital Integrated Circuits
7. Detectors and emitters
2
0
2.3 Laboratory Tools

We will define laboratory tools as light-weight portable things that we use
in the laboratory. Included here are the multimeters, galvanometers, and
protoboard. The in-depth discussion on multimeter is reserved in a later section
(see Section 3.4 Circuit-Level Analysis of the Multimeter)
2.3.1 Multimeter
Multimeter, as the name implies, measures multiple electrical quantities
including resistance, voltage, and current. Some advanced multimeters can
measure capacitance and even inductance but for basic electronics using
multimeters, we will only deal with the three fundamental quantities provided by
the Ohms Law. The multimeter, or meter shorthand, can be therefore referred to
depending on the intended function: voltmeter if measuring voltage; ammeter
if measuring current; ohmmeter if measuring resistance.
From this early point, let us always remind ourselves that in using
multimeter to measure current and voltage:
= =
Multimeters, both analog and digital, easily get damaged through misuse by
students who do not understand the two statements above. The words above are in
fact already redundant. For EEE 34, it is OKAY to make this kind of mistake at first but
repeating the same mistake is NOT justifiable it is somehow unwise. The most
common damage done to multimeters is a blown-up fuse caused by overcurrent.
Students forcefully connect the meter in parallel to measure current
which is totally wrong! If you still do not understand what is being discussed
here, then think of it again and again.
2
1
2.3.1.1 Analog Multimeter

For EEE 34, we will first use analog multimeters and learn about their
capabilities and limitations in early experiments. Analog multimeters available in
the laboratory are shown in the figure below.
Figure 18. Analog multimeters.
Notice that the multimeter on the left has fixed probes while the one on
the right has detachable probes but that is not really important. They also have
the same set of selection knobs since they use the same galvanometer scale (the
calibration with the needle pointer). We will discuss an in-depth analysis of
analog multimeter in the next chapter under Section 3.4 Circuit-Level Analysis of
the Multimeter. Inquisitive readers are advised to jump to that section before
proceeding with next sections in this chapter.
The color coding of the probes is intuitive red for positive and black for
negative. Basically, both probes are just conductor wires so they serve the same
purpose. That is, they can be technically interchanged. However, to avoid
confusion, we follow the color code especially that we are dealing with analog
multimeter where proper polarity is a must.
2
2
Using the Multimeter to Measure Voltage, Current and Resistance

Let us take a closer look on the selector knob (see Figure 19) and the
calibration scale (see Figure 20). Figure 20 is just similar to the 1mA movement
galvanometer scale only that it indicates lot of markings. Nonetheless, the
operation is the same.
To measure voltage, turn the selector knob to the appropriate DCV level.
For safety, always choose the range with the nearest higher level than the
expected value to be measured. For example, if expecting to measure 8V, set the
meter to 10V instead of 50V. This will give us better accuracy in gathering data
while protecting the multimeter from over-voltage. The same practice goes
when measuring current (DCmA).
In reading the measured DCV or DCmA value, use the calibration scale
(the line with markers) just below the reflector strip. The reflector strip is used
to avoid parallax error. The needle pointer will cast a shadow somewhere along
this strip. The shadow therefore is on the same surface plane with the calibration
scale. Thus, reading the value would be easier. The corresponding reading scales
(the numbers) to use for voltage and current readings are below the reflector
strip.
Observe the range of the reading scales and the range on the selector
knob. What do you notice? Is there a pattern? Yes, there is. The full -scale
readings are 10, 50 and 250. All of which are multiples of the range on the
selector knob. Let us explain this more closely. If expecting to measure 8V, it
would be easier (and safe) to set the multimeter knob to 10V and use the 0 to
10V reading scale since the proportionality constant or factor to use is 1. The
needle pointer will fall on (or near) the column of 8, 40 and 200. But of course,
the reading would be most convenient if read on the calibration scale with 8.
Using 40 requires a factor of 5, while using 200 requires a factor of 25.
As a test of understanding, if expecting to measure for instance a voltage
level of 2.3V, where should we set the selector knob? What reading scale is the
most convenient to use? This is just a matter of ratio and proportion.
Figure 19. Analog multimeter selector

knob. [2]
2
3
Measuring resistance using analog multimeter is a bit different from measuring voltage and
current. The calibration and reading scale are located above the reflector strip obviously with the
symbol (see Figure 20). The extreme ends are and 0 representing open and short conditions
respectively. The ohmmeter selector knob, instead of a range, is a set of multipliers. The resistance
calibration scale is NOT linear as compared to that of DCV/DCmA. The distances between markings with
smaller value are large and they decrease as the value tends to . Why is that so? Of course there is an
engineering reason behind it and we will learn about it in future experiment/s. Obviously, we can get
higher accuracy if the needle pointer falls on values with smaller resistance number. This is why it is
preferred to use the highest possible multiplier depending on the expected resistance value when
measuring.
The current markings in light blue on each multiplier (see Figure 19) signifies
the amount of current that is running on ohmmeter leads when shorted. Energy is
available since ohmmeter operates with a battery. This implies a precaution in using
an ohmmeter. In measuring resistance, the circuit or resistor under test should not
be powered-up. If it is, then the power supplied to the circuit under test and the
power given by the ohmmeter might affect the reading. Also, there are components
such as integrated circuits (ICs) that cannot handle current as high as 150mA (1x
setting). Care should be observed before measuring resistance on these kinds of
electronic components. On the other hand, the ohmmeter is also useful especially in
testing other electronic components if working or not (e.g. light-emitting diodes or
LEDs how?).
Reflector
Strip
Figure 20. Analog multimeter calibration scale. [3]
If the analog multimeter is not in use, turn it OFF by switching the

selector knob to OFF to conserve its battery! Digital multimeters automatically
switch off when idle for a certain time.
2
4
Zero-ing the Meter Scale

For ohmmeter however, the default position of the needle falls on the left-most with representing
open circuit. Before making any resistance measurement using analog multimeter, it is necessary to always
zero the scale. It makes sense since any reading should always start with zero as reference. Each multiplier
setting might have different initial zero position.
Figure 21. Zero-ing the meter scale. [4]
To zero the scale, short the leads together and turn the zero adjust knob
(see Figure 19) until the needle pointer falls exactly on 0 mark as shown in
Figure 21. There might be some settings where the scale could not be zero-ed.
Note that human body can be thought of as a single wire conductor.
Putting hands in contact with the leads as shown in the figure above is fine only
when zero-ing the scale. If already measuring resistance of a resistor for
example, then do not clip the legs of the resistor to the ohmmeter leads using
hands. The reading might be the combined resistance of the resistor and human
body. Better place the resistor on the insulated table or on the protoboard before
taking measurements.
Zero-ing the meter scale is essentially reaching the full-scale current. That
is why the 0 scale in Figure 20 is aligned with the full-scale current (rightmost mark) on the calibration scale.
Connectivity/Continuity Test
Performing connectivity or continuity test is essential for basic
debugging/troubleshooting. In analog multimeters at ohmmeter mode, a shorted,
connected or continuous condition must display 0. A good wire conductor
ideally has a resistance of 0.
This is most useful in checking continuity of connecting wires, alligator
clips, connectors, etc. Determining which holes are connected and which are not
in a protoboard can also be checked easily using connectivity test.
Digital and other analog multimeters have advanced indicator for

connectivity test. Most are of the form of a buzzer. It will sound once the device
under test is checked to be connected.
2
5
Note that some connecting wires or clips are connected if placed in a certain
position (e.g. twisted), while at other orientation may appear to be not
connected. Wires are covered with plastic insulation so visual inspection might
not be possible. Just be aware that this scenario is not impossible happen. Most
students get lost if their circuit is not functioning as expected only to find out
that one of their connecting wires is open.
2.3.1.2
Digital Multimeter
A user-friendly type of multimeter is the digital version. However, just

like socially, we should not take the friendliness of others for granted. These
multimeters, although contains protective circuits, still have their limits. So the
user-friendly term might be a misleading one for us. For example, some digital
multimeters can detect over- voltage even if the selector knob setting is
unintentionally unchanged to the proper setting. If set on such condition for some
specific long time, the internal protection circuitry might eventually fail thus
damaging the tool. In summary, proper care should ALWAYS be observed in
handling ANY laboratory tool or equipment.
Figure 22. Hand-held digital multimeters.
The digital display would be the most obvious distinction of a digital to that
of an analog multimeter as shown in Figure 22. The black probe is always placed
on the COM (common) port and the red probe on VD port. Other ports are
used for high-current applications and those are not in the scope of this course.
We also have bench digital multimeters as shown in Figure 23. This type of
multimeter is more robust than the hand-held version (the size and weight can
explain why). Its proper use is no puzzle once the student is well-familiarized with
analog and digital multimeters.
2
6
Figure 23. Bench digital multimeter.
So if the students were to ask, which is better to use, the analog or the
digital multimeter? Whatever the answer may be, engineers should develop a
way of thinking on how to reason out for the choices that they make (especially
when defending, say, an engineering design). Engineers do not make decisions
right away. They first think of options and alternatives, then they weigh them.
After all, there should be a reason for everything.
2
7
2.3.2 DArsonval Galvanometer or 1mA

Movement
The DArsonval galvanometer or 1mA movement is basically a permanent
magnet moving-coil transducer that uses the principle of electromagnetism in
determining the magnitude of passing current. The needle deflection indicates
the magnitude of current. The galvanometer is calibrated with full-scale of 1mA
hence the name 1mA movement.
Figure 24. 1mA movement.
There are two ports to connect in order to use this 1mA movement (see
Figure 24). For proper polarity, the color code is here once again. But wait, do
currents have polarity? Of course the answer is no, they do not have polarity.
Rather, the red and black color code here represents the direction of the current.
Note that we are using analog device and proper polarity must always be
observed. The current must enter the positive (red) port and exit the negative
(black) port. If interchanged, then the needle will try to deflect more to the left
(i.e., on the negative of the scale) and this might damage the tool.
Since this tool measures current (up to 1mA only), what should be the best
way to check if this measuring tool is working properly or not?
2
8
2.3.3 Protoboard/Breadboard
Translating circuits from diagrams on paper to actual implementation is an
essential skill one needs to master in this course. The paper that we will use in
laying-out our circuits is the protoboard (short for prototyping board). It is
sometimes called breadboard since the holes resemble that of a bread (working
in the laboratory can get one really hungry). For discussion purposes, let us stick
using the term protoboard.
The protoboard conveniently provides connected holes in a row. Since the
holes are arranged in a matrix fashion (see Figure 25), the question now is which
rows are connected, and equivalently, which are not. Let us begin by describing a
short row and a long row.
Long row
Short
rows
Connectin
g
wires
Canal
Figure 25. Protoboard. [10]
Basically, the holes in a short row are internally connected. Adjacent short
rows, as well as short rows across the canal, are NOT connected. The holes in a long
row are internally connected but depending on the brand, the other half may or may
not be connected. The example in Figure 25 shows a discontinuous red (+) and blue (
-) lines. This indicates that long rows do not continue on the entire length the
protoboard. That is why we can see connecting wires jumping from one long row to
another on the other half. Long rows have (+) and () labels since these lines are
usually used as power ports (e.g. the + and of a 5.0V supply). But why do we
reserve longer lines for the power ports? It is fairly simple. If the circuit has a lot of
components, it will consume the whole protoboard space and most likely, all
components will require power. Thus, power ports can be easily accessed anywhere
on the protoboard. The protoboard canal serves a purpose especially when using
dual in-line package ICs such as operational amplifiers (see Appendix C: Some Notes
from Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Datasheets or Figure 26). Try to look closely on
Figure 26 on how ICs are placed on the protoboard.
Engineers do not really need to memorize which holes are connected and
which are not. Remember that we have the tools. When in doubt, we can insert
connecting wires in a pair of holes and use a multimeter to do a connectivity
test.
On a side note, true engineering education will not teach its students by
making them memorize stuff (e.g. formulas, here-and-there, this-and-that, etc.).
Instead, it will teach its students by guiding them in learning how to solve
problems and overcome obstacles.
2
9
2.3.3.1 Protoboard Wiring

Setting-up a circuit on a protoboard needs patience especially for firsttimers. If one does not know what a short and open, connected and not
connected mean, then he/she will surely get snowballed in constructing a circuit.
It might take more time and practice for others depending on the learning curve
of the student. Nonetheless, constructing a circuit on a protoboard should be an
easy task.
Figure 26. Protoboard wiring of two complex circuits: messy wiring (left) and clean wiring
(right). [10]
Let us compare the wiring of two complex circuits shown in Figure 26. Both
use a bunch of components but the wiring on the left is a bit messy compared to
the one on the right. Both are working as intended so functionality will not be an
issue. This scenario is somehow similar to writing computer programs. As long as
the code is working, students tend not to care because it is already working.
However, what will be the possible disadvantage of the circuit wiring on the left
compared to the one on the right (HINT: This also applies to computer
programming)? Obviously, the one on the left is prone to errors. Consequently,
whenever there is error, it will be hard to trace where the error arises. This leads
us to our next section which is one of the most important skills every EEE
student must possess.
3
0
2.3.3.2 Debugging/Troubleshooting Circuits
[11]
After constructing a complicated circuit, it is not uncommon for it to be

non-functional. This may be due to wiring/connection errors, faulty parts and/or
incorrect equipment settings (e.g. wrong power supply setting). The process of
finding and correcting these problems is called debugging.
It is very easy to get lost in the myriad of possible sources of error. Also,
thinking of possible solutions for an unknown problem is an overwhelming task.
Debugging circuits (just like debugging programs) might be a highly frustrating
task for EEE students, especially if one does not know the causes of such
unwanted errors. However, even if the nature of the problem is not identified
beforehand (existence does not necessarily imply its nature), debugging circuit
would be easy if approached in a systematic manner.
Imagine if a student will debug a circuit that looks like the one presented
in Figure 26(left). He/she might save more time if he/she will just reconstruct the
entire circuit instead of finding where the error is. Thus, it is advisable to practice
neat wiring at the very first time.
Debugging is a skill that requires continuous practice and experience. One
must fully understand the operation of his/her circuit as a whole and percomponent (or sub-circuit) basis before he/she can identify the possible causes
of error. One cannot solve something that he/she does not acknowledge as a
problem in the first place.
If the circuit is not functioning the way it is designed to, then there must
be problem/s. Here are some tips on debugging/troubleshooting circuits:
Make sure that the tool used for debugging is working properly. For
example, test first a voltmeter on a battery or DC power supply.
Make sure that the tools are on their proper setting. The circuit
might be working properly but the measuring tool is not set
correctly giving you incorrect information.
Before checking the response of your circuit, have the intuition to
compare it with the theoretical response (e.g. I expect to measure
2.5V here). Practical results, most of the time, are close to the
theoretical ones. This is one proper way to validate results. Always try
to ask yourself, Do the data that I have make sense?
Learn the functions of various parts of the circuit. Knowing them can help
you devise tests to determine whether or not each part is functioning
properly.
Test all connections. Most problems come from faulty wires, alligator clips,
probes and even shorted components.
Check the actual wiring against the circuit schematic. A simple method
is verifying which nodes are connected and which are not. Double
check your wiring. Students tend to insert wires on unintended
adjacent holes on the protoboard.
Double check if you are using the correct component values (e.g. 1k was
used instead of 10k).
Make sure that all parts and components are working properly (e.g.
might be using a broken potentiometer). If you think you have
pinpointed a possible source of problem, then devise a quick and
easy experiment to test your hypothesis (e.g. connectivity test for a
suspected faulty wire).
Make sure that the
Debug by following
checking from the
circuit (e.g. voltage
power supply is ON and has the correct setting.

