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THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The French Revolution dramatically and quickly altered the political structure of France, and
the Napoleonic conquests spread many of the revolutionary principles in an equally rapid and
stunning fashion to other parts of Europe. During the late 18th & early 19th centuries, another
revolution - an industrial one - was transforming the economic and social structure of Europe,
although in a less dramatic and rapid fashion. The Industrial Revolution sparked immense amounts of
creativity, productivity, and innovation.
Causes
1. Agricultural Revolution paved the way: After buying up the land of village farmers, wealthy
landowners enclosed their land with fences or hedges. The increase in their landholdings enabled
them to cultivate larger fields. Within these larger fields, called enclosures, landowners
experimented with more productive seeding and harvesting methods to boost crop yields. The
enclosure movement had two important results.
First, landowners tried new agricultural methods.
Second, large landowners forced small farmers to become tenant farmers or to give up farming and
move to the cities.
Jethro Tull was one of the first of these scientific farmers. He saw that the usual way of
sowing seed by scattering it across the ground was wasteful. Many seeds failed to take root. He solved
this problem with an invention called the seed drill in about 1701. It allowed farmers to sow seeds in
well-spaced rows at specific depths. A larger share of the seeds took root, boosting crop yields.
2. Rotating Crops: The process of crop rotation, proved to be one of the best developments by the
scientific farmers. One year, for example, a farmer might plant a field with wheat, which exhausted
soil nutrients. The next year he planted a root crop, such as turnips, to restore nutrients. This might
be followed in turn by barley and then clover.
3. Livestock breeders improved their methods too. In the 1700s, for example, ROBERT
BAKEWELL increased his mutton (sheep meat) output by allowing only his best sheep to breed.
Other farmers followed Bakewells lead. Between 1700 and 1786, the average weight for lambs
climbed from 18 to 50 pounds. As food supplies increased and living conditions improved,
Englands population mushroomed. An increasing population boosted the demand for food and
goods such as cloth. As farmers lost their land to large enclosed farms, many became factory
workers.
For several reasons, Britain was the first country to have an economy based on industry.
1) Coal and water to power machines
2) Iron ore to make machines and tools
3) Rivers to move people and goods
4) Good harbors for shipping goods to other lands
5) Britain also had a system of banks that could fund new businesses
6) British governments positive attitude: Britains political stability gave the country a tremendous
advantage over its neighbors. Though Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, none
occurred on British soil. Their military successes gave the British a positive attitude. Parliament
also passed laws to help encourage and protect business ventures
7) Since invention was an economic activity, its pace and character depended on factors that affected
business profits including, in particular, input prices. Britain stands out as a high wage, cheap
energy economy
Other countries had some of these advantages. But Britain had all the factors of production, the
resources needed to produce goods and services that the Industrial Revolution required. They included
land, labor, and capital (or wealth).
Industrialisation
Textiles Industrialize First: The Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry. Several new
inventions helped businesses produce cloth and clothing more quickly. Business owners built huge
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buildingsfactoriesthat housed large machines powered by water. The invention of the steam
engine in 1705 brought in a new source of power. The steam engine used fire to heat water and
produce steam, which was used to drive the engine. Eventually steam-driven machines were used to
run factories.
Improvements made in transportation: An American invented the first steam-driven boat. This
allowed people to send goods more quickly over rivers and canals.
Watts Steam Engine: James Watt, a mathematical instrument maker at the University of
Glasgow in Scotland, thought about the problem for two years. In 1765, Watt figured out a way to
make the steam engine work faster and more efficiently while burning less fuel. In 1774, Watt joined
with a businessman named Matthew Boulton. Boulton was an entrepreneur, a person who organizes,
manages, and takes on the risks of a business. He paid Watt a salary and encouraged him to build
better engines.
Water Transportation - Steam could also propel boats. An American inventor named Robert
Fulton ordered a steam engine from Boulton and Watt. He built a steamboat called the Clermont,
which made its first successful trip in 1807. The Clermont later ferried passengers up and down New
Yorks Hudson River. In England, water transportation improved with the creation of a network of
canals, or human-made waterways. By the mid-1800s, 4,250 miles of inland channels slashed the cost
of transporting both raw materials and finished goods.
Road Transportation - British roads improved, too, thanks largely to the efforts of John
McAdam, a Scottish engineer. Working in the early 1800s, McAdam equipped road beds with a layer
of large stones for drainage. On top, he placed a carefully smoothed layer of crushed rock. Even in
rainy weather heavy wagons could travel over the new macadam roads without sinking in mud.
Private investors formed companies that built roads and then operated them for profit.
People called the new roads turnpikes because travelers had to stop at tollgates (turnstiles or
turnpikes) to pay tolls before traveling farther.
The Railway Age Begins - Steam-driven machinery powered English factories in the late
1700s. A steam engine on wheels - the railroad locomotive - drove English industry after 1820. In
1804, an English engineer named Richard Trevithick designed a steam-driven locomotive. Other
British engineers soon built improved versions of Trevithicks locomotive.
Starting in the 1820s, steam fueled a new burst of industrial growth. At that time, a British
engineer set up the worlds first railroad line. It used a steamdriven locomotive. Soon, railroads were
being built all over Britain.
The railroad boom helped business owners move their goods to market more quickly. The
boom in railroad building created thousands of new jobs in several different industries. The rail road
had a deep effect on British society. For instance, people who lived in the country moved to cities.
Impact on Society
The Industrial Revolution affected every part of life in Great Britain, but proved to be a mixed
blessing.
Positive Effects
It created jobs for workers. It contributed to the wealth of the nation. It fostered technological
progress and invention. It greatly increased the production of goods and raised the standard of
living. Perhaps most important, it provided the hope of improvement in peoples lives. These
included healthier diets, better housing, and cheaper, mass-produced clothing. Because the
Industrial Revolution created a demand for engineers as well as clerical and professional workers, it
expanded educational opportunities. The middle and upper classes prospered immediately from the
Industrial Revolution. For the workers it took longer, but their lives gradually improved during the
1800s. Laborers eventually won higher wages, shorter hours, and better working conditions after
they joined together to form labor unions.
The long-term effects of the Industrial Revolution are still evident. Most people today in
industrialized countries can afford consumer goods that would have been considered luxuries 50 or 60
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years ago. In addition, their living and working conditions are much improved over those of workers
in the 19th century. Also, profits derived from industrialization produced tax revenues. These funds
have allowed local, state, and federal governments to invest in urban improvements and raise the
standard of living of most city dwellers.
Negative Effects
9Population Growth & Growth of Cities: One change was a rise in the proportion of people who
lived in cities. For centuries, most people in Europe had lived in the country. Now more and more
lived in cities. The number of cities with more than 100,000 people doubled between 1800 and
1850. Because they grew quickly, cities were not ideal places to live. People could not find good
housing, schools, or police protection. The cities were filthy with garbage, and sickness swept
through slum areas. The average life span of a person living in a city was 17 years - compared to 38
years in the countryside.
9Working conditions were harsh as well. The average worker spent 14 hours a day on the job, 6
days a week. Factories were dark, and the powerful machines were dangerous. Many workers were
killed or seriously injured in accidents.
9Living Conditions - Because Englands cities grew rapidly, they had no development plans,
sanitary codes, or building codes. Moreover, they lacked adequate housing, education, and police
protection for the people who poured in from the countryside to seek jobs. Most of the unpaved
streets had no drains, and garbage collected in heaps on them.
9The middle class - made up of skilled workers, professionals, business people, and wealthy
farmersdid well. They enjoyed comfortable lives in pleasant homes. This class began to grow in
size, and some people grew wealthier than the nobles who had dominated society for many
centuries. Still, nobles looked down on the people who gained their wealth from business. They, in
turn, looked down on the poor workers. Gradually, a larger middle class - neither rich nor poor emerged. The upper middle class consisted of government employees, doctors, lawyers, and
managers of factories, mines, and shops. The lower middle class included factory overseers and
such skilled workers as toolmakers, mechanical drafters, and printers. These people enjoyed a
comfortable standard of living.
