The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P.

Woods

Chapter One: What Is an Essay?

I. Ever since the beginning of time, man has had an urge to communicate
A. The basic urge behind every piece of writing remains the same: to
communicate, to share knowledge and ideas and feelings, to say to the world, this
is the way things are.
II.
An essay is a written expression of its authors opinion.
A. The methods an essayist uses to express his or her opinion varies and is greatly
influenced by the subject matter, the authors view on his life, or his way of looking
at things.
B. Before you can write an essay, you must know what your opinion is, how to
arrive at it, and how to judge its value.
III.
Subjects for Essays
A. One can write an essay about anything. The only requirement being the author
knows enough about the subject to arrive at an opinion.
1.
Knowing Enough requires specialized knowledge, more than the basic
information.
2.
Information is easily available through libraries and internet resources
B. Its easy to write about hobbies or information one comes into contact with at
school
1.
Write about knowledge youve learned or experience youve obtained
IV.
What is an Opinion, and How Do You Reach It?
A. Opinions must meet certain specifications
1.
A belief not based on absolute certainty or positive knowledge but on
what seems true, valid, or probable to ones own mind; what one things;
judgement
B. Sometimes an opinion must be discarded as an essay topic because is is so
generally accepted that is has the status of fact.
C. The best way to form an opinion is to ask questions. The more the better.
V.
What Makes an Opinion Interesting?
A. This is largely based on how enthusiastic you as an author are about your
subject matter
1.
Most effective in deciding if an opinion is interesting is weather or not it
arouses opposition. Do people disagree with it?
a) No argument, no essay.
VI.
Examining the Opposition
A. Examine your opinion by examining everything that can be said in favor of the
opposite opinion, or different, less extreme, oppositions
B. This sometimes causes you to change your mind.
1.
This is great, because you still have an opinion.
C. People will ultimately accept the opinion that is the most logical, but you cannot
expect your opinion to have scientific proof
VII.
Believe What You Say
A. Every essay topic will be subject to argument, but the argument must be honest
and intelligent.

The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

B. You can inspire interest with an opinion that goes against established fact, but
doing this for the sake of arousing interest is silly.
C. Believe in your opinion.
1.
Argue it after youve examined the alternatives.
Chapter One Notes
What Is An Essay?
An essay is the written expression of the authors opinion. (13)
Every essay expresses a personal opinion.
An essay does not just record facts or recount experiences; it registers the authors opinion of
these facts and experiences.
Subjects for Essays
You must know enough about the subject of your essay in order to have an opinion on it.
Specialized knowledge for an essay topic is necessary and can be achieved through research.
The essay based on specialized knowledge is easier to write then the essay based on a familiar
idea.
Your essay must begin with an opinion.
What Is An Opinion And How Do You Reach It?
Opinion: A belief not based on absolute certainty or positive knowledge but on what seems true,
valid, or probable to ones own mind; what one thinks; judgment.
The failure to distinguish from fact and opinion is the most common error amongst student
writers.
Facts must be converted into opinions, and those opinions that seem like facts should be avoided.
(For example: Friendship is an important human relationship.)
Ask yourself questions to find your opinion.
What Makes An Opinion Interesting?
Your own enthusiasm for a subject heightens the interest.
If a substantial number of people disagree with your opinion your essay will excite interest.
No argument -- no essay.
Examining The Opposition
Consider both sides of an argument
Be aware of every argument that might be used against your viewpoint
Every opinion you are considering as a potential essay topic, then, should be checked against
these questions: Can a valid argument be made against it? Can I defend it logically against this
argument?
Believe What You Say

The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

A bizarre opinion manufactured simply to attract attention is a silly device.