the signal path (e.g. from input to output). Start
supply down to the output component in the
measurements).
If the circuit can be divided into stages or modules, then check them
separately. Isolation is a good approach in tracing the source of error.
Always remember that very simple errors are also very common errors.
31
Engineering is the art of solving problems. In debugging circuits, we want to
find and correct errors. We develop algorithms and methods to achieve proper
debugging. However, there is no fixed way of using these debugging techniques. We
figure them out through experiments. Debugging circuit requires skills and
experience, and as an art, it also requires creativity.
Figure 27. PHD Comics: Debugging. [12]
Revisit this section until the student develops the skill of debugging by
him/herself. In case of hopelessness, ask the help of the laboratory instructor.
The instructor will probably throw the question asked by students back to them.
Present to the instructor how the tried solutions did not work.
3
2
3 Electrical Measurements
Performing experiments is essential, but gathering data and analysing &
interpreting them are more valuable. This chapter briefly introduces basic
concepts of measurement error & linearity and accuracy & precision. In order to
recognize or define error, we must first draw the difference between theory and
practice.
To put some sense on empirical results to be obtained from the
experiments, the students should have a good understanding of the ideal and
practical conditions of power supplies, the characteristic of a 1mA movement,
and finally the differences between the modes of an analog multimeter using the
galvanometer scale.
3
3
3.1Theory and Practice

EEE31 and EEE 33 teach us the fundamentals of circuit theory. What we
write and solve in paper there assumes ideal conditions both for the equipment
and components used. For example, a 1k resistor in paper has no tolerance and
hence the value will stay as 1k, and a 5.0Vdc supply will stay as 5.0Vdc, no
more no less. We refer to these values as theoretical values. In practice
however, this is usually not the case.
Let us take a simple circuit as an example (see Figure 28). For simplicity
and as an example, we will only examine the difference between an ideal and
practical voltmeter. Thus, values of R1, R2 and the 5Vdc stay as they are.
Figure 28. (a) Simple resistive circuit, (b) ideal voltmeter, and (c) practical voltmeter
Suppose we are going to measure the voltage output Vout of the simple
resistive circuit at R2. Using the ideal voltmeter (see Figure 28b), by voltage
division, we should be able to measure 2.5Vdc theoretical value. However,
practical voltmeters have some internal resistance in parallel with them. The
parallel resistance is usually high but for exaggeration, we will assume a value of
1k (see Figure 28c).
Using the practical voltmeter, we can measure about 1.67Vdc at the
output. The deviation comes from the unwanted internal resistance of the
practical voltmeter. The measured value is far (or near?) from the theoretical
value. If we are not aware that a practical voltmeter has this internal resistance,
then we can interpret the measured value as erroneous. So how do we develop
the right intuition to determine if our measurements make sense or not? This is
where we should bridge theory and practice.
An inquisitive and clever student will not settle on reading measurements
he/she will make sense out of it. That is, he/she can defend why such results
were gathered. The error or deviation in measured value depends on how our
practical approach deviates from ideal case. In our example, if the internal
resistance approaches infinity (ideal), then the measured value should also
approach a value of 2.5Vdc (ideal).
Getting high deviation value in what we measure in practice does not

mean that the theories are wrong. In fact, the measurements we make should
be guided by the principles set by circuit theory.
3
4
3.2 Error and Linearity

3.2.1 Error
Let us begin by differentiating theoretical value (TV) with the measured
value (MV). Theoretical value is simply the ideal, nominal or target value while
measured value is the actual value pertaining to real-world measurement. Thus,
error (e) can be defined as the difference between the measured value and
theoretical value.
=|
Error value is always positive so we take the absolute value of the

difference. Further, for a specific measurement, the theoretical value is constant.
Evaluating error in terms of percentage by referencing to the theoretical value is
more meaningful. Thus we have,
%=|
3.2.2 Linearity
For now, let us not consider time variation on our data. This simplifies our
analysis into one dimension only. Consider a system that has input and output.
Let us take a headphone amplifier for example where the electrical signals
(input) are converted and amplified to produce sound (output). There will be a
certain range on the amplitude of electrical signals where the headphone
amplifier can convert in a proportional manner. However, as the input electrical
signal increases further, the headphone amplifier may saturate and produce an
almost constant high sound level. This scenario is depicted in Figure 29.
Figure 29. Input-output relationship showing linearity.
3
5
The linear region of a system, assuming voltages as input and output
quantities, can be described by,
=
where is the proportionality constant. In this region, an increase in the

input will produce an increase (or a decrease in some systems) with a certain
proportionality factor. At the non-linear region however, the relationship between
the input and output can be described by higher order equation such as,
where
1, 2,
++
are the weights per degree of input.
The input can be thought of as the independent variable while the output
as the dependent variable. Students are encouraged to think of other examples
of system that exhibit linear and nonlinear input-output relationship.
3
6
3.3 Accuracy and Precision

Compared to the expected or theoretical value, how do we determine the
closeness of gathered actual data? Can we call it accurate, precise, or both?
Accuracy and precision are two different things and one must observe care when
using either of these terms. To understand these basic concepts, let us examine
Figure 30.
Figure 30. Difference between accuracy and precision. [13]
Four (4) target boards with different levels of accuracy and precision are
shown. Let the bullseye be the expected or theoretical value and the trial shots
as the gathered data. The x-axis is increasing with accuracy while the y-axis with
precision. Clearly, higher accuracy means that the gathered data, no matter how
sparse the data is, have minimal error. That is, data are close to the theoretical
value. On the other hand, precision suggests how gathered data are close to
each other (i.e., consistency) regardless of the amount of error.
The best condition is undoubtedly Figure 30d. However, it is important to
recognize that analysis is done after gathering the data. Performing an
experiment is not targeting the theoretical data. Some researchers tend to bias
the process of (i.e., before or during the experiment) gathering data just to
conclude that they got an accurate and precise data. This is not a good research
practice. One must report what are actually collected. After all, there are no
correct nor incorrect data only improper execution of experiments.
3
7
3.4 Circuit-Level Analysis of the

Multimeter
The physical appearance and overview of the operation of multimeter was
discussed in the previous chapter. Before we proceed, let us again remind
ourselves on how to measure current and voltage using multimeters.
= =
In this chapter, we will dig deeper on how multimeters work in a circuitlevel point of view the ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter. Before that, we
should be able to understand voltage source, current source, and the
characteristic of the 1mA movement. The galvanometer scale is the primary
component used to indicate current, voltage and resistance in an analog sense.
3.4.1 Practical Power Supply

The power supply is the source and hence, the circuit to be connected
(called sink) will draw energy from it. The redundancy of terms used here will
help us understand and remember the concepts and later on, to develop
intuition. In circuit theory (EEE 31/33), we always assume that voltage and
current sources are ideal. However, in a real-world scenario (e.g. EEE 34), some
non-ideal conditions exist.
Figure 31. Practical voltage source (left) and practical current source (right). [14]
A practical voltage source is represented with a series resistance while a

practical current source has a parallel resistance as shown in Figure 31. How do
these resistances make the sources non-ideal? If we connect a resistive
network/circuit at nodes a and b of the voltage source with e Volts, the circuit
will draw energy or current i. There will be a voltage drop across the series
resistance r. Thus, instead of supplying the full voltage e to the circuit, a lower
level of (e ir) Volts is supplied. The reason why a parallel resistance on a

current source makes it a practical one is left for the students to analyze.
3
8
Nowadays, power supplies are designed such that these non-idealities are,
if not eliminated, minimized. We can assume that the power supplies in the
laboratory are close to ideal ones. This section only opens to us that such
practicality exists.
3.4.2 Characteristic of the 1mA movement

Galvanometer Scale
We have seen how the 1mA movement looks like. Inside it are permanent
magnet, coils, the needle pointer, and the calibration scale for the reading as
shown in Figure 32. The electrical symbol used is a circle with a letter A
(signifying Ampere) since it senses current.
Figure 32. 1mA movement inside structure (left) and its electrical symbol (right).
[15]
The 1mA movement is characterized by its internal resistance (meter

resistance) and the full-scale current it can measure safely, . In this case, the fullscale current is obviously
1mA. The internal resistance varies from one galvanometer to another. Typical value ranges from 50 to 300.
Note that the following discussions will use the galvanometer scale to
measure not only current but also voltage and resistance. Is that really possible?
Using circuit analysis, the answer is definitely a yes. We will limit our discussion
on DC analysis. AC analysis will be tackled in later experiments where digital
multimeters will be used.
3
9
3.4.3 DC Ammeter
Using the 1mA movement to measure DC current is pretty straightforward.
We only need to insert the 1mA movement to the line where we want to
determine the current. Suppose we have a resistive circuit where we want to
measure the current (call it circuit under test). In this chapter, we denote the
circuit under test in red while the circuit under discussion in black for uniformity
in circuit diagrams. For simpler analysis, we represent the circuit under test by its
Thevenin equivalent with a voltage source and series resistance as shown in
Figure 33. Nodes a and b are initially connected.
Figure 33. Measuring current using the galvanometer as the ammeter.
Next we want to identify the current flowing through the circuit. Break the
circuit to split a and b and insert the 1mA movement as suggested in Figure 33.
The 1mA movement is now part of the circuit and it is then re-closed. The
current will now flow through the meter and the needle will deflect to display a
reading. This scheme is fairly simple. However, let us remember the physical
limitations of the 1mA movement.
First is that the 1mA movement has a finite internal resistance . One
should be able to recognize that the reading will be affected since there is an
additional series resistance to the
circuit. The current without the meter is simply,
while the current with meter
inserted
is,
. Let us define ammeter
as the ratio of two
=
accuracy
values,
=
=
+
Clearly, if = then the accuracy would be unity (or 100%). depends on the circuit under test and thus our ammeter should work with any circuits
equivalent Thevenin
resistance value. For an ideal ammeter, what should be the value of ? What is
the worst case scenario relating and ? Lastly, is it possible to achieve > 1?
Given the quantified ammeter accuracy, the amount of error will be,
=(
4
0
The term insertion error is used since we get this error by literally
inserting the ammeter to the circuit. The importance of giving a specific name
will be evident as we discussed the error for the voltmeter case.
The second and last limitation of the 1mA movement is its full-scale limit.
is
constant
and the ammeter can only measure values less than or equal to this value. Is
there a way to extend the measurement range? For example if the needle
deflects to full-scale 1mA position, the extended-ammeter actually measures a
higher value of say, 10mA? This is possible through current division. Since the
1mA movement can only handle up to 1mA, the remaining 9mA current (real
measured current is 10mA) should flow somewhere else.
Let the target current (i.e., extended range) be . To extend the range of
the ammeter, we need a lower resistance value compared to that is connected in
parallel with the 1mA movement. This is a shunt (another term for parallel)
resistor, where the majority of the current will flow (see Figure 34). Remember
that current tends to flow in a path with least resistance.
Figure 34. Extending the range of the ammeter.
Figure 34 shows how to extend the range of the 1mA movement. Simply
connect a shunt resistor across the 1mA movement. The question now is how do
we determine the value of to extend from to ? We must know the value of first.
Then by KCL we have,
=
With maximum current
, the voltage across the nodes is,

=
Thus, the value of should be,

=
=
(
Since
< , then indeed,

(
< .
4
1
3.4.4 DC Voltmeter
In the previous section, we have seen how simple it is to use the 1mA
movement to act as an ammeter. In this section, we will use the 1mA movement to
measure voltage instead. By Ohms
Law, = . Since the 1mA movement measures current, we only need a resistor in series to make it act as a voltmeter as shown in Figure 35.
Figure 35. DC Voltmeter structure using 1mA movement.
Let us define input resistance of the voltmeter as = ( + ). This is the resistance looking into
the voltmeter. and are the measured current and voltage respectively of this constructed voltmeter.
For clarity, the 1mA movement displays current reading. We are taking advantage of the fact that
we have the knowledge of to indicate a voltage reading as provided by Ohms Law. Instead of a fullscale current , the full-scale voltage that our constructed
voltmeter can measure is,
=( +
Next we define the voltmeter accuracy. Suppose again that we have a

resistive circuit but this time, we use a Norton equivalent instead (see Figure 36).
Figure 36. Measuring voltage using the galvanometer with a series resistor as the
voltmeter.
Without the voltmeter, the voltage is =

voltmeter
in parallel, the voltage
is
accuracy is,
= [
)]
. Connecting the
. It can be shown that the

voltmeter
=
+
4
2
Again, if = then the accuracy would be unity (or 100%). depends on the circuit under test and thus our voltmeter should work with any
circuits equivalent Norton
resistance value. For an ideal voltmeter, what should be the value of ? One might
think an outright answer of infinity. If is also very large or of about infinite value,
then we have,
=
(? )
The above equation does not make sense in the very first place. Math tells us that this case is indeterminate. To achieve maximum accuracy, ideally
we want such that,
Similar to the DC ammeter, is it possible to have > 1? Given the quantified

voltmeter accuracy, the amount of error will be,
=(
For voltmeter, the error is termed as loading error due to the loading
effect caused by
connecting the meter with finite resistance to a circuit. Ideally, all current in
Figure 36 should stay within the circuit under test even if we connect the
voltmeter in parallel. This was not
the case since we have read a current reading
translating to our voltage reading
.
Accuracy and error values represented above are dimensionless. Values in
percentage are preferred however when reporting data.
There should be no confusion between the ideal conditions of voltage
source and voltmeter, as well as between current source and the ammeter. For
each combination, the former is a source and the latter can be thought of as a
sink.
4
3
3.4.5 Ohmmeter
Ohmmeter is the mode of multimeter that measures resistance. We have
learned that both the ammeter and voltmeter draw current from the circuit under
test in order to get a reading. For an ohmmeter, the case is different. In fact,
ohmmeters have their own voltage supply. In actual, this voltage supply is of the
form of a battery.
The voltage being supplied by a battery is not constant over time. Will this
affect the resistance reading? How to correct or re-calibrate the ohmmeter for
such changes? Analog ohmmeters always have the zero adjust knob. It is
basically a potentiometer used to zero the ohmmeter (see Figure 37). The
reader is encouraged to look back at the physical structure of the analog
multimeter in the previous chapter. This will help in interconnecting the concepts
discussed in this section. The ohmmeter circuitry constructed using the 1mA
movement is shown in the figure below.
b
Figure 37. Ohmmeter structure using 1mA movement.
Let us define the resistance seen looking into the ohmmeter structure as,
=( +
Shorting the leads a and b, we can zero the ohmmeter such that,
Suppose that we are to measure a resistor with unknown value, as shown

in Figure 38. We connect the ohmmeter leads to the legs of the resistor. The
measured or displayed
current will now be,
=
4
4
Figure 38. Measuring the resistance of an unknown resistor using analog ohmmeter.
Here we define a parameter called meter deflection denoted by . This is a measure of how the needle
deflects in reference to the full-scale position. Thus, [ , ]. It can be easily shown that,
=
+
The 1mA movement displays the position of the needle, hence the value
of
. If we
know
the value of , then we can determine the resistance value of the unknown
resistor using the equation above.
4
5
4 Experiments
The concepts presented in the previous chapters serve as a strong foundation
in performing the required experiments, as well as developing critical analysis on the
data to be gathered. This chapter contains the inventory of required experiments for
EEE 34. A pre-lab sheet is available for students to answer and submit in class before
each actual experiment either in-print or handwritten on a pad paper. The in-lab
sheets however are not to be submitted. These serve as guide for students
throughout each experiment. After gathering data and analysing them, some
required discussion questions are to be answered. The complete, concise and
coherent documentation in IEEE format should be submitted per group two (2)
weeks after the experiment is finished. Note that some experiments might take up
two (2) meetings depending on available schedule. All experiments for EEE 34 should
be performed throughout the semester.
The experiments presented here are in chronological order but the

delivery still depends on the laboratory instructor. A SAFETY QUIZ must be
passed by a student before he/she proceeds with any experiment. If the student
fails the quiz, then he/she will be marked absent for the experiment scheduled
for that day. In other words, he/she can only perform an experiment until he/she
passed the safety quiz. The format and administration of the quiz again depend
on the laboratory instructor.
4
6
Electrical Measurements Laboratory EEE 34