9The Working Class - During the years 1800 to 1850, however, laborers, or the working class, saw
little improvement in their living and working conditions. They watched their livelihoods disappear
as machines replaced them. In frustration, some smashed the machines they thought were putting
them out of work. One group of such workers was called the LUDDITES. They were named after
Ned Ludd. Ludd, probably a mythical English laborer, was said to have destroyed weaving
machinery around 1779. The Luddites attacked whole factories in northern England beginning in
1811, destroying laborsaving machinery. Outside the factories, mobs of workers rioted, mainly
because of poor living and working conditions.
9Rise of Global Inequality - Industrialization widened the wealth gap between industrialized and
nonindustrialized countries, even while it strengthened their economic ties. To keep factories
running and workers fed, industrialized countries required a steady supply of raw materials from
less-developed lands. In turn, industrialized countries viewed poor countries as markets for their
manufactured products.
9Its immediate effect was to establish Britain as the leading economic and technological nation in the
world, with all the political prestige and power that came with that, and it imposed the PAX
BRITANNICA on Europe for a century.
9Rise in imperialism - Britain led in exploiting its overseas colonies for resources and markets.
Soon other European countries, the United States, Russia, and Japan followed Britains lead, seizing
colonies for their economic resources. Imperialism, the policy of extending one countrys rule over
many other lands, gave even more power and wealth to these already wealthy nations. Imperialism
was born out of the cycle of industrialization, the need for resources to supply the factories of
Europe, and the development of new markets around the world.
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9Environmental Pollution: Coal smoke and cloth dyes polluted the air and water.
The English city of Manchester showed how industrialization changed society. Rapid growth
made the city crowded and filthy. The factory owners risked their money and worked long hours to
make their businesses grow. In return, they enjoyed huge profits and built huge houses. The workers
also worked long hours, but had few benefits. Many of these workers were children, some only six
years old. Not until 1819 did the British government put limits on using children as workers. With so
much industry in one place, Manchester suffered in another way.
Industrialization Spreads
Other countries followed the example of Britain and began to change their economies to an
industrial base. The United States was one of the first. Like Britain, it had water power, sources of
coal and iron, and a ready supply of workers. The United States also benefited from conflict with
Britain. During the War of 1812, Britain stopped shipping goods to the United States. As a result,
American industries had a chance to supply the goods that Americans wanted.
The switch to an industrial economy began in the United States in the textile industry. In
1789, based on memory and a partial design, a British worker b rought the secret of Britains textile
machines to North America. He built a machine to spin thread. In 1813, a group of Massachusetts
investors built a complex of factories that made cloth. Just a few years later they built an even larger
complex in the town of Lowell. Thousands of workers, mostly young girls, came to these towns to
work in the factories.
In the United States, industry grew first in the northeast. In the last decades of the 1800s, a
rapid burst of industrial growth took place that was more wide-spread. This boom was fueled by large
supplies of coal, oil, and iron. Helping, too, was the appearance of a number of new inventions,
including the electric light. As in Britain, a railroad building
Businesses needed huge sums
was also a big part of this industrial growth.
of money to take on big projects. To
Industrial growth spread to Europe as well. Belgium raise money, companies sold shares of
was the first to adopt British ways. It was rich in iron and ownership, called stock. All those
coal and had good waterways. It had the resources needed.
who held stock were part owners of
Germany was politically divided until the late the company. This form of organizing
1800s. As a result, it could not develop a wide industrial a business is called a corporation.
economy. However, west-central Germany was rich in coal
and did become a leading industrial site. Across Europe, small areas began to change to the new
industries. Industrial growth did not occur in France until after 1850. Then the government began to
build a large network of railroads.
Some countries-such as Austria-Hungary and Spain-had problems that stopped them from
building new industries. The Industrial Revolution changed the world. Countries that had adopted an
industrial economy enjoyed more wealth and power than those that had not.
The countries of Europe soon began to take advantage of lands in Africa and Asia. They used
these lands as sources of raw materials needed for their factories. They saw the people only as
markets for the goods they made. They took control of these lands, a practice called imperialism.
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (ANTI-WHITE FURY)

Origin
* Vague proposals of The Cripps mission
* The utmost emphasis of the British Government on Communalism and British efforts to
Balkanise the Indian subcontinent.
* The retreat of the British from Malay, Burma and Singapore, leaving their dependants to
fend for themselves, the indescribable plight of the Indians trekking back home from these
places, the racial ill-treatment meted out to Indians by white soldiers, the 'scorched earth'
policy pursued by the British in Bengal to resist probable Japanese invasion which
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resulted in the commandeering of all means of communicating, war-time price rise, blackmarketeering and profiteering - all these contributed to the creation of an anti-white fury.
* The bitter campaign of the Muslim League against the congress and the Hindus provoked
the Congress to adopt more radical methods to achieve Swaraj.
QIM was the outcome of the above mentioned factors.
July 14, 1942
CWC meeting at Wardha accepted the idea of Mass struggle.
August
1942
8,
OPERATION
ZERO
HOUR
The All-India Congress Committee passed a resolution at a meeting at

Gowalia Tank, Bombay. Gandhi told the British to quit and leave
India in Gods hand. This resolution declared that the immediate
ending of the British Rule in India was an urgent necessity for the sake
of India and for the cause of freedom and Democracy, for which
Britain and her allies were fighting against fascist powers. The
resolution approved the starting of mass struggle on non-violent lines
on the widest possible scale for the independence of the country.
Gandhi regarded the impending movement as the last struggle for
Indian Independence. In his speech before the All India Committee, he
declared it was a decision to Do or Die and it was going to be the last
struggle of his life to win the freedom of India. Gandhi gave forth the
slogan Quit India.
Before the congress could start a movement, the Government struck
very hard on August 9, 1942 OPERATION ZERO HOUR arresting
most of the congress leaders. During the Quit India Movement, the
textile strike at Ahmedabad lasted for 3 months and the city was
described as the Stalin grad of India. Nehru was placed in the Almora
Jail, Azad in Bankura and Gandhi in the Agakhan Palace, Poona. But
this did not discourage the Indians. They responded to Gandhis call
with great vigor. All over the country there were strikes and
demonstrations. The most effective resistance came from the congress
Socialists, a group within the main party. J.P.Narayan and R.M.Lohia
took the head. Those who escaped arrest on 9 August went
underground and guided the movement. Other prominent socialists
were Achyut Patwardan, Raman and Mishra, Purushotam Tricamdos
and S.M.Joshi. Mostly the students, the peasants, and the middle class
people spearheaded the movement.
Phases of QIM
The First Phase was predominantly urban and included hartals, strikes and clashes with the
police and army in most major cities. Though initially the Movement was based on nonviolent lines later it turned into violent due to repressive policy of the government and
indiscriminate arrests of the leaders. Further, it was the only all India Movement, which
was leader less.
The Second Phase of the movement started from the middle of August. A number of shortlived local 'national governments' were also set up. Parallel Governments were established.
*
First parallel government in Ballia was formed under Chittu Pandey.
*
Satara in Maharasfra Prati Sarkar under Y.B.Chawan and Nana Patil
*
Talcher (Orissa), parts of eastern U.P. and Bihar.
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Bengal Tamluk in Midnapore district, Jaitya Sarkar functioned.

The Third Phase of the movement started from about the end of September and was
characterized by terrorist activities, sabotage and guerrilla warfare by educated youths and
peasant squads.
All the three phases of the movement were crushed by brutal atrocities including the use of
machine guns from the air.
Extent of Mass participation
The unprecedented response of the Indians to the Quit India Movement alarmed and
frightened the British authorities in India.
* The students, workers and peasants unions provided the backbone of the revolt. Workers
went on strikes. Peasants revolted furiously. Young women also participated.
* Muslims provided shelter to underground activists. There were no communal calshes
during the movement.
* The Indian Princes and the landlords were supporting the War effort and therefore did not
sympathize with the movement.
* The Movement did not evoke much response from the merchant community. In fact,
most of the Capitalists and merchants had profited heavily during the War.