Honesty is the best policy for an essayist.
Believe in your opinion, but be open minded.
Chapter 2 Notes

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The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

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The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

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The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

Chapter 4 Notes: Structure

x

The basic structure of an essay has three parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
o Think of yourself as a builder, and think of your essay as a structure.
o Remember that this structure never changes; only the details differ from essay to essay.
The Introduction
x One paragraph is usually sufficient to introduce an essay.
x The function of the introductory paragraph is simply to introduce the subject and come to the
point.
o Think of a triangle resting on one point.
x The introduction paragraph should open with a broad, general statement related to the thesis and
then gradually narrow to a single point- the thesis itself. Sentence by sentence it closes in on the
thesis.
x To find a general statement for the first sentence of your essay, begin your thinking about an
opening statement with one major element in your thesis (usually a noun) and make an
observation about it that any reader will find acceptable.
o General rule: your opening statement will relate to your thesis but will not take a position
on it. Then, by a process of qualifying, comparing, illustrating, and gradually limiting the
subject, you quietly remove the major obstacles to discussion and get to the point.
x To not get bogged down by the introduction paragraph before you even begin writing your essay,
the best policy is to get something down on paper, some general statement leading to your thesis,
and then go back to it later, revising and rewriting as needed.
The Big Middle Section
x The number of paragraphs in the middle section depends entirely upon how many points you
want to cover and how thoroughly you want to cover them.
x Whether your middle section is short or long, it is here that the real power of your essay resides.
For the middle section is your argument.
x Refer to your full thesis. You only need three general rules to guide you:
o Make the necessary concessions to the opposition as soon as possible.
Each concession opens a paragraph, but the paragraph then moves immediately
into a pro argument that carries far more weight than the concession.
o Devote at least one paragraph to every major pro argument in your full thesis statement.
o Save your best argument for last.
The middle section of your essay should always move toward its most telling
paragraph.
The Conclusion
x The structure of the conclusion is exactly the reverse of the structure underlying your
introduction, which began with a broad general statement and narrowed to its point, or thesis.
x Your conclusion begins with the thesis and widens gradually toward a final broad statement.
x To get your conclusion started, simply repeat your thesis sentence, vary the wording, and add any
appropriate words or phrases to tie it in properly with the paragraph that preceded it.
x From this point you will begin to broaden toward your final sentence.
o You can make a still stronger connection with your introduction by picking up any
significant word or phrase in it and working it into your conclusion.
x In tying in the middle section of your essay to your conclusion, try to leave your reader with a
series of pictures in his mind rather than a series of blunt and graceless declarations made by
attempting to list your main points.
o Dont be flatly repetitive, and dont make lists.
o Remind your reader. Then move outward with a statement that relates your thesis to a
broader background, so that he can see it in a last long perspective.

The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods


Chapter Five: First Steps Toward Style
Style in writing is like style in anything elsesome special quality that commands interest or
gives pleasure, something that makes you sit up and take notice.
Style is perhaps best defined as this ability to do something difficult as though it were easy.
One characteristic of a good style is the ability to pack as much meaning as possible, without
loss of clarity, into as few words as possible.
No matter what you have to say, you can learn to say it well. And that is style.
-A strong thesis and impressive organization mean little if you cannot effectively get your ideas
across through word choice and sentence structure.
-Language and sentences that are easy to understand will help keep your audience alert and
interested.
-Even if you do not consider yourself a natural-born or particularly gifted writer, style is something
that can be learned. Control over words is a technique acquired through practice and selfdiscipline.
The Two Commandments of Style
1. Do not use the first person
2. Do not use the word there-ever.
First Commandment:
-Opinions are typically more powerful when you remove statements such as I believe or I
think. Removing unnecessary Is helps reduce passive voice and makes for a stronger
argument overall.
-All opinions expressed in a piece of work are, by default, the opinions of the author. If you didnt
believe it to be true, you wouldnt have said it-so why repeat yourself?
-Try restructuring thoughts to reflect third-person views: Go from You cant help liking this book
to This book is irresistible.
-Doing these things allows you to create more direct statements which are also shorter in length.
Second Commandment:
-Although there is a perfectly acceptable word and can be used, you must be careful not to
choose it too frequently. There often adds unnecessary clutter to sentences and takes away
from their strength.
-Often, replacing the phrase there was or there is can make a huge difference in a
sentence. Go from There was a fight to A fight broke out.