Name:
__________________________________________________________
Student Number:
__________________________
Section:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________
Experiment 0a (Pre-Lab)
Basic Measurements
Put a check on the box if the corresponding task is accomplished.
A. Join the class sections online group.
Found in EEE 34 Student Laboratory Manual
B. Read and understand Class Policies, Chapter 1 Safety Practices in
the Laboratory [1], Section 1.1 Care in handling and use of a
multimeter, and Section 1.2 Laboratory Rules and Regulations
with all their sub-section/s, if applicable.
C. Read and understand Section 2.3.1 Multimeter, Section 2.1.1
Power Supply, Section 2.2.1.1 Resistors, Section 2.3.3
Protoboard/Breadboard, Section 3.1 Theory and Practice, and
Section 3.2.1 Error with all their sub-section/s, if applicable.
Do/answer the following (indicate all references used):
1. List the advantages/disadvantages of using analog meters over digital
meters. Which is better to use and why?
2. Draw two separate diagrams showing a multimeter measuring (a) voltage

across and (b) current through a resistor in a simple one-loop circuit.
3. (This item is NOT required.) What are the different types of resistors,
capacitors and inductors? Why these components are manufactured using
different types of material?
REFERENCE/
S:
4
7

Group Number/Letter: _______
Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 0: Basic
Measurements
I.
OBJECTIVES
a) Learn to use the power supply, protoboard, and analog multimeter.
b) Learn to measure voltage, current and resistance in simple circuits.
II.
MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT

(3) different value resistors (different with other resistors below; for Part A)
(1) 1k resistor
(1) 100 resistor
(1) 5.1k resistor
(1) 50 resistor
(1) digital multimeter (DMM)
(1) single power supply
(1) analog multimeter (AMM)
protoboard, connectors and
clips
III.
PROCEDURE
NOTE: You can use a digital multimeter (DMM) to counter-check your
measurements using analog multimeter (AMM).
A. Measuring Resistance using Ohmmeter
1. Zeroing the meter scale. Choose a resistance range. Short the two
meter leads by touching the metallic points together. Use the zero
knob on the front of the meter to adjust the pointer so it is aligned with
the zero printed on the Ohms scale. On which resistance range the
sensitivity of the scale is the least (i.e., cannot be zeroed)? Explain
why.
2. Determine the nominal value of the three resistors issued to your group
by reading the color code. Record this nominal value in the table below.
3. Using the analog multimeter (AMM) as ohmmeter, select a resistance
range/multiplier that, for this resistor, will place the needle somewhere
in the middle or right-side of the scale. Zero the meter on this scale,
then measure the resistor value. Remember to re-zero if you change
scales. You will be able to accurately read the resistance to two
significant places, why? Interpolate the third digit. Record the
measured value of the resistors using Table I.
TABLE I
Resistors
RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT RESISTORS

Color Code
Resistance ()
(indicate 4-band
colors)
Ra
Rb
Rc
based on Color
Code
Resistance
()
based on
AMM
4
8
B. Measuring Voltage using Voltmeter
1. Set the function switch on the front of the AMM to DC voltage (V DC), and
the range switch on the highest scale.
2. Turn on the power supply and turn the output voltage all the way up. Be
careful to observe the proper polarity. Touch the AMM leads to the
output jacks on the power supply as shown in Fig. 1. If the needle
deflects the wrong way, i.e. to the left instead of to the right, the meter
lead positions need to be reversed. Select a scale that places the
needle as high as possible on the scale, without pegging the needle.
Measure and record the maximum output voltage of the supply.
Figure 1. Connection between power supply and analog multimeter set to V DC.
3. Turn the output voltage all the way down and measure and record the
minimum voltage this power supply can produce. If a FINE knob is
available on your power supply unit, turn this also to minimum.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 to another power supply (borrow from the group
beside you). Record your results in the table below. Did you achieve the
ideal minimum and maximum voltages? If not, explain why.
Power Supply
(mV)
PS1
PS2
TABLE II
POWER SUPPLY VOLTAGES
Maximum Voltage
Minimum Voltage
(V)
4
9
C. Determining Resistance Using Voltage and Current Measurements
1. Set the power supply to 10V then turn it off. Set up the circuit shown
below on a protoboard using R1 = 1k and R2 = 5.1k.
Figure 2. Simple circuit setup.
Draw the circuit including the multimeter which you will use to measure the
voltage across R2 and explain why you think this will work.
2. Set the function switch on the AMM to read DC voltage (DCV), and the
scale switch to the range appropriate for measuring 10V. Turn on the
power supply and then measure the voltage across the resistor R2.
Take note of the voltage polarity before taking your measurement. If
you dont get a reading, check your connections carefully. Record the
actual voltage to three significant figures.
Draw the circuit including the multimeter which you will use to measure the
current through R2 and explain why you think this will work.
3. Set the function controls on the AMM to read DC amperes (DCmA).
Start with the scale switch set to the highest scale. One step at a time,
change the range switch so that more sensitive current scales are
selected. If the needle pegs at the upper end of the scale, quickly
switch back to the next higher scale. Read the current indicated on the
meter and record this value.
4. Using the measured values for the voltage across and the current
through this resistor, compute the power dissipated by the resistor R2.
Show your solution.
D. Computing Resistance and Error

In previous sections of this exercise, you determined the value of the resistor by
direct measurement using the ohmmeter and by reading the color code. In this
section you will compute the actual resistance using Ohms law and compare
the results. Show all solutions.
1. Replace R2 with each resistor used in Part A one at a time. With the
measured values of the voltage and current obtained using steps C.2
and C.3, solve for the resistance R2 using Ohms law. Record the
measured and computed values in Table III.
5
0
TABLE III
USING OHMS LAW TO MEASURE RESISTANCE
Resistance of R2 ()
computed using Ohms Law
Resistors
( )
( )
Ra
Rb
Rc
2. For the following error calculations, assume that the resistance value
determined using the ohmmeter in Part A is the actual value of the
resistor R2. Compute error between the measured and nominal/true
(color code) value, using the equation,
%
= | | 100%
3. Repeat these error calculations for the computed resistance of D.1 as

the actual value. Record these values and tabulate the results by
creating Table IV.
Resistors
Resistance
()
Color Code
TABLE IV
ERROR CALCULATIONS
Resistance
()
Ohmmeter
(%)
Resistance
()
Ohms Law
(%)
Ra
Rb
Rc
4. Explain the possible origins of any error in these resistance values.
E. Power Ratings
1. Using the Fig. 2 but this time using R1 = 100 and R2 = 50,
compute for the voltage across, current through, and the power
dissipated by each of the resistors. Show solutions.
2. Replace R1 with 1k resistor. Compare with the previous case in terms
of power ratings. Explain using circuit analysis.
5
1

Name:
__________________________________________________________
Student Number:
__________________________
Section:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________
Experiment 1 (Pre-Lab)
Debugging Circuits
A. Accomplish and submit the Student Information
Card (SIC) Found in EEE 34 Student Laboratory
Manual
B. Read and understand Section Connectivity/Continuity Test ,
Section Potentiometer, Section 2.3.3 Protoboard/Breadboard,

Section 3.1 Theory and Practice, Section 2.1.5 Equipment
Calibration, and Section 2.3.3.2
Debugging/Troubleshooting Circuits
section/s, if applicable.
[11]
with all their sub-

1. What is a light-emitting diode (LED)? Briefly discuss its operation.
Include diagrams.
2. Some students fear to vary or tweak the circuit against to what is

provided in the instructional schematic diagram. This fear originates
from possible corresponding costs and consequences to damage to
components and equipment properties. However, this fear serves as a
barrier why many students cannot learn how to debug circuits. In your
own opinion, explain how you will overcome this fear?
REFERENCE/
S:
52

Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 1: Debugging
Circuits
I.
OBJECTIVES
a) To recognize the existence of a problem in a non-working circuit.
b) To determine the nature of the said problem.
c) To debug circuits in a systematic manner.
II.

(1) protoboard
(1) single power supply
(1) analog multimeter (AMM)
(1) 555 IC
connectors, clips and probes
III.
(3) 1k resistor
(1) 470k
resistor
(1) red LED
(1) green LED
(1) 1uF
capacitor
PROCEDURE
A. Connectivity/Continuity Test
Most, if not all, problems encountered in a non-working circuit are due to
points that no longer form electrically continuous connections. The causes may
not be observable or easily identifiable when the problem arises. Some of the
possible causes include: a blown-up fuse or component, corroded connectors,
disconnected or faulty wires, loose connections or simply an unintended open
circuit.
Constructing circuits usually overlooks a very important assumption that all
wires and connectors are good. Using a bad wire can be troublesome especially if
used in a complex circuit. Thus, it is a good practice to check all wires and
connectors first before using them in constructing circuits.
1. Set the analog multimeter (AMM) in ohmmeter mode. The multiplier
setting is immaterial. Get five (5) connecting wires, five (5) connector
clips, two (2) power supply clips, one (1) oscilloscope probe, and one
(1) signal generator probe. Label each connector.
2. Use connectivity/continuity test to check if each connector is either
good or bad. A 0 reading (or even if the needle deflects to the 0
direction) indicates a good or connected condition. Construct a table
and record the status of each connector.
3. Use connecting wires and connectivity test to verify the connected
ports on a protoboard. Draw the protoboard and indicate which group
of ports (e.g. row, column) are connected.
53
B. Theoretical and Practical Measurements
1. Set the power supply to 10V then turn it off. Set up the circuit shown
below on a protoboard using R1 = R2 = 1k.
Figure 1. Theoretical and practical measurements.
2. It is very useful to determine first the theoretical signal values in a

circuit before interpreting if acquired measurements are erroneous or
not. In other words, the actual values should guide the experimenter if
the data being gathered are valid or not. From the circuit, what are the
theoretical voltages across the power supply, R1, and R2?
3. Using a voltmeter Vdc, measure the voltage across the power supply,
R1, and R2. Tabulate your results. Did you get measurement values
close to the actual ones? If not, explain why.
4. Put another resistor R3 = 1k in parallel with R2. Repeat steps B.2 and
B.3.
C. Simple Circuit to Test if a Component is Working Properly
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 2. Use R = 1k, Vs = 10V, and
two differently-colored LEDs for D1 and D2. The diagram for LED is
also provided.
Figure 2. Simple circuit. [0b-1]
2. Assuming your wiring is correct and all LEDs are in good condition,
only one LED should be lit. Which one (D1 or D2)? Measure the
voltages Vin and Vout using a voltmeter Vdc.
3. Now, reverse the position of both D1 and D2. Which LED is lit at this
moment?
Note that this procedure tests if an LED is working or not. However, there
are easier and more creative ways to check the condition of an LED. This
is just one way to demonstrate testing of components using a simple

circuit.
54
D. Complex Circuit
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 3. The 555 IC pin-outs is shown in
Figure 4. This circuit emulates the traffic lights we see in the streets.
Make the circuit work and call the attention of your instructor once
done. The dots indicate connected nodes and jumps are not connected
nodes.
Figure 3. Flashing LED circuit. [0b-2]
Figure 4. 555 IC pin-outs. [0b-3]
2. Setup your circuit supposing that you carelessly constructed it (i.e.,

it should not function properly). It might be wrong wiring, different
components, faulty wires, faulty components, etc.
3. Find a partner group that is also finished with D.1 and D.2. Exchange
circuit/protoboard. Debug the circuit. Document how your group
debugged the circuit in a systematic manner. It would be easier to
provide a step-by-step process.
55
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
1. There are some scenarios wherein connectors are continuous only in a
certain orientation or position, or when held tightly/loosely, or left
hanging. What might this suggest?
2. Suppose the battery and light bulb circuit shown in Figure 5 failed to
work, explain how you will use the divide-and-conquer approach to
debug the circuit. At which pair of nodes will you start checking for
voltage measurement? Explain.
Figure 5. Battery and light bulb circuit. [0b-4]
5
6

Name:
__________________________________________________________
Student Number:
__________________________
Section:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________
DC Measurements (Current)
Read and understand Section 2.3.2 DArsonval Galvanometer or
1mA
Movement, Section 3.4 Circuit-Level Analysis of the Multimeter ,
Section 3.4.3 DC Ammeter, Section 3.4.4 DC Voltmeter, Section
3.4.5 Ohmmeter, Section 2.1.5 Equipment Calibration , and
Section Potentiometer with all their sub-section/s, if applicable.
1. What is/are the IDEAL characteristic/s of a voltage source? Of a current
source?
Voltage Source
Source
Current
2. What is/are the IDEAL characteristic/s of an ammeter, voltmeter and

ohmmeter?
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Ohmmeter
3. Which of the meters (ammeter, voltmeter, or ohmmeter) need/s an

internal power source to operate? Which do/does not and why?
REFERENCE/
S:
5
7

Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 2: DC Measurements
(Current)
I.
OBJECTIVES
a) To know the different methods of making analog DC current
measurements and to know when each method is applicable
b) To be able to specify the degree of accuracy of any measurements
made
II.