Response of political parties
* The Muslim League kept aloof though many Muslims did participate. The league gave
the call Divide and Quit.
* The Hindu Mahasabha condemned the Movement.
* The Communist Party of India due to its Peoples War line did not support the
movement. The CPI after the removal of the ban on it in July 1942 had supported the
Leagues demand for Pakistan and the war efforts of the Government. The CPI demanded
its withdrawal when Russia joined the allies in the war.
* The trend of underground revolutionary activity also started during this phase. Jaya
prakash Narain and Ramnandan Misra escaped from Hazaribagh Jail and organized an
underground movement. Socialists like J.P.Narayan, R.M.Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali and Usha
Mehta were involved in underground revolutionary activities. The socialists formed a 12point program and tried to implement it in rural areas. They set up a Central Directorate in
Bombay and a parallel guerilla organization known as AZAD DASTA with its branches all
over India. Usha Sharma started an underground radio station at Bombay. Sucheta
kriplani formed a Satyagraha Samiti.
* Some Congress leaders like Rajaii were openly in favour of the partition of India and
against the Quit India movement.
Response of the government
* The government imposed severe restrictions on the press.
* Demonstrations were lathi charged, machine gunned and even bombed from the air.
Prisoners were tortured. Over 10000 people died.
* Ultimately the Government succeeded in crushing the movement.
Failure of the movement
The movement was infact short lived. It failed because: It was leaderless. Gandhi was arrested in the early hours of August 9, 1942.
The leaders singularly failed to give the people a well conceived plan or well thought out
programme of action.
*
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Proper organization could not stand for long before the mighty strength of an imperial
government in power.
There was a deplorable lack of co-oriantion between the organizers of the movement in
different areas.
It lacked support from other political parties. The QIM was considered to be a congress
sponsored movement and not a national struggle.
Impact of the movement
It played a vital role in Indian National movement as outlined below.
* It placed the demand for independence on the immediate agenda of the national
movement.
* It weakened the leftist groups and parties in India considerably. The Socialists and
Boses followers charged the communists with treachery as the communists did not
participate in the W.W.II because of their support to the allies, including Soviet Union and
the communists charged the Socialists with fifth columnist activity because of the formers
plan to win freedom for India with the help of the Axis Powers.
* Its importance lay in the fact that it demonstrated the depth that nationalist feeling had
reached in the country and the great capacity for struggle and sacrifice that the people of
India had developed.
* Lord Linlithgow described the Quit India Movement as by far the most serious rebellion
since that of 1857. The gravity and extent of the Quit India movement by Linlithgow's own
admission may be compared to those of the Revolt of 1857.
* Quit India Movement was the final attempt for countrys freedom. Independence was
no longer a matter of bargain and this became amply clear after the war.
* The arrest of the congress leaders proved beneficial to them as it helped them avoid
taking a clear public stand on the Japanese war issue, something which otherwise would have
been embarrassing for a few months in 1944 when S.C.Boses INA appeared on the borders
of Assam at a time when on the world scale the Allies were clearly winning the war.
PRESSURE AND WIND
The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces. The
winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. When isobars are straight
and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and the
resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
Generally, over low pressure area the air will converge and rise. Over high pressure
area the air will subside from above and diverge at the surface. Apart from convergence, some
eddies, convection currents, orographic uplift and uplift along fronts cause the rising of air,
which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
Pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and Anticyclones
Pressure system
Pressure
Pattern of wind direction
condition at the
Northern
Southern
center
hemisphere
hemisphere
Low
Anti clockwise
Clockwise
Cyclone
High
Clockwise
Anti clockwise
Anti cyclone
PRESSURE BELTS
There are seven pressure belts in all. They are

Equatorial trough of low pressure / Doldrums

Sub tropical high-pressure belt (northern hemisphere)
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Sub tropical high-pressure belt (southern hemisphere)
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Sub polar low-pressure belt (northern hemisphere)

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Sub polar low-pressure belt (southern hemisphere)

Polar high (northern hemisphere)

Polar high (southern hemisphere)
1. DOLDRUMS OR THE EQUATORIAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (50N and S along the
equator)
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), also known as the Intertropical Front, Monsoon trough,
Doldrums or the Equatorial Convergence Zone, is a belt of low pressure girdling Earth at the equator.
It is formed by the vertical ascent of warm, moist air from the latitudes above and below the equator.
The air is drawn into the intertropical convergence zone by the action of the Hadley cell, a
macroscale atmospheric feature which is part of the Earth's heat and moisture distribution system. The
location of the intertropical convergence zone varies over time. Over land, it moves back and forth
across the equator following the sun's zenith point. Over the oceans, where the convergence zone is
better defined, the seasonal cycle is subtler, as the convection is constrained by the distribution of
ocean temperatures.
Sometimes, a double ITCZ forms, with one located north and another south of the equator.
When this occurs, a narrow ridge of high pressure forms between the two convergence zones, one of
which is usually stronger than the other.
Variation in the location of the intertropical convergence zone drastically affects rainfall in
many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and
warm seasons of higher latitudes. Long term changes in the intertropical convergence zone can result
in severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas.
Within the ITCZ the average winds are slight, unlike the zones north and south of the equator
where the trade winds feed in. Early sailors named this belt of calm the doldrums because of the
inactivity and stagnation they found themselves in after days of no wind. To find oneself becalmed in
this region in a hot and muggy
climate could mean death in an era
when wind was the only major
motive force.
Tropical cyclogenesis
depends upon low-level vorticity
as one of its six requirements, and
the ITCZ/monsoon trough fills this
role, as it is a zone of wind change
and speed, otherwise known as
horizontal wind shear. As the
ITCZ migrates more than 500 km
from the equator during the
respective hemisphere's summer
season, increasing coriolis force
allows the formation of tropical
cyclones within this zone more
possible. In the north Atlantic and
the northeastern Pacific oceans, tropical waves move along the axis of the ITCZ causing an increase
in thunderstorm activity, and under weak vertical wind shear, these clusters of thunderstorms can
become tropical cyclones.
2. SUB TROPICAL HIGH-PRESSURE BELTS / TROPICAL HIGH PRESSURE CALMS
(Horse Latitudes between 250 N and S & 350 N and S Latitudes)

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This belt is broken into a number of high-pressure cells. The high pressure is acused due to
the subsidence and piling of the air. A calm condition with variable and feeble winds is created in this
region. The high pressure in this belt is due to the following: The temperature in these latitudes is comparatively lower than that on the equator.
The hot air over the equator rises, cools and spreads to north and south. The cooling causes
the air to sink. The sinking or descending air accumulates and creates a high-pressure area in
these latitudes.
Because of earths rotation, the air banks up over these latitudes.
3. SUB POLAR LOW-PRESSURE BELTS / CIRCUM POLAR LOW-PRESSURE BELTS
(Between 600 and 700 in both the hemispheres)
These belts lie almost around the arctic and Antarctic circles. These are well developed in the
north Atlantic and north pacific regions. The low pressure is caused by converging and rising air. Due
to great contrast between the temperature of the winds from sub-tropical and polar source regions,
cyclonic storms are produced.
4. POLAR HIGH -PRESSURE BELTS / POLAR HIGHS (Between 700 - 900 N and South at
both the poles)
The temperature is extremely permanently low. The cold descending air as such, gives rise to
high pressures over the poles. These areas of polar high pressure are known as the Polar Highs.
ISOBARS AND ISO BAR MAPS
Isobars are imaginary lines drawn on a amp, connecting places having the same atmospheric
pressure. The isobar maps are of great value in studying the climatic details of an area. When the
isobars are very close, the pressure gradient (Barometric slope) is aid to be steep and the speed of the
blowing wind will be very high. When the isobars are very far apart, the barometric slope is moderate
or gentle and the speed of the blowing wind will be very low. A low-pressure isobar surrounded by a
high-pressure isobar denotes a depression or a cyclone, whereas a high-pressure isobar surrounded by
low-pressure isobars denotes an anticyclone.