The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods
-Use active verbs! Weak verbs do not add meaning to sentences and express no motion or life.
-These two commandments are not meant to be followed forever, but should be used to help
establish good writing habits. Once you learn how to control your style and sentence structure,
these rules can be broken and their forbidden phrases used---sparingly.

Chapter 5: First Steps Towards Style

- The final judgment of a piece of writing depends on the writers use of words
- A good piece of writing is more than a brilliant thesis, structure or organization
Style:
- Some special quality that commands interest or gives pleasure, something that makes you sit up and
take notice.
- The ability to do something difficult as though it was easy
- Writing should appear effortless, rather than language that is laborious, painful, or dull.
- Style can be taught, but takes practice; it is a technique, not a gift.
- The two following commandments serve to cut out words that contribute nothing to style.
Two Commandments
1. Do not use first person.
- Examples: I think It is my opinion I feel that all redundant statements
- Express opinions without using I (Smoking causes cancer rather than I believe smoking
causes cancer)
- Replacing I with sayings like The writer believes (Impersonal) One believes (Second
person) or A person believes (Substitute second person) just conceals first person and should
not be used.
- Not using first person makes sentences shorter and more direct, but the meaning stays the same.
2. Do not use the word there ever.
- There seldom adds anything but clutter to sentences.
- The words in sentences like There was something wrong should be juggled around, like
Something was wrong.
- When sentences cant be juggled without losing their meanings, reword the sentences.
- Ex: There was a fight can be reworded as A fight erupted or A fight broke out
- Rewording gives more life to sentences.
- Use of there also leads to use of pure verbs (is, was, etc), which are less effective in writing than
active verbs.
- Active verbs are doing, while pure verbs are being.
- Ex. There was a sound of lightning, can be reworded as Lightening crashed. Crashed is an
active verb.
- These commandments are temporary; There are times when you can use first person or there, but
avoiding it is a simple way to make the writing of a person lacking style more clear and expressive.

The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

Chapter 6: The Size and Shape of Middle Paragraphs

x
x
x

The structure of middle paragraphs can be

represented graphically as rectangles or blocks
These blocks are firmly divided from each other a
make up the body of the essay
Reasons for paragraphing: looks better, avoids
appearing dull, provides for relief, separates ideas,
helps to clearly develop ideas

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One Point, One Paragraph

x
x
x

Each of your major points is likely to need considerably more discussion than one paragraph can
handle
To it is nearly impossible to state major argument in one paragraph because it is your major
argument
One major point can therefore multiply into several paragraphs, each with its own small point

Length of Paragraphs
x
x
x
x
x

Since it is impossible to predetermine the length of your paragraphs, it depends on what you want
to say and how you want to say it
Single sentences or phrases are fragments and not really attention-getters. While they can be
effective, it depends upon their contrast with the fully developed paragraphs around them
Try for a paragraph six or seven sentences long with a total of 100-125 words
The length forces you to think long
Its easier to shrink a paragraph than expand it

Basic Paragraph Structure

x
x
x
x
x

Figure 7 represents the block structures major characteristics: solid, self-contained, and fully
developed
Although each block is a single point, each are relates to each other and explain or illustrate some
part of the thesis
Like the essay itself, every paragraph has three parts: a beginning, a middle, and an end
The beginning: the topic sentence. This is an announcement of the particular point. Whats it
about?
The middle: several sentences that explain topic sentence. This illustrates your point.
The ending: the concluding sentence. The act of filling out the middle drives you to a close.