(2) Variable DC Voltage
Supplies
(1) 1mA Movement
(1) Potentiometer Box
(1) Digital Multimeter
III.
(1) Analog Multimeter

(3 per value) Resistors 100, 1 k, 10
k
(1) Resistor 10-20
Protoboard, Connecting Wires,
Alligator Clips
PROCEDURE
A. Determining the Internal Resistance of the 1mA Movement

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 1 with R2 disconnected and the
power supply turned off. The voltage adjustment knob of the power
supply should be set to minimum (fully counter-clockwise).
2. Turn the power supply on. Slowly increase Vs using the voltage
adjustment knob. The 1mA movement needle should start to move
upscale. Continue increasing Vs until the needle indicates full-scale (1
mA).
3. Connect R2. Use a 200 or 500 potentiometer. Its initial setting is
immaterial. Nevertheless, once inserted, the 1mA movement reading
should decrease. Adjust the shaft of R2 until the 1mA movement
indicates half-scale (0.5 mA). (If the current through the ammeter does
not reach half-scale using the 200 potentiometer, try a larger valued
potentiometer.)
4. Disconnect R2. Measure its resistance using an ohmmeter. The value
measured will be approximately equal to the internal resistance of the
1mA movement, Rm.
B. Errors in Current Measurements Due to Insertion Effects

1. Refer to the circuit in Figure 2. For each combination of Vs and R in
Table I, compute for the value of the current, I, that should flow. Make
sure that you are using the correct value for Vs! Use a digital voltmeter
if necessary. Fill out Table I
correspondingly.
TABLE I
CURRENT MEASUREMENTS
Vs (V) R () I, Ideal
I, Measured using 1mA movement
(mA)
(mA)
0.1
200
1
2k
10
20 k
5
8
2. For each of these same combinations, set up the circuit of Figure 2 and
measure the current that flows by replacing the short circuit between a
and b with your 1mA movement. Complete Table I with your measured
values.
C. Extending the Range of the 1mA Movement
1. The full-scale range of a 1mA movement can be extended by
connecting a shunt resistor across it, as shown in Figure 3. Given
knowledge on the value of your Rm, compute for the value of the shunt
resistor, Rsh that will extend the range of your ammeter from 1 mA to
10 mA.
2. Use the scheme of Figure 4 to obtain a resistance with a value equal to
that computed in Procedure A above (use a 10-20 resistor). This
setup will act as your shunt resistance in Figure 3. Or you can just use a
resistor with a value near to the one you computed in Procedure C.1.
3. Setup the newly-constructed 10mA movement. Check its operation with
the three calibration values indicated in Table II. As shown in Figure 3,
neglecting the internal resistance of the newly-constructed 10mA
movement, you can vary the voltage supply instead to obtain the
calibration current values. For example, if Vs = 2V and R = 1k
in series, then a 2mA current should flow through the circuit. Fill up the
table correspondingly.
TABLE II
CHECKING THE OPERATION OF THE 10mA MOVEMENT
Calibration 1mA movement
Corresponding
Current
Reading
Reading of Iu (mA)
(mA)
(Deflection)
Measured
Computed
2
4
6
8
10
Figure 1
Figure 1. Determining the

internal resistance of the
1mA movement.
Figure 2. Investigating insertion

error in current measurements.
Figure 4. Obtaining the required

shunt Figure 3. Newly-constructed 10mA resistor.
movement.
5
9
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
Try to answer the following while you are inside the laboratory. Some
questions can be answered by further investigating the procedure stated
above.
1. If we are to measure the internal resistance of the 1mA movement,
why not use an ohmmeter right away? State possible reasons.
2. Show that the method used in determining the internal resistance of
the 1mA movement is just an approximation. What is the internal
resistance of your ammeter based on the procedure? Assuming that the
internal resistance you obtained is typical of an ammeter, show that for
the resistor R1 used in the procedure, the approximation has high
accuracy.
3. Based on the meter resistance of your 1mA movement, predict the
accuracy that you should obtain for each of the measurements made in
Procedure B. Compare these figures with the actual accuracy of your
measurements. Account for any differences. Extend Table I (or create a
new table) to show these figures.
4. Show how you computed for the value of R sh to be used to convert your
1mA movement into a 10mA movement. What is the combined meter
resistance of your 10mA movement?
5. Discuss the linearity and accuracy of the 10mA movement you
constructed based on the calibration points given to you in Table II.
What are the possible sources of error, (if there is any)?
6
0

Name:
__________________________________________________________
Student Number:
__________________________
Section:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________
DC Measurements (Voltage)
Read and understand again Section 2.3.2 DArsonval
Galvanometer or 1mA
1. Given the knowledge on the operation of 1mA movement (i.e.,
galvanometer), explain how it can be used to measure voltage. Explain
loading error in using this method.
2. Explain the principle behind (voltage/current) source transformation.
3. Explain how a potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider. Provide a

circuit diagram.
REFERENCE/
S:
6
1

Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 3: DC Measurements
(Voltage)
I.
OBJECTIVES
a) To know the different methods of making analog DC voltage
measurements and to know when each method is applicable
b) To be able to specify the degree of accuracy of any measurements
made
II.

(2) Variable DC Voltage
Supplies
(1) 1mA Movement
(1) Protoboard
III.
(1) Analog Multimeter [AMM]

(1) Digital Multimeter [DMM]
(3 per value) Resistors 1 k, 10 k,
100 k
Connecting Wires, Alligator Clips
PROCEDURE
A. Determining the Internal Resistance of the 1mA Movement

Use a digital multimeter set to ohmmeter and measure the internal
resistance of your 1mA movement. Record its value.
B. The DC Voltmeter using 1mA Movement
1. A DC ammeter can be used to measure voltage by simply connecting a
resistor in series with it, as shown in Figure 2. Compute the value of the
series resistance Rs that will enable your 1mA movement to measure
DC voltages up to 10 volts.
2. Use the potentiometer to obtain the resistance computed in step 1
above. Set up your 10V full-scale voltmeter. Check its operation with
the three calibration values indicated in Table I. Use the power supply
for each calibration voltage value. Fill out Table I correspondingly.
NOTE: You can use a standard resistor value if the internal resistance of
1mA movement is very low.
TABLE I
DC VOLTMETER USING 1mA MOVEMENT
Calibratio
1mA Movement
Corresponding
n
Voltage
(V)
2
4
6
8
10
Reading
(Deflection)
Reading of Vu (V)
6
2
C. Errors in Voltage Measurements Due to Loading Effects
1. Refer to the circuit in Figure 3. For each of the values of R given in Table
II, compute for the value of Vx that should be obtained. Fill out Table II
correspondingly.
2. For each of the values of R in Table II, set up Figure 3 and measure the
voltage Vx using your just constructed voltmeter (see Figure 2). Fill the
measured values into Table II.
T ABLE II
LOADING EFFECTS IN VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
R () Theoretical Vx (V)
Measured Vx (V)
1k
10 k
100 k
D. The Potentiometer Bridge Method of Measuring Voltage
1. The potentiometer bridge method can be used to make voltage
measurements with absolutely no loading effect on the measured
circuit. A potentiometer bridge
voltmeter is shown in Figure 4. The DC supply should be set to the
desired full-scale voltage. The potentiometer is adjusted such that the
resistance between points X and Y is initially zero to avoid a reverse
reading in your multimeter. A voltage measurement is made by:
a. connecting terminals a & b to the unknown voltage to be
measured, making sure that proper polarities are observed
b. adjusting the potentiometer until the 1mA movement reads zero,
then
c. disconnecting a & b and removing the potentiometer from the
circuit.
d. measuring the resistance RXY. Also, measure the resistances RWX
and RWY. The measured voltage should correspond to the value
determined by voltage division.
2. Repeat Procedure C using the potentiometer bridge method. Fill out
Table III with your measurements.
NOTE : Since Figures 3 and 4 use the same voltage level (10Vdc), you can
in fact use a single DC supply and implement them in parallel.
R ()
1k
10 k
100 k
TABLE III
LOADING EFFECTS IN VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
Theoretical Vx (V)
RXY ()
RWY ()
Corresponding Vx
(V)
6
3
Figure 1. Determining the internal

resistance of the 1mA movement.
Figure 2. DC Voltmeter to measure an

unknown voltage using the 1mA
movement.
Figure 3. Investigating loading effects in voltage

measurements.
Figure 4. Measuring an unknown voltage using potentiometer

bridge technique.
6
4
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
above.
1. Show how you computed for the value of Rs to be used to convert your
1mA movement into a 10 V voltmeter. What is the internal resistance of
your 10 V voltmeter?
2. Using a graph, plot the measured voltage Vreading (y-axis) vs.
calibration voltage Vcalibration (x-axis) in Table I. In the same graph,
also plot the ideal function Vreading = Vcalibration. Compare the
two plots. Discuss the linearity and accuracy of the 10V voltmeter you
constructed based on the calibration. What are the possible sources of
error (if there is any)?
3. Based on the internal resistance of your 10V voltmeter, predict the
accuracy that you should obtain for each of the measurements made in
Procedure C. Compare these figures with the actual accuracy of your
measurements. Account for any differences. Extend Table II (or create a
new table) to show these figures.
4. Prove that the measured voltage across a & b in Procedure D is equal to
the unknown voltage being measured. Why is there no loading effect when
this technique is used to measure voltages? Is this consistent with your
results? Account for any errors.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages associated with each
technique used to measure voltage in this exercise?
6
5

Name:
__________________________________________________________
Student Number:
__________________________
Section:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________
Resistance Measurements
Read and understand again Section 2.3.2 DArsonval
Galvanometer or 1mA
1. From the previous experiments, what practical issues have you learned
so far?
2. Do these change the way you view theories in circuit analysis?

If yes, how? Otherwise, why?
3. State possible precautions in using an ohmmeter.
REFERENCE/
S:
6
6

Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 4: Resistance
Measurements
I.
OBJECTIVES
a) To know the different methods of measuring resistance
b) To know when each method can be applied
c) To be able to specify the accuracy of any measurements made
II.

(1) Variable DC Supply
(1) 1 mA Movement
20k
(1) Digital Multimeter
(1) Analog Multimeter
Clips
III.

(1 each) Resistors Ra, Rb, Rc and 10k,
(1) 10k potentiometer

Protoboard, Connecting Wires, Alligator
PROCEDURE
A. The Series Ohmmeter Method

1. Set up the circuit of Figure 1. Set the power supply to 10V and use a 10K
potentiometer for R2. Make sure that the potentiometer is set to maximum
and it reaches the indicated value (or more).
2. Short together terminals a & b and adjust R2 until the 1mA movement
indicates full scale. Leave R2 at this setting.
3. Your instructor will have available three resistors Ra, Rb and Rc whose
resistances you are supposed to determine. Record into Table I the
deflection D produced by each resistance in the 1mA movement when the
resistance is connected to the circuit at terminals a & b.
( )
; [0,1]
1
TABLE I
Resistor
Ra
Rb
Rc
SERIES OHMMETER METHOD

Deflection
Corresponding Resistance
(D)
Reading ()
Using the equation Ru = Ro (1 - D)/D , where Ro = Rm + R2, compute the

corresponding resistance readings and record these in Table I.
B. The Voltmeter - Ammeter Method
1. The same resistances Ra, Rb and Rc are to be determined using the circuit in
Figure 2. Use an analog multimeter as the voltmeter and the 1mA movement
as the ammeter. Do not use the digital voltmeter (DVM) as the intended
loading effects will not be observed. Vs may be set to any reasonable value
provided that the 1mA movement does not go beyond
6
7
full-scale and the maximum power rating of Ru (unknown resistor) is not

exceeded. In other words, Ru should not get too hot while in the powered
circuit. For each of the unknown resistances connected in place of Ru,
record the readings of the voltmeter and the ammeter. Fill the readings
into Table II.
Resistor
Vs (V)
TABLE II
VOLTMETER-AMMETER METHOD A
Voltmeter
Ammeter
reading
reading (V)
(mA)
Ru
Ra
Rb
Rc
*neglecting loading effects from meters
Corresponding
Resistance
Reading* ()
2. Repeat the above procedure using the circuit of Figure 3 to fill in Table III.
Resistor
Vs (V)
TABLE III
VOLTMETER-AMMETER METHOD B
Voltmeter Ammeter reading
Ru
reading (V)
(mA)
Ra
Rb
Rc
*neglecting loading effects from meters
Corresponding
Resistance
Reading* ()
C. The Wheatstone Bridge Method

1. The Wheatstone bridge method is a popular method of measuring resistance
particularly in the field of instrumentation. Figure 4 shows a Wheatstone
bridge circuit. Set up the circuit in Figure 4. Use a potentiometer for R3. Let
R1 = 10k and R2 = 20k. Verify that the power rating (0.25 W) of R1 and R2
are not exceeded even with a source voltage of 20V. Use the voltmeter mode
of the analog multimeter. Make sure of the polarity.
2. Before turning the power on, the potentiometer R3 should first be set to
maximum (for minimum power dissipation). Choose the potentiometer
with the greatest resistance value. Two measurements will be made for
each unknown resistance, one with Vs = 5 volts and another with Vs = 10
volts. The voltmeter should be initially set to be able to read the maximum
imbalance of the bridge, which is Vs. Powering up the circuit, the
voltmeter must be able to read a POSITIVE voltage.
3. The value of Ru can be determined from the values of R1, R2 and R3 if the
bridge is balanced. The objective, therefore, is to get the bridge balanced
by adjusting the potentiometer until the voltmeter reads zero (or the
lowest you can get since the potentiometer has limited adjustment
resolution). Decrease the effective resistance of R3 until you get a zero. If
you are having a hard time obtaining a null, use the next lower value of
the potentiometer. Remember to set first the effective R3 to the highest
resistance setting before adjusting the knob.
4. For each of the resistances Ra, Rb and Rc, take note of the resistance R3
that balances the bridge for each of the power supply settings specified in
C.2 above. This can be done by disconnecting R3 from the circuit and
measuring the resistance on the potentiometer. Fill the obtained values
into Table IV. Use a digital multimeter.
68
TABLE IV
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE METHOD
Resistor Ru R3 () at Vs =
R3 () at Vs =
5V
10V
Ra
Rb
Rc
5. Answer the required discussion question #6 before asking the actual
values Ra, Rb, and Rc from your instructor. Do the values obtained make
sense?
Figure 1. Series ohmmeter method

