E LV I R A D E M E J I A , P h D a n d B E N O .

D E L U M E N , P h D

Soybean bioactive peptides:

A new horizon in preventing
chronic diseases
Soybeans, an excellent source of dietary peptides, have antihypertensive, anticholesterol, and antioxidant activities, and appear to
prevent cancer. The processing of soy protein into peptides in the
GI tract greatly increases their healthful effects by exposing active
groups within the amino acid chain. Lunasin, one of the most
promising of these peptides, has been shown in recent studies to be
an effective anti-cancer agent. Found in a variety of readily available
foods, lunasin is an accessible component to healthy living.
pose benefits.

he bioactive peptides produced by

soybeans possess diverse and unique
health benefits. These can be effective in the prevention of age-related
chronic disorders, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, obesity, and decreased immune
function. Bioactive peptides are released from
dietary proteins by either gastrointestinal digestion or by the processing of foods. Evidence also suggests that these peptides can be
absorbed by the gastrointestinal system, thus
exerting their action on specific target organs.
The purpose of this review is to summarize
the most recent evidence concerning the possible benefits of soybean peptides, particularly the peptide lunasin, in cancer prevention.
Research and clinical trials have demonstrated the biological activities of peptides, but
their mechanism of action requires further investigation. It is also important to discover
new peptides with health benefits in soy-hydrolyzates and fermented foods. The identification of novel bioactive compounds will contribute towards the development of functional
foods that can be used to enhance health and
quality of life.

KEY POINTS

Dietary bioactive peptides are short amino acid chains produced by

digestion or processing of proteins.

Bioactive soy peptides possess antioxidant, antihypertensive and anticancer

properties.

Soy is an important source of bioactive peptides.

Fermented and hydrolyzed soy products, such as yogurt and cheese,

are a good source of peptides.

Dietary peptides can be absorbed by the body.

The unique soy peptide lunasin may be beneficial in cancer prevention.

and are the source of other healthcare products, such as sterols and vitamin E. The major
soy proteins are known as -conglycinin and
glycinin, which account for 65%80% of total
soy proteins. Because soy protein contains all
the amino acids that are essential to human
nutrition, it is a great substitute for animal
protein. The use of soy in human nutrition has
increased significantly. There are numerous
products on the market which are based on
soy or contain soy ingredients. Protein products for food uses include defatted flakes, grits
Nutritional importance of soybean
Soybeans, a common source of bioactive pep- and flour, protein concentrate, protein isolate,
tides, contain about 40% protein and are used and textured protein products. Soybeans can
in foods, livestock feed, and oil production, also be used to produce whole bean products
VOL. 4, NO. 2, OCTOBER 2006

Elvira De Mejia, PhD

Assistant Professor,
Department of Food Science
and Human Nutrition
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL

Ben O. De Lumen, PhD

Professor, Department of
Nutritional Sciences
and Toxicology
University of California
Berkeley, CA
2006 American Society
for Reproductive Medicine
Published by Elsevier Inc.

Sexuality, Reproduction & Menopause 91

Soybean bioactive peptides

TABLE 1

Examples of biologically functional peptides

derived from soy proteins
Source

Activity

Reference

Native and heated soy protein isolate

Antioxidant activities

27

Defatted soy meal

Hypotensive

11

Soybean

Antihypertensive IC50 = 26.5 M

Korean fermented soybean paste

Antihypertensive peptide:
IC50 = 2.2 M

13

Soybean glycinin

Hypocholesterolemic peptide

21

Genetically modified soybean protein

Antioxidative; Antihypertensive

Defatted soy protein

Anticancer

10

(sprout, milk, sauce, tofu, miso, and others).

Epidemiological studies suggest that populations consuming high levels of soybean
products have both lower incidences of cancer and lower mortality rates for the major
cancer types commonly found in the Western
hemisphere.1 Thus, as the main components
of soybean, soy proteins are receiving increased attention with respect to their health
effects. Bowman Birk inhibitor (BBI), a soy
protein component, has been shown to suppress carcinogenesis in human prostate cancer cells and has also been the subject of
promising clinical trials in cancer patients.2,3
The low incidence of hypercholesterolemia, heart disease, and cancer in certain
Asian populations has also been associated
with a high consumption of soy protein.4 By
hydrolyzing soy protein isolates, bioactive
peptides may be formed that are related to a
lower incidence of cancer.5