Picture-Frame Paragraphs
x
x
x
x
x

Paragraph pattern forces you to visualize what you want to say

What kind of picture would you like to paint to illustrate your point?
Give yourself time to see this clearly in your mind, then put the picture into words, using detail
The result is a vivid picture framed between the topic sentence and the concluding sentence
Your reader will see what you mean
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The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

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The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods


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The fact remains

But

It is true that

Therefore

Certainly

Moreover

Thus

Clearly, then

Nevertheless

To be sure

Consequently

No doubt

True

Even so

Nobody denies

Undoubtedly

Furthermore

Obviously

Unquestionable

Granted

Of course

Yet






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The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

Chapter 8:
Lifeless verbs prevent addition of detail and suspense
What It Is, and How to Beat It
- Active voice: direct, vigorous, strong, demonstrates action
Ex: John drove the car.
Subject = John creates action
- Passive: unconscious, subject being acted upon
Ex: The car was driven by John.
Subject = Car has something done to it
Adrift in Nobody-Land
- Anonymity Who acts? Passive lacks human involvement; may be added at the end of a sentence, but
neither the verb or the live body create action.
Ex: The room was cleaned by Mary.
- Complete passivity is unnatural; it offends some basic sense of life in all of us, some insistent demand
for human statement and identity. (Pg. 96)
- Solution: subtract two-part verbs followed by by. Changes the subject of the sentence and the action.
Ex: Mary cleaned the room.
Making the Subject Perform
- Subject change is not always a solution. Two-part verbs without by are equally dangerous of passive
voice, and adding a body to create a switch is impractical.
Ex: Thunder was heard in the mountains.
DO NOT: Many people heard thunder in the mountains.
- Identify most important subject of the sentence and have it act.
Ex: Thunder growled in the mountains.
The more precise verb used to describe what kind of action thunder makes, the more vivid and real it
becomes.
- The reader identifies thunder as something that he hears himself, rather than something heard by another
and recorded.

The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

-Audio active (subjects creating sound) and visual verbs (creating imagery) supply new information.
Passive: The car was driven down Main Street.
Weak active: The car went down Main Street.
Active: The car careened down Main Street.
The car rattled down Main Street.
Make your subject do something.
Why Passive Voice at All?
- Passive provides limited functions. Active verbs may be too lively to identify true meaning of a
sentence. Passive provides clarity.
- Passive is tempting: easier and sounds pretty.
- Passive creates useful, impersonal tone for violence, disaster, and accident. The subject is involuntarily
being acted upon.

A Plan for Self-Protection

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The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

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Chapter 10 Notes: Parallel Structure

-

Purpose- adds new interest, new tone, new and unexpected grace, instant style
Deals with grammatical structure

Look for a common denominator- the repetition of some element in the sentence
Ex: If we are to survive, if we are to have even the hope of surviving, we must end the
nuclear race.

The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

In this example, the repetition is an if clause, this structure lends grace to logic
The common denominator is NOT the repetition of an idea, it is the repetition of
structure
Balance is inherent in parallelism
You can place whole sentences or whole paragraphs in parallel position

The smaller parallels- exceedingly important because the big parallels need solid
support.
**Whenever a sentence contains two or more similar elements, these elements must be
kept parallel, no matter how small they are**
Ex: In a series of nouns, each item must be a noun.
Not: She liked ball games, hikes, and going to picnics.
Instead: She liked ball games, hikes, and picnics.

Pairs are balanced on either side of and, but, and or, keep them equal
Ex: He was an expert driver and could also repair cars.

The trickiest parallels are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also and first/second/third.
Not: Either Im always in debt or in trouble.
Instead: Either Im always in debt or Im always in trouble.
Not: She is the kind of woman who will neither change her mind nor her hair style.
Instead: She is the kind of woman who will change neither her mind nor her hair style.

If you repeat an article or a preposition once, repeat it every timeor not at all.
Ex: A house, a yard, a garden, and a pool OR A house, yard, garden, and pool.

Summary:
- Parallels are simple logic
- Subtler and more complex parallels are the real challenge
- They can make a startling improvement in your writing
- Its all about control, keep all elements of equal value parallel, whether they are big or
small
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The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

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The Lively Art of Writing AP Student Notes, AP English Lit and Comp, Mr. Spencer P. Woods

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