Figure 3. Voltmeter-ammeter method B
Figure 2. Voltmeter-ammeter method A
Figure 4. Wheatstone bridge method
6
9
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
above.
1. Show that the relationship between unknown resistance Ru and deflection
D for the series ohmmeter circuit of Figure 1 is given by:
Ru = Ro (1 - D)/D, where Ro = Rm + R2 ; D = (I mA)/(1mA)
In our case, what is the value of Ro? Why was it not necessary to measure
the value of R2 to be able to determine the value of Ro?
2. Use the equation given in IV.1 above to determine the values of Ra, Rb and
Rc. Treat these as your experimental results. Compare these with the actual
values of Ra, Rb, and Rc given by your instructor. NOTE: Let the color codes
correspond to their theoretical values. Account for any differences. Extend
Table I (or create a new table) to show your results.
3. From the voltage and current readings obtained in Procedure B, compute the
corresponding resistance values of Ra, Rb, and Rc both for the circuit of Figure
2 and the circuit of Figure 3. Neglect the loading effect of the meters.
Compare these with the actual values of Ra, Rb and Rc. Tabulate your results.
Account for any differences obtained.
4. From the voltage and current readings obtained in Procedure B, recompute the corresponding resistance values of Ra, Rb and Rc taking into
account the loading effect of the meters. How do these compare with the
previously computed values and with the actual values of Ra, Rb and Rc?
5. Given the two
possible arrangements for making resistance
measurements using the voltmeter-ammeter method, when should one
method be used instead of the other if the resistance is to be taken as the
voltage reading divided by the current reading?
6. Derive the relationship between R1, R2, R3 and Ru for the Wheatstone
bridge circuit of Figure 4 under balanced conditions.
7. Taking into account the tolerances of the resistances used in the bridge,
compute for the range of possible values of Ra, Rb and Rc from the values
of R3 obtained in Procedure C. Do the actual values of Ra, Rb and Rc fall
within the computed ranges?
8. What was the actual effect of varying the power supply voltage on the
resistance measurements made using the Wheatstone bridge method?
What should the actual effects have been?
9. Compare the three methods of making resistance measurements taking
into consideration simplicity, cost, speed, accuracy of measuring
equipment, tolerance of resistances used, and any other points that may
be of interest.
7
0

Name:
__________________________________________________________
Student Number:
__________________________
Section:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________
Experiment 5-a/d (Pre-Lab)
Introduction to Oscilloscopes
Familiarize with different parts of an analog oscilloscope. You can
use http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Practical_Electronics/Oscilloscopes
as a guide or start but not as a reference.
Read and understand Section 2.1.2 Function/Signal Generator,
Section 2.1.3 Analog Oscilloscope, and Section 2.1.4 Digital
Oscilloscope.
1. What is an oscilloscope?
2. What are the uses of an oscilloscope?
3. Tell the difference between analog and digital oscilloscope.
4. Given a sinusoidal signal, explain the amplitude, frequency and period

through illustration.
REFERENCE/
S:
7
1

Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 5-a: Introduction to Oscilloscopes

(Analog)
I.
OBJECTIVES
a) To familiarize the student with the operation of a triggered sweep
oscilloscope.
b) To be able to make basic measurements using an oscilloscope
II.

(1) Dual Trace Triggered Sweep Oscilloscope
(1) Signal Generator
III.
PROCEDURE
NOTE: Not all oscilloscopes in the laboratory are of the same brand/version. Varying a setting may
vary from one to another (e.g. pulling a knob instead of rotating, etc.). Nonetheless, the basic
knobs (and functionalities) should be present on the front panel of any oscilloscope. The student is
expected to familiarize him/herself with different oscilloscope interfaces in the laboratory.
Part 1: Initial Settings for Single Trace Operation

Before turning the power on, set the oscilloscope as instructed below.
Display System Controls:
Set the INTENSITY
extremes.
approximately
halfway
between
Vertical System Controls:

Set the vertical mode to Channel 1.
Set the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV selector switch to the least
sensitive position (fully counterclockwise).
The VAR control knob of the VOLTS/DIV switch (usually at
the center of the VOLTS/DIV selector switch) should be in its
calibrated
detent
position
[fully
pressed,
fully
counterclockwise (or clockwise) until it locks-direction
depends on the location of CAL, the calibrated position]
Set the Channel 1 input coupling to GND.
Note: Some oscilloscopes label their vertical channels Channel A &
B or Channel X & Y instead of Channel 1 & 2.
Horizontal System Controls:
Set the SEC/DIV (or MAIN TIME/DIV) switch to 0.5 ms.
The VAR control knob of the SEC/DIV switch (usually at the

center of the SEC/DIV selector switch) should be in its
calibrated x 1 detent position.
Trigger System Controls:
Set the trigger mode to AUTO.
Set the trigger source to Channel 1 (internal).
Set the trigger slope to '+'.
7
2
Part 2: The Display System Controls
Make sure the line voltage setting on the oscilloscope is correct before turning on
the power. Turn the oscilloscope on and allow it to warm up for approximately 30
seconds.
Locating the Beam:
A horizontal line should appear on the screen. You may have to use
the Channel 1 vertical POSITION control knob to locate the line.
Position the line at the center of the screen. Use the horizontal
POSITION control knob to horizontally center the trace. Try to
explore the extreme positions using these knobs. Return the beam
back to the center of the screen.
Focus:
The trace you have on the screen may be out of focus. Make it as
sharp as possible with the FOCUS control.
Intensity:
Set the brightness or illumination to a level comfortable to you.
Refrain from setting the screen too bright to preserve the screen
(i.e. make it last longer).
Trace Rotation:
A trace rotation screw is sometimes available for adjusting the
display should the trace not be perfectly horizontal.
Part 3: The Vertical System Controls

Connect the base of a probe to the Channel 1 vertical input connector. If the
probe has an adjustable attenuation, set it to x 10.
Compensating the Probe:
Set the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch so that the oscilloscope displays
0.2 volts/division. Make sure the VAR control knob is in its calibrated
detent position. Remember that you are using a x10 probe. (Generally,
you would have to multiply the VOLTS/DIV indication by 10 to get the
correct calibration.) Set the channel 1 input coupling to AC. Connect
the probe tip to the PROBE ADJ terminal (on some oscilloscopes, this
is the CAL terminal) provided on the oscilloscope. If the signal is too
small, adjust the VOLTS/DIV knob such that your signal is at least 1
major division peak-to-peak (i.e. from minimum to maximum). If the
signal on the screen is not steady, adjust the trigger LEVEL control
until the signal stabilizes. If the signal still does not stabilize, adjust the
SEC/DIV knob and then the trigger LEVEL control until you stabilize
your signal. Display 2-3 cycles of the signal.
1. Draw the exact wave shape that appears on the screen. Show
how the display appears in relation to the graticule markings on
the oscilloscope face. (The wave that appears on the screen
should be perfectly square. If it is not, a screwdriver adjustment
should be made on the compensation box at the base of the
probe until a square waveform is obtained.)
7
3
2. Set the probe to x1. Choose an appropriate VOLTS/DIV setting

such that the whole waveform is visible. Draw the exact
waveform and indicate the VOLTS/DIV and SEC/DIV used. What
is the difference between a x1 and a x10 probe? What is the
advantage of one over the other?
3. Why is compensation needed? What do you actually do when

you compensate a probe? Does an x1 probe have to be
compensated?
Controlling Vertical Sensitivity:

Set the probe attenuation back to x10, VOLTS/DIV setting to 0.2
volts/div and SEC/DIV to 0.5 ms/div. Adjust the Channel 1 vertical
POSITION control knob to line up the lower edge of the PROBE ADJ
waveform with the center graticule line.
4. How many major divisions is the height of the displayed
waveform? What is the corresponding peak-to-peak voltage of
the PROBE ADJ signal?
5. Turn the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch two click stops to the right
(clockwise). What is the new Channel 1 scale factor?

waveform now? Is this consistent with the measurement made in
4 above?
7. What is the effect of turning the VAR control knob of the

VOLTS/DIV switch out of its detent position? What possible use
could this knob have?
Return the VAR knob to its detent position.

Coupling the Signal:
Set the Channel 1 input coupling to GND and position the trace on
the center graticule line.
7
4
8. With the probe connected to the PROBE ADJ terminal, switch
the Channel 1 input coupling to AC. What is the eventual
position of the waveform on the screen?
9. Is this true for all settings of the VOLTS/DIV switch?
10.Now switch Channel 1 input coupling to DC. What happens to

the displayed signal?
11.What is the difference between AC and DC coupling? When

should one be used in place of the other? (Use the trigger level
to stabilize the waveform in case it is unstable).
The Vertical Mode Controls:

Connect a probe to the channel 2-input connector. Do not forget to
set the probe to x10 if it is adjustable. Set the Channel 2 VOLTS/DIV
switch to 0.2 volts and the Channel 2 VOLTS/DIV VAR control knob
to its calibrated detent position. Set the channel 2 input coupling to
GND.
Set the vertical mode to CH 2(channel 2). The displayed signal will
now come from the channel 2 connector. Vertically position the
channel 2 trace to the center of the screen with the channel 2
vertical POSITION control.
Set the channel 2 coupling to AC and check the compensation of the
channel 2 probe as you did with the channel 1 probe. Play around
with the channel 2 controls as you did with the channel 1 controls to
give you a feel for using channel 2.
With both the channel 1 and channel 2 probes connected to the
PROBE ADJ terminal, set their corresponding input coupling to AC
and set also the vertical mode to DUAL TRACE (this corresponds to
either the CHOP or ALT mode on other oscilloscopes). The signals
from both probes will simultaneously appear on the screen. Use the
vertical POSITION control of either channel to separate the
traces. You may have to readjust the INTENSITY control to get the
desired intensity.
Try both the ALT and CHOP modes. For each mode, adjust the
SEC/DIV to a very slow setting (counter-clockwise) and observe how
the traces are made. Try to observe how the 2 modes are different.
7
5
Part 4: The Horizontal System Control
Making Time Measurements:
Switch the vertical mode back to CH 1 and display the PROBE ADJ
signal at the center of the screen. Use the horizontal POSITION
control knob to adjust the display until one rising edge of the
displayed waveform is aligned with the center vertical graticule.
12.How many major and minor horizontal graticule markings is it to
the next rising edge of the waveform? How many seconds does
this correspond to?
13.Change the sweep SEC/DIV setting to 0.2 ms. How many

graticule markings is one period of the displayed waveform now?
Are your two measurements consistent?
14.Set the SEC/DIV switch back to 0.5 ms. Turn the VAR control
knob of the SEC/DIV switch out of its calibrated x1 detent
position. How does this affect the display? What are the possible
uses of this knob?
Return the VAR control knob to its calibrated x1 detent position.

15.Pull the horizontal position control knob (on other oscilloscopes,
this corresponds to pulling the VAR control knob) to magnify the
sweep SEC/DIV (x5 on some scopes, x10 on other scopes). What
is the new horizontal scale factor (SEC/DIV)?
16.How many graticule markings is the period of the displayed

waveform now? Is this consistent with your previous
measurements?
Part 5: The Trigger System

Slope Control:
Restore the sweep SEC/DIV to x1 (unmagnified, i.e. VAR returned to x1
detent). Use the oscilloscope to display, through channel 1, a 15 KHz, 2
volt peak- to-peak sinusoidal voltage with no DC offset. Adjust the
sweep speed (SEC/DIV) so that two to three cycles of the waveform are
displayed. Move the trace to the right with the horizontal POSITION
control until you can see the beginning of the trace.
17. Draw the resulting traces as you vary the SLOPE control from '+'
to '-'. How does each setting affect the display? Explain why.
7
6
Trigger Level and Trigger Mode:

NOTE: Trigger mode is in AUTO
18.Move the trigger LEVEL control back and forth through all of
its travel. How does this affect the start of the trace? Why?
Notice that while the signal might lose synchronism at some level
control settings, the trace never disappears.
19.Set the Trigger Mode switch to NORMAL. Now when you use
the trigger LEVEL control to move the triggering point, you'll find
places where the trace disappears. Explain this difference in
behaviour between normal and auto triggering.
Reset the trigger mode to AUTO. Increase the VOLTS/DIV setting to

the next more sensitive position (clockwise).
20. Move the trigger point using the trigger LEVEL control as you did
in 18 above. Which VOLTS/DIV setting allows the trigger level
control knob to have a larger range of motion before the waveform
becomes unstable? If you do not perceive any difference, try an
even more sensitive VOLTS/DIV setting.
21.Is the trigger level a voltage level or a 'number of divisions'

level? Explain.
Dual Trace Triggering:

Set the vertical mode to DUAL TRACE (ALT or CHOP on other
oscilloscopes). Simultaneously display the signal generator output
and the PROBE ADJ signal.
22. Only one of the signals can be made stable using the trigger
LEVEL control? Which one and why? Does your scope have the
capability of making the other trace appear stable? Explain.
7
7
External Trigger:
Reset the scope for single trace Channel 1 operation and redisplay
the signal generator output. Now set the trigger source to EXT.
23.Can the trace be stabilized using the trigger LEVEL control knob?
Why or why not?
24.Transfer the channel 2 probe to the EXT TRIGGER input
connector (this means that the 2 probes are in parallel with the
signal source). The display can now stabilize when the external
trigger input is connected to the signal source? Why?
25.Does the trigger LEVEL control behave in the same manner as

with internal triggering when the vertical sensitivity is increased?
(observed in 19)
26.In this case, is the trigger level a voltage level or a 'number of

divisions' level?
27.Do the SLOPE control and the mode AUTO and NORMAL setting
still behave in the same way?
Line Triggering:
28.Set the trigger source to LINE. The display should destabilize.
Why?
29.Lower the signal generator output frequency (around 500 Hz)

until the display stabilizes. At what frequency is a stable display
achieved?
Continue lowering the signal generator output. Obtain four to five

frequencies at which a stable display is obtained.
30.What signal frequencies can be displayed with stability with the
trigger source set to line? Why? What possible use could this
feature have?
78
The following are empty grid scales that you can use in sketching waveforms.
Volts/Div: _________ Time/Div: _________

_________
Volts/Div: _________ Time/Div:

_________

_________
7
9

Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 5-d: Introduction to Oscilloscopes

(Digital)
I.
OBJECTIVES
c) To familiarize the student with the operation of a triggered sweep
oscilloscope.
d) To be able to make basic measurements using an oscilloscope
II.

(1) Dual Trace Triggered Sweep Oscilloscope
(1) Signal Generator
III.
PROCEDURE
NOTE: Not all oscilloscopes in the laboratory are of the same brand/version. Varying a setting may
vary from one to another (e.g. pulling a knob instead of rotating, etc.). Nonetheless, the basic
knobs (and functionalities) should be present on the front panel of any oscilloscope. The student is
expected to familiarize him/herself with different oscilloscope interfaces in the laboratory.
Part 1: Initial Settings for Single Trace Operation

Like all complex measuring equipment, necessary settings have to be configured:
On the Display Menu, set the Grid setting so that the grid appears
on the display
On the Channel Menu, i.e. CH1 and CH2, set the Volts/Div setting
to Coarse.
Still on the Channel Menu set the Probe setting to x1 by default.
Some convention on this document:
Major divisions indicates the large graduations on the grid
on the oscilloscope screen while minor divisions indicate
the smaller graduations on the grid. The division pertained on
VOLTS/DIV or SEC/DIV are the major divisions.
Vertical System Controls:
Find the vertical controls on the scope.
Set the vertical mode to Channel 1 by pressing CH1. Pressing
it again shows the menu for Channel 1. It might also indicate
which channels are active by lighting up the button.
Set the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV (it is the vertical SCALE knob
on most digital scopes) selector switch to the least sensitive
position (fully counterclockwise).
Set the Channel 1 input coupling to GND. Channel 1 input
Coupling can be
accessed in the Channel 1 menu.
Note: Some oscilloscopes label their vertical channels Channel A &
B or Channel X & Y instead of Channel 1 & 2.
Horizontal System Controls:
Find the horizontal controls on the scope.
8
0
Set the SEC/DIV (or MAIN TIME/DIV; it is the horizontal
SCALE knob in most scopes) switch to 0.5 ms.