Windstorm - A windstorm is just a storm with high winds or violent gusts but little or no rain.
Gust Front- A gust front is the leading edge of cool air rushing down and out from a thunderstorm.
There are two main reasons why the air flows out of some thunderstorms so rapidly. The primary
reason is the presence of relatively dry air in the lower atmosphere. This dry air causes some of the
rain falling through it to evaporate, which cools the air. Since cool air sinks (just as warm air rises),
this causes a down-rush of air that spreads out at the ground. The edge of this rapidly spreading cool
pool of air is the gust front. The second reason is that the falling precipitation produces a drag on the
air, forcing it downward. If the wind following the gust front is intense and damaging, the windstorm
is known as a downburst.
Downburst - A downburst is created by an area of significantly rain-cooled air that, after hitting
ground level, spreads out in all directions producing strong winds. Unlike winds in a tornado, winds in
a downburst are directed outwards from the point where it hits land or water. Dry downbursts are
associated with
How do windmills work? - Windmills work because they slow
thunderstorms with very little
down the speed of the wind. The wind flows over the airfoil shaped
rain, while wet downbursts
blades causing lift, like the effect on airplane wings, causing them to
are created by thunderstorms
turn. The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric
with high amounts of rainfall. generator to produce electricity.
Derecho - A derecho is a
widespread and long-lived windstorm that is associated with a fast-moving band of severe
thunderstorms. They can produce significant damage to property and pose a serious threat life,
primarily by downburst winds. To be classified as a derecho, the path length of the storm has to be at
least 280 miles long. Widths may vary from 50-300 miles. Derechos are usually not associated with a
cold front, but a stationary front. They occur mostly in July, but can occur at anytime during the
spring and summer.
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Jet stream - The jet stream is a fast flowing, river of air found in the atmosphere at around 12 km
above the surface of the Earth just under the tropopause. They form at the boundaries of adjacent air
masses with significant differences in temperature, such as of the polar region and the warmer air to
the south. Because of the effect of the Earth's rotation the streams flow west to east, propagating in a
serpentine or wave-like manner at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow.
General Atmospheric Circulation
The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection
caused by high insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds from the tropics converge at
this low pressure zone. The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top
of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This causes
accumulation of air at about 30o N and S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and
forms a subtropical high. Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 300N
and S latitudes. Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the
easterlies. The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are
called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell. In the middle latitudes the
circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising warm air that
blows from the subtropical high. At the surface, these winds are called westerlies and the cell is
known as the Ferrel cell. At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the poles and
blows towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar cell. These
three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere. The transfer of heat
energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general circulation.
General Atmospheric Circulation and its Effects on Oceans
The general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the oceans. The large-scale winds
of the atmosphere initiate large and slow moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn provide
input of energy and water vapour into the air. These interactions take place rather slowly over a
large part of the ocean.
Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of general
atmospheric circulation. The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards
South American coast and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance of warm
water off the coast of Peru is known as the El Nino. The El Nino event is closely associated
with the pressure changes in the Central Pacific and Australia. This change in pressure
condition over Pacific is known as the southern oscillation. The combined phenomenon of
southern oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO. In the years when the ENSO is strong,
large-scale variations in weather occur over the world. The arid west coast of South America
receives heavy rainfall, drought occurs in Australia and sometimes in India and floods in China.
This phenomenon is closely monitored and is used for long range forecasting in major parts of
the world.
WINDS & ITS TYPES
Air moving parallel to the ground is called wind; while vertical air movement is called current.
The wind is known by the direction from, which it blows
- A wind blowing from west to east is westerly
- A wind blowing from east to west is easterly
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An instrument known as Wind vane knows the direction of wind. The wind velocity is measured
using Anemometer. The speed of the wind is expressed in kmph and knots per hour on the sea. There
are three different air circulation systems namely primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary
circulation pattern prepares the broad framework for other circulatory patterns.
The primary winds are also known as planetary winds. They include trade winds, westerlies
and polar winds.
The secondary winds include monsoon cyclones, anticyclones, air masses and fronts.
The tertiary winds include local winds like land and sea breezes. They affect only local
weather and climate.
I. PRIMARY WINDS / PLANETARY WINDS/ PREVAILING WINDS
The prevailing wind is the wind that blows most frequently across a particular region.
Different regions on Earth have different prevailing wind directions, which are dependent upon the
nature of the general circulation of the atmosphere and the latitudinal wind zones. These winds
constitute large-scale motion of atmosphere under the influence of pressure gradients, Coriolis force
and frictional force. It ignores seasonal heating and land water contrast on the earths surface.
In general, the following prevailing winds across the Earth may be identified, although
variations arise due to the positions and differential heating rates of the continents and oceans.
Latitude Direction Common Name
90-60N
NE
Polar Easterlies
60-30N
SW
Southwest Antitrades
30-0N
NE
Northeast Trades
0-30S
SE
Southeast Trades
30-60S
NW
Roaring Forties
90-60S
SE
Polar Easterlies
The prevailing winds in The British Isles are the southwesterly, but for much of the time,
the British Isles are influenced by polar air masses with a northwesterly or northerly airflow, that
bring with them colder showery weather. Prevailing winds in the Indian Oceans are northeasterly.
During the summer months however, a larger low-pressure system develops over southern Asia due to
continental heating. Winds in this region now reverse to form the Southwest Monsoons, which bring a
prolonged wet season to Southeast Asia and the subcontinent of India.
1.DOLDRUMS is a zone of calmness near equator on both its sides. Here winds are feeble and
have least surface movement.
2. TRADE WINDS / EASTERLY TRADE WINDS - blow between 500 and 300 latitudes in both
the hemispheres. The name Trade Winds is based on an early meaning of the word trade meaning
"steady track". These winds were very important in early, wind-based seafaring trade. The steady
track of these winds comes from the stable weather conditions in tropical areas. Strongly heated air
along the equator forms one side of an atmospheric cell that extends to about 30o north of the equator.
A similar cell exists south of the equator. Within each cell, the hot, less dense equatorial air rises and
begins to move away to the north (or south). This air is replaced by cooler air that is drawn in along
the surface from higher latitudes. In both cases the moving air is affected by the Coriolis Effect.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the prevailing winds are northeasterly and are called northeast
trades. In the southern hemisphere, the prevailing winds are southeasterly and are called southeast
trades. The two Wind belts converge near the equator and forms inter tropical convergence zone
(ITCZ).
3. WESTERLIES / ANTITRADE WINDS/ MID-LATITUDE WESTERLY WINDS bring
rainfall throughout the year
Within the middle latitudes from 30o North to 60o North, the winds generally blow from the
west. The convection responsible for this cell is not as strong as the convection in the tropical and
polar cells. As a result, its winds are not as steady as those are in the tropical and polar cells on either
side. In the mid-latitudes, air driven by the polar cell is rising at latitude 60o, and air driven by the
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tropical cell is sinking at latitude 30o. A portion of this sinking air moves toward the equator to
become the "trade winds", and another portion moves on toward the pole along the Earths surface.
The result of the Coriolis effect is to deflect the surface flow toward the poles to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere and turn it into a westerly wind. In
general, these mild winds are strongly affected by local zones of high and low atmospheric pressure.
These winds blow uninterruptedly with great velocity.
In the southern hemisphere, beyond 400 & 500 latitude stormy westerlies are observed both in
summer as well as in winter. Hence they were known by early mariners as Roaring forties Furious
fifties screaming sixties.
4. POLAR EASTERLY WINDS / TROUGHS- Blow from polar high-pressure areas to sub
polar low-pressure areas.
A strong atmospheric cell extending from the North Pole to about latitude 60o North creates
the polar easterly winds. A similar movement in the Southern Hemisphere also creates polar easterly
winds. Very cold and dense air that is descending toward the Earth at the pole and pushing other air
out of its way dominates this cell. As the displaced air moves along the surface from the pole toward
the lower latitudes, it is deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere. In both cases, this means that the course of the winds is bent toward the west.