Dietary bioactive peptides

Dietary peptides are protein fragments or
short amino acid chains produced by enzymatic digestion in the gut or by the processing of food via fermentation and hydrolysis.
Food-derived bioactive peptides from dietary
proteins commonly contain 29 amino acids.6
However, this range may be extended to 20 or
more amino acid units.6 It is known that during gastrointestinal digestion or food processing, these peptides are released from the parent protein and act as regulatory compounds
with hormone-like activities.7 Numerous peptides with various bioactive functions have
been identified in soy. These include primarily antihypertensive, anticholesterol, antioxidant and cancer prevention peptides, among
other newer functions being discovered. In a
92 Sexuality, Reproduction & Menopause

database named Biopep, more than 1500 different bioactive peptides have been presented.8 Among them, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and dipeptidyl
peptidase IV inhibitors, which show antihypertensive activity, are the most common.
Peptides with other biological activities, such
as opioid agonistic and antagonistic, antioxidative, anticancer and immunomodulatory
actions have also been identified.
Fermentation is considered to be an efficient way to produce bioactive peptides.
Bioactive peptides can be released by the microbial activity of fermented food or through
enzymes derived from microorganisms.7 Fermented soy milk and cheese have been extensively studied to investigate their potential
to form bioactive peptides. Interest in fermented soybean productssuch as natto,
tempeh, soy sauce, soy pastehas grown in
recent years.
Table 1 presents soy protein hydrolysates
that yield either antioxidant peptides,9 peptides with anticancer properties10 or with hypotensive activity.11 Immunomodulatory peptides derived from tryptic hydrolysates of
soybean proteins act to stimulate superoxide
anions, which trigger nonspecific immune defense systems.12

Biological activities of soybean peptides

Antihypertensive
Antihypertensive peptides are the most commonly occurring bioactive peptides in foods.
They show their activity by inhibiting angiotensin-converting enzyme. ACE is a nonspecific dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase associated with the regulation of blood pressure by
modulating the rennin-angiotensin system.
This enzyme converts the decapeptide angiotensin I into the potent vasoconstricting
octapeptide angiotensin II, which leads to an
increase in blood pressure. Therefore, inhibition of the ACE will result in an antihypertensive effect.13
Several ACE inhibitory bioactive peptides
have been found in enzyme hydrolyzates of
soy proteins. The peptide fractions given
orally to spontaneously hypertensive rats
(SHR) at a level of 2.0 g/kg body weight
markedly lowered their blood pressure.
Antihypertensive peptides were also found in
soybean alcalase digest.11 Oral doses of these

peptides significantly (P<0.05) decreased

systolic blood pressure of SHR in a dose-deVOL. 4, NO. 2, OCTOBER 2006

Soybean bioactive peptides

pendent manner. However, the peptides had
little effect on blood pressure of normotensive
rats even at highest dose (1000 mg/kg of body
weight/day).
Fermented soybean products are a good
source of ACE inhibitory bioactive peptides.
ACE inhibitory peptides have also been found
in many traditional Asian fermented soy foods,
such as soybean paste (His-His-Leu),14 soy
sauce,15 natto and tempeh.16 Korhonen and
Pihlanto7 discuss in their review an antihypertensive peptide from chunggugjang, a traditional fermented Korean soybean product.

he identification of novel bioactive

compounds will contribute towards the
development of functional foods that can be
used to enhance health and quality of life.