Trigger System Controls:
Find the trigger controls on the scope.
On the trigger menu, do the
following: o Set the trigger
mode to EDGE. o Set the
trigger sweep to AUTO.
o Set the trigger source to Channel 1
(internal). o Set the trigger slope to ''.
Part 2: The Display System Controls
Locating the Beam:

A horizontal line should appear on the screen. You may have to use
the Channel 1 vertical POSITION control knob to locate the line.
Position the line at the center of the screen (For digital scopes, it is
centered by default). Use the horizontal POSITION control knob to
horizontally center the trace. Try to explore the extreme positions
using these knobs. You will notice that the position label POS in the
screen varies. Return the beam back to the center of the screen.
Part 3: The Vertical System Controls
Connect the base of a probe to the Channel 1 vertical input connector. If the probe
has an adjustable attenuation, set it to x 10. On digital oscilloscopes, you can adjust
the probe attenuation on the probe setting in the Channel 1 menu as you initially set.
Some probes don't have an attenuation switch but has default attenuations such as
x100, etc. Check the label/s on your probe.
Compensating the Probe:
Set the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch so that the oscilloscope
displays 0.2 volts/division. The volts/div setting can be checked via
the CH1 label on the screen. Remember that you are using a x10
probe. Set the channel 1 input coupling to AC. Connect the probe
tip to the PROBE ADJ terminal (on some oscilloscopes, this is the
CAL terminal; mostly it is labeled by a square wave or pulse with
2Vpp) provided on the oscilloscope. If the signal is too small, adjust
the VOLTS/DIV knob such that your signal is at least 1 major division
peak-to-peak (i.e. from minimum to maximum). If the signal on the
screen is not steady, adjust the trigger LEVEL control until the
signal stabilizes. Display 2-3 cycles of the signal by adjusting the
SEC/DIV knob.
1. Draw the exact wave shape that appears on the screen. Show
how the display appears in relation to the graticule markings on
the oscilloscope face. (The wave that appears on the screen
should be perfectly square. If it is not, a screwdriver adjustment
should be made on the compensation box at the base of the
probe until a square waveform is obtained.)
2. Set the probe to x1. Choose an appropriate VOLTS/DIV setting
such that the whole waveform is visible. Draw the exact
waveform and indicate the VOLTS/DIV and SEC/DIV used. What
is the difference between a x1 and a x10 probe? What is the
advantage of one over the other? (If your probe doesn't have a
x10 attenuation switch, borrow from other groups. Then, return it
after trying it out.)
3. Why is compensation needed? What do you actually do when
you compensate a probe? Does an x1 probe have to be
compensated?
8
1
Controlling Vertical Sensitivity:

Set the probe attenuation back to x10, VOLTS/DIV setting to 0.2
volts/div and SEC/DIV to 0.5 ms/div. If you do not have an
attenuation switch, you can use the probe attenuation setting on
the Channel 1 menu to make it x10. If your probe has an
attenuation switch, make sure that the probe setting in the scope is
at x1 so that you can use the x10 attenuation on your probe.
Adjust the Channel 1 vertical POSITION control knob to line up the
lower edge of the PROBE ADJ waveform with the center graticule
line.
waveform? What is the corresponding peak-to-peak voltage of
the PROBE ADJ signal?
Confirm your estimate peak-to-peak voltage by using the measure

function. Choose
Measure Voltage Peak-to-peak.
5. Turn the Channel 1 VOLTS/DIV switch two click stops to the right
(clockwise). What is the new Channel 1 scale factor?

waveform now? Is this consistent with the measurement made in
4 above?
Coupling the Signal:

Set the Channel 1 input coupling to GND and position the trace on
the center graticule line.
7. With the probe connected to the PROBE ADJ terminal, switch
the Channel 1 input coupling to AC. What is the eventual
position of the waveform on the screen?
8. Is this true for all settings of the VOLTS/DIV switch?
9. Now switch Channel 1 input coupling to DC. What happens to

the displayed signal?
10.What is the difference between AC and DC coupling? When
should one be used in place of the other? (Use the trigger level
to stabilize the waveform in case it is unstable).
8
2
The Vertical Mode Controls:

Connect a probe to the channel 2-input connector. Do not forget to
set the probe to x10 if it is adjustable. Set the Channel 2 VOLTS/DIV
switch to 0.2 volts. Set the channel 2 input coupling to GND.
Set the vertical mode to CH 2(channel 2) only by turning off
Channel 1. The displayed signal will now come from the channel 2
connector. Vertically position the channel 2 trace to the center of
the screen with the vertical POSITION control.
Set the channel 2 coupling to AC and check the compensation of the
channel 2 probe as you did with the channel 1 probe. Play around
with the channel 2 controls as you did with the channel 1 controls to
give you a feel for using channel 2.
With both the channel 1 and channel 2 probes connected to the PROBE
ADJ terminal, set their corresponding input coupling to AC and turn on
both channels. The signals from both probes will simultaneously appear
on the screen. Use the vertical POSITION control to separate the
traces by pressing the corresponding channel you want to move and
move it using the position knob.
Part 4: The Horizontal System Control

Making Time Measurements:
Switch the vertical mode back to CH 1 (turn off Channel 2) and display
the PROBE ADJ signal at the center of the screen. Use the horizontal
POSITION control knob to adjust the display until one rising edge of
the displayed waveform is aligned with the center vertical graticule (For
digital scopes, it is aligned by default).
11.How many major and minor horizontal graticule markings is it to
the next rising edge of the waveform? How many seconds does
this correspond to?
Confirm your estimate by using the measure function for Time Period.
12.Change the sweep SEC/DIV setting to 0.2 ms. How many
graticule markings is one period of the displayed waveform now?
Are your two measurements consistent?
Slope Control:
Part 5: The Trigger System
Use the oscilloscope to display, through channel 1, a 12 KHz, 2 volt

peak-to-peak sinusoidal voltage with no DC offset produced by the
function generator. Adjust the SEC/DIV so that two to three cycles of
the waveform are displayed.
8
3
13.Move the Trigger LEVEL control knob back and forth through
all of its travel. How does this affect the start of the trace? Why?
14.Draw the resulting traces as you vary the SLOPE control from ''
to ''. How does each setting affect the display? Explain why.
Notice that while the signal might lose synchronism at some level
control settings, the trace never disappears.
15.Set the Trigger Sweep switch to NORMAL. Now when you use
the trigger LEVEL control to move the triggering point, you'll find
places where the trace disappears or freezes. Explain this
difference in behaviour between normal and auto triggering.
Reset the trigger mode to AUTO. Increase the VOLTS/DIV setting to

the next more sensitive position (clockwise).
16. Move the trigger point using the trigger LEVEL control as you did
in 13 above. Which VOLTS/DIV setting allows the trigger level
control knob to have a larger range of motion before the waveform
becomes unstable? If you do not perceive any difference, try an
even more sensitive VOLTS/DIV setting.
17.Is the trigger level a voltage level or a 'number of divisions'

level? Explain.
Dual Trace Triggering:

Set the vertical mode to DUAL TRACE by turning on both channels.
Simultaneously display the signal generator output and the CAL
signal.
18. Only one of the signals can be made stable using the Trigger
control knob? Which one and why? Does your scope have the
capability of making the other trace appear stable? Explain.
8
4
External Trigger:
Reset the scope for single trace Channel 1 operation and redisplay
the signal generator output. Now set the trigger source to EXT.
19.Can the trace be stabilized using the trigger LEVEL control knob?
Why or why not?
20.Transfer the channel 2 probe to the EXT TRIGGER input

connector on the scope (this means that the 2 probes are in
parallel with the signal source) and connect the probe tip to the
signal generator output as well. The display can now stabilize
when the external trigger input is connected to the signal
source. Why? If not, try adjusting the trigger knob to find a
stable signal.
21.Does the trigger LEVEL control behave in the same manner as

with internal triggering when the vertical sensitivity is increased?
(observed in 16)
22.Do the SLOPE ('' , '') control and the mode AUTO and NORMAL
setting still behave in the same way?
Line Triggering:
23.Set the trigger source to LINE. The display should destabilize.
Why?
24.Lower the signal generator output frequency (around 500 Hz)

until the display stabilizes. (Adjust the SEC/DIV as well to display
3-4 periods of the trace). At what frequency is a stable display
achieved?
25.Continue lowering the signal generator output. Obtain four to
five frequencies at which a stable display is obtained.
26.What signal frequencies can be displayed with stability with the
trigger source set to line? Why? What possible use could this
feature have?
85
The following are empty grid scales that you can use in sketching waveforms.

_________

_________

_________
86

Name:
__________________________________________________________
Student Number:
__________________________
Section:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________
AC Detection Diodes
1. What is a diode? Explain diode operation using its V-I characteristic.
2. What are the common uses/applications of diodes?
3. Given a sinusoidal signal, v(t) with amplitude Vs, derive its average
(Vave) and RMS (Vrms) value.
REFERENCE/
S:
87

Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 6: AC Detection
Diodes
I.
OBJECTIVE
To maximize the oscilloscope's function as a tool in AC analysis
II.

(1) Oscilloscope
(3 to 4) alligator clips
(2 each) 1k and 10k

resistors
(1) Signal
(1) Digital Multimeter [DMM] 1N4001 diode
Generator
(1)
(1) Potentiometer box (1) Protoboard
(1) 0.1uF ceramic capacitor
(1) 1mA
(1) Full wave bridge
movement
rectifier
III.
PROCEDURE
A. V-I Characteristic of a Diode

1. Using a digital multimeter at diode mode, measure the effective forward
voltage (Vf) of a conducting diode. Connect the positive terminal to the
anode and the negative terminal to cathode. DMMs usually display the
diode voltage in mV. Vf = ___________ mV
Figure 1. Exploring the V-I characteristic of a diode. [4-1]

2. Refer on the figure above. Display
both Vr and Vd in the oscilloscope by
using the dual display capability. To
display the correct voltage polarity,
let probe A measure Vd and probe B
measure Vr. Place the negative
terminals of probe A and probe B to
point n. This is a requirement of the
oscilloscope dual display to have the
probes share the same ground in
order
to
achieve
stable
and
synchronized display. Place the
positive terminal of probe A to the
(+) side of Vd while the positive
terminal of probe B at (-) side of Vr.
You can insert the probe pins to
holes of the breadboard. Pull the CH
B
position knob to INVert the signal
Diode V-I Characteristic
8
8
(push/latch button in some oscilloscopes). This effectively follows the
polarity based on the Figure 1.
To view the diodes V-I characteristics, set the oscilloscope coupling to X-Y
and set the vertical mode to DUAL with both at 1V/div. Sketch the Id (yaxis) vs Vd (x-axis) characteristics of the diode. Note that Vr is used to
represent Id (series configuration) since the current through the resistor is
proportional to the voltage across it. Use Vs = 10Vpp sinusoid 1kHz.
B. Some Diode Circuits

Four circuits shown in Figure 2 are diode-resistor and diode-capacitor
combinations that demonstrate clipping, rectification, level shifting and filtering.
NOTE: Ask your instructor to discuss the differences between these
four.
Use the sine wave from the signal generator with frequency of 1 kHz as the AC
voltage source (input), and adjust the amplitude to 4 volts peak-to-peak, no offset.
Use R = 1 k and C = 0.1 uF.
Assuming an ideal input voltage, sketch the output voltage for each circuit
(the signal here now should NOT be inverted). Use 3-4 cycles of the output
waveform. Make sure to set the coupling to DC so that you will be able to
view if there are any voltage offsets in the output signals. This is essential so
that you cannot mistake clipping with rectification.
Explain what the circuit does (i.e., its operation). In addition, observe what
happens when you reverse the diode (no sketches required for the reverseddiode setup). Discuss your observations.
Figure 2. Diode circuits
Circuit No. 1
Circuit No. 1 Operation
8
9
Circuit No. 2
Circuit No. 3
Circuit No. 4
NOTE: Before proceeding with the succeeding sections, ask your

instructor to discuss the difference between Vave and Vrms.
C. The Half Wave Detector
1. Compute for the value of Rs in the circuit of Figure 3 that will allow the
1mA movement to indicate a full scale reading when the supply voltage Vs
is 10 Vpeak (this is equivalent to 20 V-peak-to-peak or 20Vpp). Assume a
sinusoidal input voltage waveform.
NOTE: The 1mA movement measures the average current passing

through it.
9
0
2. Set up the circuit using 1 kHz input. Obtain Rs from a potentiometer. The
current reading in the 1mA movement should correspond to the level of peak
voltage from the input, hence, a half(full)-wave detector! Check the operation
of your detector by comparing its reading with the reading of the multimeter
(average voltage or Vdc at the output) for the different AC input voltages from
your signal generator. Tabulate your results.
TABLE I
HALF-WAVE DETECTOR
Peak Voltage
1mA
Voltmeter
movement
Reading
Vs (V)
Reading (mA) at the Output
(Vdc)
10
8
5
2
Computer Vs
from Im
3. Using the oscilloscope, display Vout with 3-4 cycles. Draw the waveform.
Indicate the volts/div and time/div settings used.
D. The Full Wave Detector
1. Repeat Procedure C with the circuit in Figure 4. Use the full-wave bridge
rectifier. NOTE: Be careful in handling the full-wave bridge rectifier. The
lead legs are fragile and bending/twisting too much can easily snap a leg
off. The full-wave bridge rectifier has 4
diodes inside.
TABLE II
FULL-WAVE DETECTOR
Peak Voltage
1mA
Voltmeter
Computer Vs
movement
Reading
Vs (V)
Reading (mA) at the Output
from Im
(Vdc)
10
8
5
2
E. Peak Detection
1. Compute for the theoretical value of Rs in the circuit of Figure 5 that will
allow the 1mA movement to indicate the peak value of Vs with full scale
range of 10 V.
HINT: What is the theoretical value of Vout?
2. Set up the circuit using 1 kHz input. Obtain Rs from potentiometer. Check
the operation of your detector by using it to measure the peak values of
the different AC input voltages from your signal generator. For each
reading, record the RMS value of the input signal from the function
generator as measured by a multimeter. Tabulate your results.
Peak
RMS Voltage of
TABLE III
PEAK DETECTOR
1mA
Voltmeter
Computer Vs
Voltage Vs
(V)
10
8
5
2
Input using
Voltmeter
movement Reading at the