Thus, the winds that were originally blowing from the pole become increasing easterly until they
reach about latitude 60o. At this point, they have been diverted entirely to the west and are no longer
moving toward the equator. Because the air has been warmed by its contact with the surface, it rises
and moves back toward the pole completing the one of the three major wind circulation cells and wind
belts.
II. SECONDARY WINDS /PERIODIC WINDS
They change their direction periodically with the change in season. The pattern of wind
circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of maximum heating,
pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons,
especially over Southeast Asia.
The Arabs who traded with India used the seasonal winds for sailing their ships. They called
these winds Mousim which means season. The term monsoon has evolved from Mousim. The
Greek philosopher Hippallus for the first time observed and recognized the seasonal winds that blow
between Africa and India.
1. MONSOONS
a. SOUTH WEST MONSOON SEASON / SUMMER MONSOON SEASON
In summer the land gets more heated than the sea, hence there develops a center of low
pressure. This may be called a Heat low or a thermal low. Over the adjoining sea, the air is
comparatively cool and heavy and a high-pressure area develops there. This causes the wind to blow
from the sea to the land. It is known as the summer monsoon.
The southwest monsoon appears to enter the Indian subcontinent in two branches; the Arabian
Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch. The Arabian Sea branch causes extensive rainfall in the
western and central states and the Bay of Bengal branch gives rainfall to the northeastern states and
eastern coastal plains.
The Arabian Sea branch, which gives moderate rainfall in the Deccan plateau and Madhya
Pradesh, joins the Bay of Bengal branch over the Gangetic plains. A branch of the Arabian Sea branch
monsoon blows over Saurashtra and Kachchh in Gujarat and it gives scanty rainfall in broken spells
as it reaches western Rajasthan. But when it reaches Punjab and Haryana it joins with the Bay of
Bengal branch and blows northwards and gives good rainfall in the northern Himalayan regions.
The Bay of Bengal branch monsoon, which enters Bangladesh and West Bengal from the
south and southeast directions, bifurcates into two as it crosses West Bengal. One branch enters the
Brahmaputra valley and gives heavy rainfall in the north and northeastern regions. The Khasi-Jaintia
hills of Meghalaya obstruct these winds and cause heavy rainfall in these regions. Cherrapunji and
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Mousinram are in this region. The other branch moves towards the northwest and through the Ganga
plains it reaches Punjab - Haryana plains and joins the Arabian Sea branch. India receives about 60%
of its total rainfall during the southwest monsoon season.
b. NORTH EAST MONSOON SEASON (SEASON OF RETREATING MONSOONS)
in the winter the conditions are reversed. As the winds blow from the land to the sea, they
bring cold dry weather. They are incapable of giving rain. However, sometimes these winds blow
over seas and then pass over the adjoining land. In such a situation, they bring some rainfall to that
area. The southern Coramandel Coast of TamilNadu in India, the Vietnamese coast, and the west
coast of Japan get sufficient rainfall from winter monsoons.
During the northward march of the sun the monsoon blows towards the north and during the
southward march of the sun it blows to the south. This southward progression is called the retreating
monsoon. During the southward movement of the sun, the northern hemisphere is gripped by cold
weather conditions. During this season, the low pressure formed over the Bay of Bengal attracts air
from the north. These winds pick up moisture as they pass over the Bay and blow against the east
coast. Soon after the monsoon season, places all over India experience clear skies and high
temperatures. During this time, there will be a high diurnal temperature and a very low night
temperature. Although the land is wet and moist during these days, the temperature and high humidity
make daytime very uncomfortable. This phenomenon is called October heat. By the middle of
October, atmospheric temperature decreases fast and winter season begins in north India. October November months are a gap between rainy season and winter. During this period the low pressure
region that occur in the Bay of Bengal causes the formation of cyclones. These cyclones give
extensive rainfall in the eastern coastal states of India and cause destruction to the highly populated
deltaic regions of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. The influence of this rainfall is experienced in the
state of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala also.
Aravalli Mountains
One of the oldest mountains of the world, Aravalli extends from Delhi to the
northern part of Gujarat covering a distance of about 800km. The mountain range has played
a major role in the formation of Rajasthan desert (Thar desert). Lying parallel to the monsoon
winds from the Arabian sea, it cannot obstruct the moisture-laden monsoon winds. Rajasthan
receives only scanty rainfall due to this reason. The highest peak Guru Sikhar, (1722m) in the
Aravallim range is located in Mount Abu.
Land of Rain
No doubt it is Cherrapunji the village, which receives rain throughout the year is
the rainiest place on earth for many centuries, is situated about 56kms from Shillong, the
capital of Meghalaya in a height of about 4500ft above MSL in between Khasi, Gharo and
Jaintia hills. The Britishers pronounced the word Sohra as Chira. 'Sohra' means not suitable
for cultivation. 'punji' means soil. 'Cherrapunji' means the soil not suitable for cultivation.
This region has very poor topsoil has large reserves of coal and limestone beneath. Therefore
water is not available in the wells in this region although the topsoil is wet due to rainfall year
round.
The coveted place of Cherrapunji with an average rainfall greater than 1080cms was
taken over by another place in India some years back. Mousinram, 6 km away from
Cherrapunji was the place that captured the position. The Hawaiian Islands have also claimed
the honour of being the rainiest spot on earth. But recently Cherrapunji has come back to
regain the first place. Our neighbouring country Bangladesh prays not to have heavy rains in
Cherrapunji for the reason that when heavy rainfall occurs in Cherrapunji many places in
Bangladesh will get inundated.
2. SEA AND LAND BREEZES
During the daytime, both land and ocean absorb solar energy and become warmer. However,
land areas warm significantly faster than ocean areas. As a result, more heat is transferred to the air
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over the land, and the warmer air begins to rise. The rising air is replaced with cooler air from the
ocean, creating a sea breeze. In the evening, the process is reversed. The land cools more rapidly than
the water and thus the air over the water is soon warmer than the air over the land. As shown below,
this reverses the process and creates a land breeze.
3. MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY BREEZES
Diurnal winds similar to land and sea breezes occur in mountainous regions. In mountainous regions,
during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the resulting gap the air from
the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the valley breeze. The reversed condition in
night is called as mountain breeze. During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends
into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the
valley is called katabatic wind. Another type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side of the
mountain ranges. The moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condenses and
precipitates. When it descends the leeward side of the slope the dry air is warmed up by adiabatic
process. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.
4. HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS, AIR MASSES & FRONTS
High pressure systems form when masses of air cool, contract and begin to sink. An air mass
is a large body of air that can be identified by its temperature and humidity. As the name suggests,
these bodies are very large and usually cover hundreds of thousands of square kilometers. The area in
which it originated determines the temperature and humidity of an air mass. Names are given to air
masses based on the place of origin. The systems with highest pressure are those that are coldest
and driest.
There are four basic types of air masses: Arctic (A) or Antarctic (AA), Polar (P), Tropical (T),
and Equatorial (E). Each of these can be either maritime (m) or continental (c). Maritime air masses
have milder temperatures and higher humidity, while continental air masses are dryer and exhibit
more extreme temperatures.
The air in high pressure systems is generally dry and sinking, due to its cooler temperature and higher
atmospheric pressure. Therefore it is possible for air in a high pressure system to hold more water
vapor. As this air sinks, it warms and can hold even more water vapor. As a result, condensation of
the water vapor does not take place and the weather in such areas is clear and dry.
AIR MASSES & FRONTS are migratory atmospheric disturbances, which generate secondary type
of winds all over the world. They are associated with stormy weather conditions.
When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains. The
air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an airmass. It is
defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture. The
homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions. The air masses are
classified according to the source regions. There are five major source regions. These are:
Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;
The subtropical hot deserts;
The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes;
Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.
Accordingly, following types of air masses are recognised:
Maritime tropical (mT)-It is considerably wider. Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans are the
extensive sources of this. These air masses overlying the tropical seas are moist and saturated
universally. They are pushed beyond the source areas and cause heavy precipitation and high
temperature conditions.