istration. Thus, these proteins have been subjected to protease digestion in the GI tract, releasing the bioactive peptides, which then may
lower cholesterol levels. Based on these observations, it is likely that soy peptides may be
responsible, at least in part, for the hypocholesterolemic benefits of soy protein. Soy pepHypocholesterolemic
The beneficial effects of soybean on cardio- tides have been found to bind phospholipids
vascular diseases were first considered be- and exert serum cholesterol lowering activity
cause of its positive impact on blood choles- in humans.23
terol levels. A large body of literature indicates
that soy proteins can reduce blood cholesterol Antioxidant
concentrations in humans.17 Sagara et al found Several amino acids, such as Tyr, Met, His,
that dietary intakes of soy protein (at least 20 Lys, and Trp, are generally accepted to be ang) and isoflavones (at least 80 mg) for 5 weeks tioxidants. Saito et al constructed two series of
would be effective in reducing CHD risk tripeptide libraries to explore antioxidative
among high-risk, middle-aged men.18 Soy pro- properties of peptides; one was composed of
tein is known to exert hypocholesterolemic ef- 108 peptides containing either two His or Tyr
fects when ingested, prompting the Food and residues and the other 114 peptides strucDrug Administration to approve a health turally related to Pro-His-His.24 The antioxclaim linking foods that are naturally rich in idative activities of the tripeptide libraries
soy protein to a reduction in coronary heart were examined by several methods, including
disease.19 Wang et al also showed that soy pro- the antioxidative activity against the peroxidatein reduces circulating triglycerides and cho- tion of linoleic acid, the reducing activity, the
lesterol in hypercholesterolemic individuals.20 radical scavenging activity, and the peroxyniSoy protein can also shift LDL particle distri- trite scavenging activity. Tripeptides containbution to a less atherogenic pattern in an ing Trp or Tyr residues at the C-terminus had
isoflavone independent manner.21 Soy protein strong radical scavenging activities, but very
(with or without isoflavone) significantly de- weak peroxynitrite scavenging activity. The recreased the cholesterol levels in LDL < 25.5 sults explained why protein digests have such
nM by 12.3% (P< 0.001) and increased cho- a variety of antioxidative properties. They also
lesterol levels in LDL > 26.0 nM by 14.3% found that the antioxidative peptides may
(P<0.05) and therefore shifting LDL particle exert strong synergistic effects with some
distribution to a less atherogenic pattern. One other antioxidants, such as phenolic comhypothesis is that soy proteins might bind with pounds. During hydrolysis, the soy protein
bile acids inhibiting their re-absorption and structure will be altered and more active
therefore lowering blood cholesterol level. amino acid R groups will be exposed. ThereHowever, another option could be that soy fore, soybean peptides can have higher anpeptides may lower the endogenous produc- tioxidant activity than intact protein.25 After
tion of cholesterol in the liver and thus de- enzyme digestion of -conglycinin and
crease serum cholesterol levels. Some re- glycinin, the radical-scavenging activities were
searchers have postulated that in humans, soy increased 35 times. Heating did not change
protein may in some way up-regulate LDL re- the activity of the proteins, indicating that
ceptors depressed by hypercholesterolemia or forming peptides was more critical than mainby dietary cholesterol administration.22
taining protein structure.26
In most clinical trials, soy proteins have
When comparing the antioxidant capacibeen given to human subjects by oral admin- ty of 28 structurally related peptides to LeuVOL. 4, NO. 2, OCTOBER 2006

he
evidence
of an effect of
soy peptides
on oncogenesis
is preliminary;
however,
the newly
discovered
peptide lunasin
has shown
promise as
an anticancer
agent.

Sexuality, Reproduction & Menopause 93

Soybean bioactive peptides

pidemiological studies suggest that populations consuming high levels of

soybean products have lower incidences of cancer and lower mortality rates
for the major cancer types commonly found in the Western hemisphere.
Leu-Pro-His-His, isolated from soybean protein digests, Pro-His-His was identified as an
active center. It was believed that His-containing peptides can act as metal-ion chelators, active-oxygen quenchers, and hydroxyradical scavengers, and can contribute to the
antioxidant activity of peptides.27 Different
hydrolysis conditions (enzyme, temperature,
sample preparation) resulted in peptide mixtures with different antioxidant properties.
Native and heated soy protein isolate hydrolyzed with different enzymes resulted in
different degrees of hydrolysis ranging from
1.7%20.6% with antioxidant activity ranging
from 28% to 65%.28
Liu et al demonstrated that soymilk-kefir
possesses significant antimutagenic and antioxidant activity and suggested that fermented soymilk may be considered among the
more promising food components in terms of
preventing mutagenic and oxidative damage.29
The demonstration that peptides produced
during fermentation may play an important
role in this biological activity warrants further
research. It has also been observed that the
radical scavenging ability of soy peptides plays
an important role in the suppression of lipid
oxidation in a preparation of encapsulated
lipids.30 The data available strongly suggest
that bioactive peptides from soy protein have
a clear anti-oxidant capacity.
Anticancer
The evidence of an effect of soy peptides on
oncogenesis is preliminary;31 however, the
newly discovered peptide lunasin has shown
promise as an anticancer agent. Other soy
peptides with anticancer properties include
Kunitz trypsin inhibitor, a peptide that was reported to suppress ovarian cancer cell invasion by blocking urokinase upregulation.32
Another study showed that a soy protein isolate diet may inhibit tumorgenesis by enhancing somatostatin: a known anti-proliferative agent for colon cancer cells.33 It is
possible that part of these anticancer activities may be attributed to bioactive peptides
derived from soy proteins. In support of this
94 Sexuality, Reproduction & Menopause