Reading (mA) Output (Vdc)
from Im
91
3. Using the oscilloscope, display Vout with 3-4 cycles. Draw the waveform.
Indicate the volts/div and time/div settings used.
Figure 3. Half-wave detector circuit.
Figure 4. Full-wave detector circuit.
Figure 5. Peak-detector
circuit.
9
2
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
above.
1. Discuss how a digital multimeter measures the voltage of a conducting
diode.
2. How do the voltage you obtained in Procedure A compare with those
typical for silicon diodes (about 0.7V)?
3. Derive the relationship between the ammeter reading and the amplitude
of the input for sinusoidal inputs to the circuit of Figure 3. From the
relationship, derive the equation that recalibrates the ammeter reading to
indicate input RMS voltage.
4. How do the readings obtained by your half-wave detector compare with
those readings obtained by the multimeter? What is the basic source of
difference between the two? Is this consistent with your data? Suggest
how the relationship derived in #3 above can be modified to achieve more
accurate readings. What would your ammeter scale look like?
5. Derive the equation that recalibrates the ammeter reading to indicate
input RMS voltage for the full-wave detector circuit of Figure 4.
6. How do the readings obtained by your full-wave detector compare with
those readings obtained from the multimeter? What is the basic source of
difference between the two? Is this consistent with your data?
7. What equation was used to compute for the value of Rs in Procedure E?
Justify using this equation.
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of full-wave detection versus
half-wave detection?
9. For each of the input voltage in Procedure E, compute for the theoretical
value of peak voltage. Incorporate these computed values in to your
tabulated data. How do these values compare with the values you
measured using your peak detector? What is the basic source of error?
10.For the peak detector circuit of Figure 5, what is the maximum possible
decay of the voltage across the capacitor taking into account the
capacitance value and values of Rs and Rm? Is this decay insignificant
when compared with the full scale range of the peak detector?
9
3

Name:
__________________________________________________________
Student Number:
__________________________
Section:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________
AC Analysis RLC Circuits
Review phasor analysis for circuit networks involving R, L and C.
Read and familiarize with passive components in Sections
2.2.1.2 Capacitors and 2.2.1.3 Inductors.
1.
2.
Express ( ) = cos(
+ ) into its complex frequency domain ( ) using phasor transformation.
Discuss how to compute for impedances Z R, ZL, ZC. What is the

relationship between ZL, ZC and XL, XC respectively?
REFERENCE/
S:
9
4

Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 7: AC Analysis RLC

Circuits
I.
OBJECTIVE
To familiarize the student with the basics of AC circuit analysis.
II.

(1) Digital Multimeter [DMM]
(1) Ceramic capacitor

(0.1uF)
(1) Oscilloscope
(1) Resistor (1K)
(1) Signal generator
(1) Protoboard
(1) Transformer (secondary will serve as
inductor) Alligator clips and connecting
wires
III.
PROCEDURE
A. Impedance of a Practical Inductor

1. With the function generator and with the aid of the oscilloscope, produce a 10
volt (p-p), 60 Hz sine wave without DC offset (this will serve as your supply
voltage, VS, in Figure 1).
2. Use the secondary of the transformer as your inductor (e.g. one end at 0V
and another end at 12V). Measure the resistance RL of this inductor using
the DMM. Wire up Figure 1 using R = 1K. Measure RMS voltages values
VT, VR and VZ using the Vac of the multimeter. Verify using the
oscilloscope (the Vpeak and Vrms are related note that we have a
sinusoidal signal)
3. Compute for the values of current I, the inductance L and the inductive
reactance XL.
TABLE I
IMPEDANCE OF PRACTICAL INDUCTOR
Measured Values
Computed Values
RL =
I =
VT =
L =
VR =
XL =
VZ =
B. Making RMS Measurements

1. Set the function generator to 60 Hz sinusoidal waveform. Connect it to the
multimeter. Set the multimeter to AC volts.
2. Adjust the amplitude knob of the function generator until you get a
multimeter reading of 5 V. Use the oscilloscope to display the generated
signal. Measure the amplitude of the voltage and the period of the
waveform. What is the relationship of the voltage from the multimeter
reading to the voltage measured using the oscilloscope?
9
5
C. K.V.L. in AC circuits
C.1. Inductive Circuits
Connect the oscilloscope probe as shown in Figure 2 using the same
source as in PART A. Use CHOP mode and invert the signal in CHANNEL 2. Adjust
your VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV settings to obtain a fairly large and wide (at least
one to two periods) waveform. Draw the traces indicating the significant points.
Include volts/div and time/div settings.
By how much does VR lag VZ? In degrees, how much is this equivalent to?
Add the two
traces using the ADD function of the oscilloscope. Draw the trace indicating the
significant points. Take note of the amplitudes of the traces. With the use of a
phasor diagram, show that the sum of VR and VZ equals VT.
C.2. Capacitive Circuits
Wire up Figure 3 using R=1K and C=0.1uF. For VS, use 7 volt (p- p), 1500
Hz sine wave without DC offset. Use the VERTICAL mode in ALT mode and invert
the signal in CHANNEL 2. Adjust your VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV settings to obtain
a fairly large and wide waveform. Draw the traces indicating the significant
points.
By how much time does VR lead VC? In degrees, how much is this
equivalent to? Add the
two traces using the ADD function of the oscilloscope. Draw the trace indicating
the significant points, taking note of the amplitudes of the traces. Again, using
phasor diagrams, show that the sum of VR and VC equals VT.
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
1. Discuss the calculations you performed in part A.3.
2. In part B.2, discuss the relationship between the voltage reading in DMM
(in AC mode) and the voltage measured using oscilloscope. Are the actual
measurements consistent with what you expect theoretically?
3. What is the relationship of the voltage from the multimeter reading to the
voltage measured using the oscilloscope?
4. Analyze and discuss your results in part C.1 using the concepts you
learned about the voltage and current relationships in an inductive (RL)
circuit.
5. Analyze and discuss your results in part C.2 using the concepts you
learned about the voltage and current relationships in capacitive (RC)
circuit.
9
6
97

Name:
__________________________________________________________
Student Number:
__________________________
Section:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________
Transducers and Operational Amplifiers
1. What are transducers? What are the types of transducer?
2. What are sensors and actuators? Give examples each.
3. What is an operational amplifier? Describe its basic operation using ideal

condition.
4. What are the basic circuit topologies using operational amplifiers and their
uses?
REFERENCE/
S:
9
8

Members:
_______________________________
Date:
__________________
_______________________________
Section:
__________________
_______________________________
Experiment 8: Transducers and Operational

Amplifiers
I.
OBJECTIVES
a) Describe the operation and electrical characteristics of commonly-used
transducers and sensors.
b) Perform measurements using transducers, sensors and electrical
measurement circuits.
c) Account errors introduced by non-ideal characteristics of the transducers
and sensors on the measurements made.
d) Use operational amplifier to condition the signal produced by transducers
and output corresponding signal/indicators.
II.

(1) Oscilloscope
(1) LM35 Centigrade Temperature
Sensor
(1) Signal
(1) UEI447 NTC Thermistor
generator
(1) Digital
(1) Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
multimeter
(2) Variable DC supply (1) LF353 Operational Amplifier
III.
wires and
clips
soldering iron
(5) 1k
resistors
(1) 10k pot
PROCEDURE
A. Thermistor
1. Expose the thermistor to ambient temperature (about
25C). Do not touch the body of the thermistor itself.
2. Record the time it takes for the resistance reading to
stabilize from the instant of point of contact. Stable
reading is when the measured value varies
insignificantly. Measure and record the resistance of the
thermistor.
3. Place the thermistor in contact with the human body
(average normal body temperature is 37C). Placing it
between the hands/fingers is usually most convenient.
Repeat A.2.
4. Plug-in the soldering iron and wait for about 2-3 minutes until it reaches its
heating temperature (about 120C)*. Place the tip of the iron in contact
with the body of the thermistor. Be extra careful that the tip touches ONLY
the thermistor. Repeat A.2 then unplug the soldering iron.
5. Tabulate your resistance measurements and plot them against
temperature.
6. Compare with datasheet values (see Appendix B: Some Notes from

Transducer Datasheets).
* CAUTION: Be EXTRA careful such that the soldering iron does not come into
contact with anything not intended including yourself!
9
9
B. LM35 Centigrade Temperature Sensor

1. Connect the LM35 sensor to a +5V DC single
power supply and voltmeter to measure Vout
as shown on the right. DOUBLE CHECK YOUR
CONNECTIONS BEFORE TURNING ON THE
POWER. Make sure the clips are not shorted
with adjacent pin/clips! Set the voltmeter, if
not automatic, to 2V DC scale.
2. Repeat Steps A.1-A.6 but this time measuring
the output voltage of LM35 instead of
resistance.
C. Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
1. Connect the LDR to a digital ohmmeter. Expose the LDR to
room or ambient lighting on your table and record its
room-light resistance.
2. Partially cover the LDR to prevent some light from
reaching it. Record its shadow resistance.
3. Cover the LDR completely. It will help to use any black
material so as to prevent all light from reaching the LDR.
Record its dark resistance.
4. Place the LDR near the room lights and record its light resistance.
5. Plot your results. Use intensity of light on the x-axis and the resistance on
the y-axis.
D. Operational Amplifier used as Voltage Comparator
RECALL: How to use negative DC supply? Who sets the GND?
1. Wire-up the circuit as shown on the
left. Power up using,
Vcc+ = +5 Vdc
and Vcc- = - 5
Vdc
NOTE: Only 1 op-amp will be used

choose.
Let Vcompare/ref be connected to ground (essentially 0 Vdc) and Vin = 3Vpp 0Vdc
offset, 1kHz sinusoidal signal. The schematic of LF353 is as shown below (you
can use either of the two opamps inside).
The length-wise center of the protoboard (the canal-like) is designed to fit

component packages such as LF353.
2. Probe both input and output signals with their zero-levels overlapped. Use
DC coupling. Make sure the probes have ground connection. Display the
output with two to three periods. Draw the waveforms and state your
observations.
3. Vary the DC offset of the input signal in increment/decrement of 0.1Vdc
but not exceeding +/-1.5Vdc. Observe what happens to the output
waveform.
4. From your observations, explain how the circuit operates as a voltage
comparator.
10
0
IV.
REQUIRED DISCUSSION
above.
1. Briefly explain the theory involved in the operation of each transducer
used in this experiment.
2. Compare the thermistor and the LDR in terms of linearity, sensitivity and
response time. What type of applications is each suited to and why?
3. Think of and list down other applications of the transducers used in this
exercise.
4. Research on three (3) transducers not used in this experiment and briefly
discuss the theory behind their operation and cite their applications.
5. In Part D., what are the peak levels of output voltage? How is this related
to the supply voltages VCC+ and VCC-?
10
1
5 Documentation
As mentioned in the previous chapter, and for emphasis, we can say that
performing experiments is essential. Gathering data and analysing & interpreting
them however are more valuable. Documenting reports is one of the major objective
of EEE 34. One must learn how to report data in an academic perspective. In the field
of EEE, the most accepted format is the one provided by the largest professional
organization in the world IEEE. A sample format to be used for Post-Lab
documentation can be found in Appendix A: Sample IEEE Paper for A4 Page Size.
5.1 Documentation Guidelines

The following guidelines will help the students in producing a complete,
readable, and coherent report. These criteria are the keys to an effective report.
5.1.1 Technical Development

1. If the experiment asks for possible explanations (e.g. sources of error), it is
expecting the students to think and not just enumerate. All procedure
covered in these experiments are governed by circuit theory. Simply put,
all explanations should be backed-up with a certain level of circuit theory
and analysis.
2. Following #1, explaining, proving and establishing claims through circuit
analysis must be presented with guiding equations and/or formulas
whenever necessary.
3. In reporting, the procedures done in the experiment should not be
repeated word for word. It would help to summarize it. The important
things are the measurement results and discussion following it.
4. Tabulating data is not equivalent to presenting data. Tables would not
speak for themselves. Consequently, mirroring the tabulated data into
paragraph form is still not presenting data. Tabulating data is for
organization of measurement values and easier comparison. Presenting
data, on the other hand, is explaining the sense or the analysis behind
those tabulated data.
5. In-depth and further analysis in Post-Lab reports can earn additional merit.
5.1.2 Paper Format and Appearance

1. Follow the recommended format (see Appendix A: Sample IEEE Paper for
A4 Page Size). Do not include email addresses.
2. Include group letter/number at the first page on upper left corner. This
helps the instructor for better tracking and easier grade recording.
3. If you want to re-create or modify the circuit diagrams, there are lots of
circuit editor available for free online. One good example is the Dia
Diagram Editor (see http://dia-installer.de).
4. Present computations, solutions and equations in a logical and presentable
way. Learn to use equation tools in your document processor. Make the
final equations in bold-type.
5. Presenting the question from Required Discussion and then followed by

the answer is allowed. Provide number and italicized the questions for
better readability.
6. Do NOT use Wikipedia and other forum websites as reference for
academic papers! This is like digging your own grave.
7. It is NOT necessary to include the materials and equipment used in the
report.
10
2
8. Avoid hanging title, subtitle or header. (e.g. the title of a section and its
first paragraph are cut through next column/next page).
9. Do not include the 'Acknowledgment' part. It is NOT necessary for
laboratory reports.
10.Some are printing their reports not from their original machine. Thus, to
avoid compatibility between document processors of your own machine
(where you edited your report) and the machine printing the final paper, it
is a good practice to convert the file first to a PDF format. This will
preserve your intended format.
5.2 Online Submission Guidelines

The Post-Lab report should be submitted in-print. However, if there are certain
events (e.g. class suspensions, etc.) where the instructor wished to check softcopies
instead, then certain guidelines submitting the report online should be followed. To
be fair with students, deadline should be at least a week once the announcement for
an online submission has been made.
1. Email Subject Format

Use the following format as the email subject:
[<Subject> <Section>] <Requirement> by <Surname1, Surname2,
Surname3>
Example:
[EEE 34 MCDE] Post-Lab 5 by Bernardo, Ramirez, Salces
It is important to follow this format since some emails may be
treated as spam and hence filtered.
2. Attachment File Type
By default, use:
i. Compressed file if more than 2 files.
ii. PDF documents, spreadsheets, presentations, etc.
iii. Or the file type as directed by the instructor.
3. Attachment Size Limit
The attachment file size should not exceed 5MB. Compress the files
and images as necessary.
4. Sender Address
Only one member in a group should be the sender per requirement.
The first email sent with valid email subject will be considered as the
submission. No sending of version 2.0, modifications, and the like so
make sure that what you submit is final. It is assumed that a group is
well-coordinated. No questions directed to the instructor by groupmate
A if groupmate B already submitted this and that.
5. Recipient Address
Use only the email address provided by the instructor.
6. Deadline
If deadline is 11:59:00 PM PST, then late is 11:59:01 PM PST. Late

reports will never be accepted so better send as early as possible.
Deadline extension is never an option.
7. Questions
Any question about the requirement should ONLY be done in class or
during consultation hours prior to submission deadline.
103
6 Project
The project is the capstone requirement for EEE 34. After applying the
concepts learned in circuit theory into actual setups, it is then time for students to
showcase their ability and skills in building and constructing something, and finally
make it work. This requirement aims to give the students a fun and fulfilling
experience with electronics. This chapter will discuss the project guidelines and will
enumerate most common questions students ask during project development.
6.1 Project Guidelines