Continental tropical (cT)-It is basically hot and dry. These develop over greater Sahara area. Hot
dry winds invade Mediterranean Europe, North Mexico, and Southern California in the form of
Scorching Sirocco.
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Maritime polar (mP)-It is located over warmer high latitude oceans of North pacific (Bering
Sea), North Atlantic (Norwegian sea) and entire sweep of southern hemisphere oceans fringing
Antarctica. This is a highly efficient evaporator of readily available moisture. Hence, it is less
cold and moister than cP. North America and North Europe experience this.
Continental polar (cP)-It is confined to broad high latitudinal stretches of Siberia and Canada.
Typically frozen and dusted with snow throughout winter season. The air masses located over this
region are chilly, cold and slightly modified in summer.
Continental arctic (cA)
FRONTS - Fronts are the boundaries between air masses that differ in density. The process of
formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis. There are four types of fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm;
(c) Stationary; (d) Occluded. These density differences are usually due to differences in temperature
and humidity of the air masses.
5. LOW PRESSURE SYSTEMS & CYCLONES
Any two air masses separated by a front are being deflected in opposite directions. As a
result, a shearing motion is established along the front. This shearing motion is generally in a
counter-clockwise direction, as we see in the diagram. This produces a low-pressure system. The
counter-clockwise shear along the polar front sets up a low-pressure system known as a wave cyclone.
These low-pressure systems develop in response to atmospheric instability (vertical movement of air)
and move generally from west to east in response to the mid-latitude westerlies. The formation of
low-pressure systems is a complicated process that involves the formation and evolution of a cyclone
family. The movement of cyclonic winds is counter clockwise in the N.hemisphere and clockwise in
the S.hemisphere.
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move
over to the coastal areas bringing about large-scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy
rainfall and storm surges. This is one of the most devastating natural calamities. They are known as
Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western Pacific and
South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia. Tropical cyclones originate and
intensify over warm tropical oceans. The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification
of tropical storms are: (i) Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27 C; (ii) Presence of the
Coriolis force; (iii) Small variations in the vertical wind speed; (iv) A pre-existing weaklow-pressure
area or low-level-cyclonic circulation; (v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.
The energy that intensifies the storm comes from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm. With continuous supply of moisture from
the sea, the storm is further strengthened. On reaching the land the moisture, supply is cut off and the
storm dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the
cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 200N latitude generally, recurve and they are more destructive.
A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the strong spirally circulating wind around the
centre, called the eye. The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km. The
eye is a region of calm with subsiding air. Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong
spiralling ascent of air to greater height reaching the tropopause. The wind reaches maximum velocity
in this region, reaching as high as 250 km per hour. Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall rain
bands may radiate and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the outer region.
The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian ocean is between 600 1200 km. The system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day. The cyclone creates storm surges
and they inundate the coastal low lands. The storm peters out on the land.
TROPICAL CYCLONES
TEMPERATE CYCLONES
They are of thermal origin.
They are of frontal origin.
They have small diameters usually from
They extend over a large area sometimes
100-500 kms.
more than 2000 kms. Appearance of dark

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cloud in the background of white clouds is

temperate cyclone.
Velocity is 50 kmph. They are less
destructive than temperate cyclones.
They develop in the belt of 350 to 650 N & S
latitudes.
Velocity is 100-200 kmph. They are more

destructive than temperate cyclones.
They develop in the belt of 80 to 150 N & S
latitudes. Most prominent in the pacific
ocean (Taiwan, South Japan, East China)
It is almost a circular storm center of
It is just like a spear head having the shape
extremely low pressure.
of an upturned V.
Rainfall is torrential and is evenly
As soon as the cyclone approaches, there is
distributed around the center. In India their
a drizzle followed by a heavy rainfall.
intensity is felt more in the Bay of Bengal
branch of South west Monsoon winds.
Extra Tropical Cyclones
The extra tropical cyclone differs from the tropical cyclone in number of ways. The extra
tropical cyclones have a clear frontal system which is not present in the tropical cyclones. They cover
a larger area and can originate over the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones originate only
over the seas and on reaching the land they dissipate. The extra tropical cyclone affects a much larger
area as compared to the tropical cyclone. The wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher and it
is more destructive. The extra tropical cyclones move from west to east but tropical cyclones, move
from east to west.
3. TERTIARY WINDS /LOCAL WINDS
Tertiary winds are generated by immediate influence of the surrounding terrain. These winds respond
to local pressure gradients set up by heating or cooling of the lower atmosphere.
Katabolic winds a cold down slope wind caused by the gravitational movement of cold dense air
near the earths surface is a katabolic or drainage wind. The strongest katabolic winds are those that
blow from an ice cap off the Green Land or Antarctic ice caps. These are known by various local
names:
Bora northern adraitc coats.
Foehn Alps (on lee ward side).
Mistral Southren France (blows from Alps over France towards Mediterranean sea)
Santa Ana Southern California (is of desert origin)
Loo, Foehn and Chinook are warm and dry winds.
Local winds of India
Kalbaisakhi is a dry local wind of West Bengal during summer season. Originating from the
Chota Nagpur plateau and influenced by the westerlies, this warm wind moves eastwards and is
responsible for heavy rain and hailstones in West Bengal, Assam and Orissa. These winds many
a time cause destruction to life and property. Cherry Blossom is a local wind blows over the
interior Karnataka during the same season is good for coffee cultivation. Mango shower is
another local wind that blows during the summer season along the Karnataka coast and in
Kerala.
Loo In the plains of India and Pakistan, sometimes a very hot and dry wind blows from the
west in the months of May and June, usually in the afternoons. It is known as loo. Its
temperature invariably ranges between 450C and 500C. It may cause sunstroke to people. Due to
intense hot condition that continues from March to May over the northern plains, a low-pressure
region is formed. During this season a dry dusty wind called Loo blows over the north western
Uttar pradesh and Rajasthan resulting in the rise of atmospheric temperature further. Other local
winds that blow in this season are the Kalbaisakhi, Mango showers, etc.
Chinook literally means, Snow eater. It keeps the grasslands clear form snow during much
of the winter.
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THUNDERSTORMS AND TORNADOES

They are of short duration, occurring over a small area but are violent. Thunderstorms
are caused by intense convection on moist hot days. A thunderstorm is a well-grown
cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and lightening. When the clouds extend to heights where
sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come down as hailstorm. If there is
insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate duststorms. A thunderstorm is characterized
by intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes the clouds to grow bigger and rise to greater
height. This causes precipitation. Later, downdraft brings down to earth the cool air and the rain.
From severe thunderstorms, sometimes-spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an
elephant with great force, with very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its
way. Such a phenomenon is called a tornado. Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.
The tornado over the sea is called water sprouts. These violent storms are the manifestation of
the atmospheres adjustments to varying energy distribution. The potential and heat energies are
converted into kinetic energy in these storms and the restless atmosphere returns to its stable
state.
Tornadoes occur throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. But they are seen
very frequently in the Mississippi valley and some parts of southeast USA.
Hurricanes- Mexico, Florida, West Indies.
Willy willies- Australia
Typhoons- China and Japan.
Besides our study materials the following types of questions are provided in
our PRACTICE WORK BOOKLET to make yourself comfortable with the answer
writing skills which is very much essential for performing well in the examination hall.
Elucidate the political background of 1857 revolt (About 250 Words)
Political causes for the 1857 revolt (248 words)
1. Policies such as effective control, subsidiary alliance & Doctrine of Lapse resulted
in loss of political prestige of almost all ruling princes. According to the Doctrine, any
princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British East
India Company, as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would
automatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without
a direct heir". States annexed by Doctrine of Lapse Satara (1848), Jaipur (1850)
Sambhalpur (1850), Bhagat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854). The
right of succession was denied to Hindu Princes. Lucknow was annexed in 1856, on
charges of misadministration.
2. Rampant corruption in the Companys administration.
3. Absentee sovereignityship character of British rule imparted a foreign and alien
look to it in the eyes of Indians.