hypothesis, it has been found, both in vitro

and in experimental animals, that hydrophobic peptides from soy proteins may have anticancer activity. For example, peptides obtained by thermolase hydrolysis of defatted
soy protein, further purified with ethanol and
fractionated by gel filtration chromatography,
showed an IC50 value of 0.16 mg/mL in vitro
cytotoxicity on mouse monocyte macrophage
cell line. At 1 mg/mL, this fraction significantly affected cell cycle progression by arresting the cells in G2/M phases. Further purification with C18 HPLC resulted in 1157 Da
nonapeptide (X-Met-Leu-Pro-Ser-Tyr-SerPro-Tyr).34
Lunasin: A promising cancer
preventive soy peptide
Lunasin, a 43-amino acid peptide naturally
present in soy protein, has been found to
suppress transformation of mammalian cells
induced by carcinogens and viral oncogenes
E1A and RAS.35-39 In the first animal model,
lunasin, applied topically, reduces skin tumor
formation in mice.37 This novel peptide can
be found in amounts ranging from 0.10 to
1.33 g/100 g flour in different soybean varieties and in commonly available soy proteins.34 Interestingly, lunasin has also been
found in barley.40
Lunasin is found in the 2S soybean albumin fraction. Structurally, it contains a carboxyl end of nine aspartic acids residues, preceded by a cell adhesion motif (RGD), and a
predicted helical region that has structural homology to chromatin binding proteins.35-37 Lunasin has been shown to inhibit core histone
acetylation, by binding to non-acetylated H3
and H4 histones,37 an epigenetic mechanism
believed to be responsible for the anti-carcinogenic property of this chromatin-binding
peptide. A mechanism is proposed whereby
lunasin selectively kills cells being transformed or newly transformed by binding to
deacetylated core histones exposed by the
transformation event, disrupting the dynamics of histone acetylation-deacetylation and
leading to cell death.38
VOL. 4, NO. 2, OCTOBER 2006

Soybean bioactive peptides

Pilot studies show that lunasin is bioavailable in mice and rats when orally ingested, evidently protected from digestion by naturally
occurring protease inhibitors in soy. This
opens the way for dietary administration in
cancer prevention studies.

Conclusion
Soy is an important source of bioactive peptides. Several potential bioactive peptides
have been identified which include subunits
of glycinin and -conglycinin, as well as in Kunitz and Bowman-Birk inhibitors. The profile
of peptides in soy protein demonstrates amino
acid sequences with antihypertensive, anticholesterolemic, antioxidant and cancer preventive properties. Antihypertensive activity
is the most common effect. A better understanding of how these bioactive peptides work
and how they are regulated will be helpful.
Understanding whether natural in vivo diges-

tion of food proteins release the same peptide

fragments as the ones in vitro experiments
also is important. How we can manage to generate the desired bioactive peptides in the GI
tract while preventing damage to the desired
peptides from digestion constitutes a principal question. Improvements in peptides purification, identification and synthesis techniques are always significant. Large-scale
bioactive peptides production is still a challenge. New peptide sequences may also be
generated during fermentation. The discovery
of the cancer preventive lunasin peptide suggests that soybean and other legumes will play
a role in chronic disease prevention. Although
there is still much to learn about the effects of
lunasin on cancer risk, this area of research
holds considerable potential. Future clinical
studies will clarify the physiological importance of soy peptides and their role in preventing chronic diseases.

Elvira De Mejia, PhD

Assistant Professor,
Department of Food Science
and Human Nutrition
228 ERML
1201 W. Gregory Drive
University of Illinois
Urbana, IL 61801
edemejia@uiuc.edu

Ben O. De Lumen, PhD

Professor, Department of
Nutritional Sciences
and Toxicology
231 Morgan Hall
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720-3104

Disclosure
Dr De Lumen has disclosed
that he is the Co-Founder and
CEO of FilGen Biosciences, Inc.

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