This section will guide the students in developing their desired project from
proposal stage up to final presentation. As an emphasis, the project is to be
accomplished by group. The number of students in a group is defined at the start
of the semester (please see Class Policies). You have the freedom to choose your
group-mates for this task.
6.1.1 Project Proposal

Students cannot start building their desired project without the consent of
the laboratory instructor. From the middle of the semester up to a certain date
about three to four weeks before Finals week, the students can propose their
desired project topic.
The project proposal does not have to be formal. Just prepare a detailed
print-out of the circuit diagram for the desired project. It may help to prepare
multiple proposals to increase the chance of getting an approved topic. The
difficulty of the desired project is to be assessed by the instructor. Students can
in fact implement microcontroller-based projects if they can. However, the level
of difficulty should be just enough to achieve the objective of this project.
Request for approval can be done through instructors consultation hours or
during class hours. Take note that a certain topic can only be approved once for the
current EEE 34 batch.
Therefore, topics are on a first approve first reserve basis. Failure to get an
approved project topic until deadline may mean an automatic zero for the project
grade. Please know the date and time for the deadline of project proposal from
the laboratory instructor. No need to submit a formal proposal paper once an
approval is acquired.
As a reference, the following are some notable works from previous EEE 34
batches (current students can implement similar but not the same project):
Electronic Stethoscope
LED Voltmeter
Simple FM Transmitter
Air Flow Control
Game Show Buttons

Music to Light Modulator
Electronic Die w/ 'Slow Down'
10-level noise indicator
Students can visit the library to look for books with interesting electronics
project or from reliable sources in the internet.
10
4
6.1.2 Project Testing and Construction

The project should be implemented on protoboard only. Construction and
testing can be done during class hours if the main agenda for the day is over. If
there is no extra time, then the class schedule should allot 2-3 weeks to give
students time to construct their projects before having the project presentation.
Students can always check the availability of needed components with the
Instruments Room (see Appendix D). Take note that buying of materials for this
project requirement is highly discouraged.
Students may be required by the instructor to show up in the laboratory
during project construction (e.g. for milestone checking).
6.1.3 Project Documentation

Before the actual start of presentation of a group, they should submit a
printed (not necessarily in coloured-print) documentation of their project. In
simple terms: no documentation, no project grade. Follow IEEE format for A4
size paper. The main parts of the documentation must include:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Abstract
Introduction
Project Development
A. Circuit Description
B. Circuit Operation
C. Project Construction
D. Problems Encountered
E. Delegation of Tasks
F. List of Materials
Project Applications
Conclusion
References
6.1.4 Project Presentation

All proponents should be present at the date and time of presentation. The
group may opt to present even before their assigned schedule once done with
the requirements (e.g. students might want to focus more on major subjects near
end of semester).
Presentation slides should not be fancy-themed and content should be as
concise as possible. Time allowed per group to present is 8- 10 minutes only. This
includes the demonstration, followed by Q&A for defense maximum total of 15
minutes per group. No-show group on the day of project presentation will receive an
automatic zero (0%) grade for project.
10
5
6.1.5 Criteria for Grading

The criteria for 100% project grading
is:
60% Demonstration
Functionality
Wiring Setup
[TBA]
20% Documentation
20% Defense
Presentation
Slides
Question &
Answer
(45%
)
(10%
)
(5%)
(10%
)
(10%
)
6.2 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What are the available components we have in the Instruments Room?
Students can borrow (and return afterwards) their needed
components from the Instruments Room. Available components can
be checked in Appendix D: Available Components in Instruments
Room*.
2. Do we need to borrow again every time we will test our circuit?
Yes. Or maybe not. It depends on the administrative rule
implemented by the Instruments Lab technician.
3. The specific component we need is not available in the Instruments Room
nor in any electronics shop locally. What shall we do?
Know the function of the needed component in the circuit. Look for
its datasheet online. Find for equivalent component that can serve
as a substitute. For example, 2N3904 is equivalent to BC547 for a
transistor. Note that importing for a component (i.e., purchasing
online) is not necessary. Aside from being costly, it will take time to
arrive. If that is the case, better change the project as advised by
the instructor.
4. We want to buy components in an electronics shop. (Not a question)
OK. It is up to the students. Just a piece of advice know first all the
information you need before you go to any electronics shop. Plan
ahead.
Check the datasheets of your needed components. There might be

equivalent components.
Check if the store you are heading to have the components you need.
You can check their list online or you can contact them.
Otherwise, you will just waste your time and effort. Work smart, not
hard.
5. How to determine the corresponding pin-outs of the

IC/transistor? Check the datasheet.
6. Is it safe to use a DC supply voltage in place of a battery?
Of course.
10
6
7. Is it safe to use a larger supply voltage for our circuit?
Check the datasheets of all components on absolute maximum
ratings (especially power ratings).
8. Can we improve the design for our project implementation?
If you think it will improve your work, then feel free to do so.
9. We are done with our project (with documentation and presentation
slides). Can we present on an earlier date?
Yes. Anytime within the official class hours. Consult with your
instructor for the specific schedule.
10. Is the datasheet for a component universal?
Yes. Even if the manufacturers are different, the characteristics of a
certain component should be standardized. For example, the
2N3904 from Texas Instruments should have the same
characteristics with the 2N3904 produced by Analog Devices.
11. Can we sit-in to other class schedules?
Yes. Provided that there are extra stations/equipment. Please refer
back to Section 1.2 Laboratory Rules and Regulations.
12. Our circuit is not working and date of presentation is drawing near. What
shall we do? Do not be disheartened. Quitters do not have a place
here in EEE. You still need to present even if your project is not
working. However, you need to justify and explain the causes why
your project is not working at the very least. Include in your
presentation all the debugging tasks you did to troubleshoot your
circuit. It is better to present something than get a grade of 0%. On
the contrary, do not be relaxed.
13.Can we present once we are done?
Please refer to FAQ #9. The instructor will not accept ambush
presentations.
Students should at least reserve a schedule prior to project
presentation.
14.We are paying high laboratory fees in our tuition. Why do we experience
lack of components in the Instruments Room?
Procuring materials in the government takes a long process. The
faculty and the admin are doing their best to address this situation.
Also, EEE 34 is not the only laboratory course in EEE.
15.Ahmmm?
Check the datasheet.
10
7
References
[1]
Source of article is unknown. Edited version. No copyright infringement

intended.
[2]
Analog
multimeter
selector
knob.
Image
adapted
www.pochefamily.org. Last accessed: January 2015.
[3]
Analog
multimeter
reading
scale.
Image
adapted
from
http://www.dreamstime.com/photos-images/analog-multimeter.html .
Last accessed: January 2015.
[4]
How
to
use
a
Multimeter.
Image
adapted
from
http://www.wikihow.com/Use-a-Multimeter. Last accessed: January
2015.
[5]
Resistors.
Image
adapted
from
http://www.electronicstutorials.ws/resistor/res_2.html. Last accessed: January 2015.
[6]
Structure & circuit symbols for variable resistor/'pot'. Image adapted

from www.st-andrews.ac.uk. Last accessed: January 2015.
[7]
Capacitor
images.
Image
adapted
from
www.westfloridacomponents.com . Last accessed: January 2015.
[8]
Capacitor
value
reading.
Image
adapted
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/capacitor/cap_1.html .
accessed: January 2015.
[9]
Inductor images. Image adapted from http://www.coilws.com/. Last

[10]
Source of image is unknown. Edited version. No copyright infringement

intended.
[11]
Debugging
circuits.
Article
file
from
http://wwwinst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~ee43/sp03/labs/. Last accessed: January
2015.
from
from
Last
[12]
PHD
Comics
Debugging.
Image
adapted
http://www.phdcomics.com/comics/archive.php?comicid=673 .
from
Last
108
[13]
Accuracy and Precision. Image adapted from www.extremetech.com.

[14]
Voltage
and
Current
Sources.
Image
adapted
from
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/visource.html .
[15]
Galvanometer.
Image
adapted
from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer . Last accessed: January
2015.
[0b-1] LED anode and cathode. Image adapted from www.eng.utah.edu. Last
[0b-2] Flashing LED circuit. Image adapted from http://www.555-timercircuits.com/flashing-led.html . Last accessed: August 2015.
[0b-3]
555
Timer
IC
Pinouts.
Image
adapted
from
http://www.instructables.com/id/Flashing-LED-using-555-Timer/ . Last
[0b-4]
Troubleshooting
circuits.
Image
adapted
from
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/worksheets/trouble1.html . accessed
Last
:
January 2015.
Diode. Image adapted from http://en.academic.ru. Last accessed:
January 2015.
[4-1]
10
9
Appendix A: Sample IEEE Paper

for A4 Page Size
Please see the following links for the sample format.
1. *.doc =
https://www.dropbox.com/s/d1ibaghl8f86t7m/IEEE_Paper_Word_Template_A4_
V3.do c?dl=0
2. *.pdf =
https://www.dropbox.com/s/wp3ax0gghjqdcga/IEEE_Paper_Word_Template
_A4_V3.p df?dl=0
Also, sharing here with permission a sample of Post-Lab report from EEE 34
students (AY 1415)
3. *.pdf = https://www.dropbox.com/s/a49zhel34zncteh/Expt%200%20by
%20Quinquito_Jaland oni_Valencia.pdf?dl=0
It is interesting to note here that this is their first Post-Lab report and yet they
managed to produce a complete, readable, and coherent work. It is not a perfect
report of course but it is fairly great as a first report. Students can use this as a
model or guide. This should NOT be copied for Post-Lab 0. At the end of the
semester, all students of EEE 34 are expected to produce reports with quality
better than this one.
110
Appendix B: Some Notes from

Transducer Datasheets
UEI Series NTC Thermistor
For the complete UEI Series NTC Thermistor datasheet, kindly access the PDF
at: https://www.dropbox.com/s/kiqbqfscvzlqfw2/UEI%20Series%20NTC
%20Thermistor. pdf?dl=0
Figure B. 1. Typical response curve temperature versus resistance of UEI447 NTC

Thermistor.
111
Appendix B: Some Notes from

Transducer Datasheets
LM35 Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensor
For a sample of complete LM35 Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensor
datasheet, kindly access the PDF at:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/67x7f9b7n1f1vff/LM35%20Centigrade
%20Temp%20Se nsor.pdf?dl=0
Figure B. 2. Basic Centigrade temperature sensor (+2
+ 150).
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

For a sample of complete Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) datasheet,
kindly access the PDF at:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/y9t1gcdrgprvxde/Light%20Dependent
%20Resistor.pdf? dl=0
Figure B. 3. Resistance as a function of

illumination.
112
Appendix C: Some Notes from

Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
Datasheets
LM741 General Purpose Operational Amplifier
For a sample of complete LM741 datasheet, kindly access the PDF at:
http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lm741.pdf
Figure C. 1. LM741 operational amplifier pin-outs.
LF353 High-speed Dual Operational Amplifier

For a sample of complete LF353 datasheet, kindly access the PDF at:
http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lf353-n.pdf
Figure C. 2. LF353 operational amplifier

pin-outs.
113
Appendix D: Available Components

in
Instruments Room*
The list above is a good reference to what components are available in the
Instruments Room. However, EEE supports various instructional laboratories
aside from EEE 34. The list availability or supply might change without prior
notice.
*Kindly take note the version (and hence revision date) of this laboratory manual.
114
Appendix D: Available Components

in
Instruments Room*
*Kindly take note the version (and hence revision date) of this laboratory manual.
115
EEE 34
Electrical
Measureme
nts
Laboratory
Student Laboratory
Manual
v2.0 December 2015

Institute
College of Engineering

EEE 34 Student Laboratory Manual v2.0

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

EEE 34 Student Laboratory Manual v2.0

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

EEE 34

Electrical and Electronics Engineering

1.1 Care in handling and use of a multimeter..................................................... 1

Figure 20. Analog multimeter calibration scale. [3]

Figure 38. Measuring the resistance of an unknown resistor using analog

Figure C. 1. LM741 operational amplifier pin-outs.

Engr. Patth Rick L. Ramirez

EEE 34 Electrical Measurements Laboratory

EEE 31 (prerequisite), EEE 33 (co-requisite)

Laboratory procedures and practice, data collection and analysis,

a. To understand concepts and practical issues in electrical measurement

a. Set-up and characterize simple electrical circuits and electrical

Course Schedule and Content

applicable; specify the degree of accuracy of

Assess basic laboratory, instrumentation and

1st Practical Exam (For

2nd Practical Exam (for

Transducers and sensors

Albert D. Helfrick and William D. Cooper. Modern Electronic

The following may change depending on the prerogative of respective

b. Pre-Laboratory (Pre-Lab) report must be submitted in class before any

1 Safety Practices in the

1.1 Care in handling and use of a

The polarity is being observed in measuring voltage or current.

of zero or beyond the full-scale

1.2 Laboratory Rules and Regulations

Violation of the aforementioned rules and regulations shall be met with

2 Laboratory Equipment, Tools

2.1 Laboratory Equipment

Figure 1. Connecting wires

Figure 2. Alligator clips

2.1.1 Power Supply

Figure 3. Controlled-voltage supply (left) and controlled-current supply (right)

Figure 4. Controlled-voltage supply mode with 8.8V used to power-up a simple

Figure 5. Triple output power supply unit

Figure 6. Programmable DC Power Supply (Triple Output)

2.1.2 Function/Signal Generator

Students from their physics courses should already be familiar with

2.1.3 Analog Oscilloscope

Figure 9. Analog oscilloscope self-calibration using built-in 2Vpp 1kHz square-wave

An example of oscilloscope probe is shown in Figure 10. One end is also a

Probe Cap with Hook

Probe Pin (exposed when

Figure 10. Oscilloscope probes.

2.1.4 Digital Oscilloscope

Figure 11. Digital Oscilloscope

2.1.5 Equipment Calibration

2.2 Laboratory Components

2.2.1 Passive Components

There are several types of resistor based on composition material,

Resistor Value Reading

Figure 13. Resistor Color Code. [5]

A potentiometer is identified with its value (usually printed on its casing).

Extra care should be observed before powering- up circuit with polar

EEE Student: (To sales assistant) 10 pieces of 4.7mF 16V electrolytic

The last character usually denotes the temperature

Figure 17. Different types of inductors. [9]

2.2.2 Active Components

2.3 Laboratory Tools

2.3.1.1 Analog Multimeter

Figure 18. Analog multimeters.

Using the Multimeter to Measure Voltage, Current and Resistance

Figure 19. Analog multimeter selector