4. Greedy policy of aggrandizement.
5. Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao
II. Another important reason for the rebellion was the unfair attitude towards the
Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar. Lord Dalhousie, the governor-general of India
at the time had insulted the Emperor by asking him to leave the Red Fort. The governorgeneral also said that his successors would also have to leave the Red fort. Later, Lord
Canning, the next governor-general of India, announced in 1856 A.D. that Bahadur
Shah's successors would not even be allowed to use the title of the king. Such
discourtesies were resented by the people and the Indian rulers.
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Raja sir, Joining Cracking IAS for General Studies Mains turned out to be one
of the best decisions in my life till date. Personal
Personal attention and knack to predict
questions is simply unparalleled. IAS Express is better than anything else in the
market and highly recommended to any serious civil
d,s^>E
d,s^>E/^
services aspirant.
RELEVANCE OF NAM IN THE POST COLD WAR ERA
More than 5 decades have already passed since the NAM
NAM was founded by a group of
25 countries in Belgrade, Yugoslavia with an objective
objective of freeing the world from ongoing
ideological conflicts and arms race.
Some seismic and cataclysmic changes have taken place
place in global politics since 1987.
In the changed and fast changing global political arena
a
end of cold war, demise of socialist
bloc (natural allies of NAM), the sweeping tides of globalization, emergence of market
economy, the question has been posed as to whether NAM remains relevant or not.
Critics point out that even the successor states of Yugoslavia, a founding member,
have expressed little interest in the NAM since
sinc the country's break-up,
up, and in 2004, Malta
and Cyprus ceased to be members of the NAM when they
they joined the European Union. NAM
in their thinking is devoid of content. To quote Mubarak
Mubarak of Egypt (once a leading member of
NAM) NAM has become empty of content,
conte an image without reality.
Notwithstanding all such criticisms NAM has become more relevant than ever before
in this new era of American Hegemony. The domination
domination of any single country was not what
the non-aligned
aligned nations have thought for. NAM was aimed at establishing a world order
based on peace, security, justice, freedom and development.
development. These issues are equally relevant
even today when the bipolar world has ceased to exist.
exi
Hard earned momentum of the post cold war era continues to be arrested by the
frustrating waves of recession and terrorism, ethnic
ethnic strife and complex conflicts and religious
intolerance were the hard realities of the present day world. In fact, the end of the cold war
has not ended the sufferings of the world community.
community. The September 11 attack on the World
Trade Centre in New York has opened the eyes of the powerful nations that they too are no
longer safe in this world full of economic disparity
disparit and injustice.
No doubt, NAM had played an active even central
central role, over the years on the issues of
concern and vital importance to its members, such as
as decolonization, apartheid poverty
eradication and socio-economic
economic development among others. Yet, it has a large
la
role to play in
the present world crippled by terrorism,
terrorism, ethnic strife and complex conflicts and religious
reli
intolerance.
Redefining the role of NAM: Having undergone many challenges and vicissitudes, it
is timely and appropriate to comprehensively review the role of NAM in keeping with the
times and new realities
alities aimed at further strengthening the movement.
movement
1. NAM as a strong pressure group:
group: It must transform its role into a pressure group
to extract justice from the haves for the have nots.
nots. It should pressurize UN to perform its
tasks free from dominations of the powerful nations.
2. NAM a mobilization platform for the third world:
world: With the increased
globalization and the rapid advance of science and technology, the challenges thrown up are
daunting. The NAM has to play an active role
role in ensuring that globalization will be a positive
force for change for all peoples and will benefit the
the largest number of countries and not just a
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few. It is imperative for NAM to promote multilateralism, better defend the interest of
developing countries and prevent their marginalization. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was
in fact founded as a solidarity movement for giving voice to Third World Countries.
3. NAM as a movement to bridge the technological gaps: The revolution in IT is
changing the world at a rapid pace and is already creating a vast and widening digital
between the developed and developing countries, which must be bridged. This new
technological innovation must be made easily available to the developing countries in their
efforts to modernize and revitalize their economies in pursuit of their goals. The NAM has to
create an enabling conducive international environment to bridge these technological gaps.
4. NAM as a stabilizer of the world order: According to Kanti Bajpai, NAM could
be instrumental in building two kinds of bridges. The first bridge would be across regional
blocs like NAFTA, EU, and ASEAN to name just a few. NAM could ensure that regional
formations do not become self encapsulating. A world composed of regional groupings or
even super regional formations such as APEC would be a world of inter-bloc competition and
conflict. The second bridge NAM could construct is across cultural divides. It could function
as a forum where the manipulation of cultural differences is expressed, where cultural
dialogue is encouraged when tensions arise and formally mediated. NAM has a vital role in
maintaining a world order based on justice, equality and freedom.
5. Economic cooperation in the South: During the cold war era, NAM countries
were dependent on the two blocs for economic aid. This dependence often compromised the
political independence of the NAM countries. Now NAM countries are financially much
stronger. In fact, the much-cherished goal of self-reliance of the South is within reach now
and it is high time that NAM focusses on an agenda for economic cooperation in the South.
In 1961, when NAM was launched, the South was on the periphery of the North,
mostly weak and powerless in the world arena. Now the South has emerged as an important
player on the world economic stage. In terms of GDP, saving, investment, exports, imports,
foreign exchange reserves, financial assets at home and abroad, quality and size of its
corporate world, IT sector, and capability in manufacturing, the South has rapidly emerged
although there are variations across countries. It appears to be catching up with the North.
However this will be possible only if the South can work together as a bloc in the vital areas
such as trade, finance, investment, energy, technology, and designing of development
strategy.
Conclusion: As a matter of fact the critics have to accept that the policy of Non
Alignment was not wholly related to bipolar world. The world may be unipolar or bipolar but
non alignment as foreign policy option will remain valid. Non alignment is a policy and
posture of universal relevance, validity and applicability.
However the continued relevance of the movement will depend in large measure
on the unity and solidarity of its members as well as its ability to adapt to the changing world
order. The future presents as many challenges and opportunities as the past and the
movement must continue to remain strong, cohesive and resilient.
INDIA AND EMERGING GLOBAL ORDER
The emerging new international order is posing the following complicated issues in
determining the Foreign policy of India.
1. Issues brought by Globalization: The process of globalization was bringing new
dimensions in relations between states and role of international organizations. Specialized
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Division of labor and opening of national and regional markets to increasing world trade and
transfer of investments and technology became the order of the day. In this situation it
became clear that one cannot remain mucked in the past. In this era of Globalization the
foreign policy of a state become subject to emerging global order. The politically weaker
countries are often vulnerable to the shocks of globalization and the process of global
integration may further marginalize them.
2. Issues brought by Polarization: From the late 1980s world started changing very
rapidly. It was a period of critical times in international relations. It was the time when the
super power rivalry got almost eliminated. Disintegration and collapse of Soviet Union and
East European countries had changed both the ideological and procedural aspects of
international relations. Establishment of united Germany, emergence of European Union, end
of apartheid in South Africa and emergence of peace and environmental movements world
over all have brought new actors and roles in international relations and politics. Though, the
Cold War considered to have been ended, there had emerged new areas of conflicts and
tensions.
One view is that the world has become unipolarin which the USA has become the
single most important power. It could act unilaterally without any fear of its actions being
challenged. The other view is that after the collapse of bipolarity in the process of evolution
emerged a polycentric world where major players are the USA, European Union, Japan,
China and Russia. Some speculate whether India too would be a major actor in international
decision making or not. Hence, a different division of the world has come into sharper focus.
Whereas, earlier, it was essentially ideologicalbetween the capitalist West and
Communist/Socialist Eastnow the division is between the rich North and poor South.
3. Issues of trade and commerce: The disintegration of erstwhile Soviet Union has
also led to a situation where the bulk of aid and trade is now being concentrated on the
countries of Eastern Europe. Hence, countries like India have to look for alternatives to aid
and development. Foreign policy, therefore, has to take care of trade and commerce,
negotiations with multilateral agencies, participation in new organizations like World Trade
Organization (WTO), etc. In this new world order ideology is becoming less important.
4. Issues of terrorism: Another development that the world has been witnessing for
the last two decades is that of resurgence of sub nationalism, religious and ethnic
fundamentalism, and terrorism. These phenomena had become international. Terrorist attacks
in USA on 11 September, 2001, had brought new dimensions in international politics and
international relations. New types of equations and alliances are emerging either to combat
international terrorism or establish new types of hegemonies in view of such phenomena.
These are very significant factors affecting Indias foreign policy.
5. Nuclear issues: In the changed situation, India has recognised the need to develop
more pragmatic and wide-ranging international relationship. Indias major strategic focus has
been on her neighbourhood in particular China and Pakistan. In the aftermath of the cold war
and with the advent of Indias economic reforms and looking for foreign capital investment,
there is marked willingness to improve relations with the USA. At the same time, India now
seems to be desirous to gain for it what it sees as the countrys rightful place in the world
consistent with its size and capability. India has not only tested nuclear devices but also has
taken a tough position on the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) insisting on linking
this to a time bound framework for universal nuclear disarmament. India continues to refuse
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to sign the CTBT and the Non- Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in their present form, arguing that
these treaties discriminate against her and serve principally the interests of the recognized
western nuclear states. Now Indo-US Nuclear deal which holds good prospects for India in
nuclear trade has raised the eyebrows of global actors in the international political system.
6. Regionalism in world politics: The Indian policy planners are facing various
challenges which they would have to take note of. It is not only that in the post Cold War era
the new polarities are emerging but the very philosophy and purpose behind non-alignment
does not seem to be the same as it was. The nonaligned oil-producing countries of West-Asia,
North Africa and Latin America had already become a separate special interest group.
Several non-aligned members of Asia-pacific region have achieved high rates of growth
through their own efforts. Similar regional associations and groups are becoming more
important than global organizations. Growth of fundamentalism, terrorism, separatist
movements world over and international concerns for issues like Human Rights,
environment, sustainable development, etc. are also new determinants of the foreign policy in
the present world. India too has to deal with it.
7. Relevance of Non-alignment ideology in world politics: The sudden and
important developments in international politics in 1990s have brought both NAM and
Indias foreign policy at cross roads. At one time it seemed that non-alignment has lost its
grounds. Soon it became clear that NAM in many ways continues to be relevant in the areas
of democratisation of international relations, establishment of new international economic
order, security and well being of small states, resolution of regional conflicts and
development, etc. Therefore, it is not necessary for India to abandon its valid ideals or moral
principles.
But at the same time it is important to keep in mind what Jawaharlal Nehru once said,
that Whatever policy we may lay down, the art of conducting the foreign affairs of a
country lies in finding what is most advantageous to the country. India, therefore, has to
be very careful in determining its foreign policy and relations with other countries. Our first
concern has to be to prevent any erosion of our independence. Of course, our interest in the
maintenance and safeguarding of international peace, as an essential condition for our
socioeconomic development, continues. What is important to keep in mind is that NonAlignment is not a dogma. It is a dynamic process. India has in the past taken an
enlightened and a broader view of its interests. Hence, in evolving the components of its
national interests, India attempted a synthesis of nationalism and internationalism, a
combination which gave much of the positive content to the concept of Non- Alignment.
The promotion of enlightened self-interest remains the most important aspect of Indias
foreign policy and that of Non-Alignment. It is obvious that Non-Alignment is a means and
not an end in itself. The end is the achievement of national and international objectives.
Right from the beginning, it was clear that non-alignment was not an end in itself. It
was an instrument of policy designed to safeguard interests of the country. Therefore, it was
not a static policy but subject to change in accordance with needs.
Conclusion: India hence has to formulate its foreign policy accordingly. Of course it is
equally important to remember that politics without vision, devoid of beliefs, ideals,
principles and values is debased of human dignity and national purpose.
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INDIA vs. PAKISTAN
1. BORDER DISPUTES
1. KASHMIR A CENTRALITY IN
SOURING INDO PAK RELATIONS
After the end of Colonial legacy in India,
Kashmir then princely state led by Maharaja Hari
Singh decided not to join India or Pakistan, but to
remain independent. Pakistani leadership
motivated by the two nation theory was of the
view that in view of 77% of its population being
Muslim. J&K should join Pakistan. Hence, in
desperation it guided The Mahsud tribesmen to
overrun the state as early as in October, 1947
which devastated the Maharajas administration.
Maharaja in order to seek military assistance
acceded the state to the Union of India.
On 1 January, 1948 India lodged a
complaint with UN Security Council to ask
Pakistan to prevent assisting in the invasion of
J&K. The UNSC passed a resolution on 17 Jan,
1948 appealing to the conflicting sides to resolve
their differences through peaceful means and to
establish law and order and then to organize a
plebiscite for determining the future of the state.
Finally on 13 August, 1948 Security Control
passed a new resolution in which ceasefire was
envisaged. India and Pakistan accepted the
proposal.
However Part two of the resolution (Holding
of plebiscite) could not be implemented as
Pakistan refused to withdraw Azad Kashmir
Forces. This was a condition precedent to the
holding of any plebiscite.
In such circumstances, Pakistan tried to win
Western countries over its side. Indias policy of
Non-alignment was not much appreciated by the
USA and its allies. Pakistan as a diplomatic move
entered into the military block of SEATO in 1954
and then the Baghdad pact or CENTO in 1955.
Pakistans close alliance with the US and its
military grouping and Indias multifaceted cooperation and understanding with Soviet Union
made the Kashmir issue in the UN purely
political.
To internationalize Kashmir issue, Pakistan
once again started in August 1965 sending its
troops in civilian clothes across the ceasefire line.
Thus the Indo-Pak War of 1965 started. A UNSC
resolution adopted on 20 September, 1965 called

upon India and Pakistan to cease fire.
After the end of the War, a meeting was held
at Tashkent in the then Soviet union from 3-10
January, 1966 to formalize peace between India
and Pakistan. The summit meeting was held at the
initiative of The Soviet Prime Minister, Alexi
Kosygin.
TASHKENT DECLARATION- 10.06.1966
- BETWEEN LAL BAHADUR SASHTRI &
MOHD. AYUB KHAN
Agreed to abide by the UN Charter.
Withdrawing of forces by India and Pakistan
to their sides of the border and the repatriation
of Prisoners of War (POW)
Not to interfere in the internal affairs of each
other.
Agreed to observe the Vienna Convention of
1961 on diplomatic intercourse.
Agreed to discuss the problems to prevent the
exodus of people.
After the Tashkent declaration, things seemed
better. In 1968 Indira Gandhi offered a No War
pact with Pakistan, but it was spoiled by China
and the hijack of an Indian Airlines Plane and its
destruction in Pakistan.
Indo-Pak War and liberation of Bangladesh in
1971 became a vital and vitiating factor in IndoPak relation. In order to normalize the relations
India- Pakistan Summit was held at Shimla in
June 1972.
SHIMLA AGREEMENT- 02.07.1972 BETWEEN INDIRA GANDHI & ZULFIQAR
ALI BHUTTO
Agreed to abide by the UN Charter.
Agreed to resume trade and co-operation in all
fields.
Agreed to withdraw forces to their sides of
international boundaries.
Agreed to ratify the agreement as per the
constitutional rules.
Agreed to meet at a mutually convenient time to
discuss the repatriation of POWs and to reach a
final settlement of J&K.
After Shimla accord, for sometime, the two
countries began working for confidence building
activities and co-operating each other. But the
hardliners in Pakistan could not reconcile it.
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Kashmir issue again came to the forefront.
Nuclear test in India in 1974 further fueled the
tensions.
Morarji Desai of Janta Party govt. in 1977
made strong efforts to improve relations with
Pakistan. The then foreign Minister A.B.Vajpayee
visited Pakistan in 1978. But Mission in Pakistan
led by Zia-al-Haq tried to destabilize India by
supporting insurgency in J&K. After Zia-al-Haq
of Pakistan died in 1988 in an air crash, Benazir
Bhutto took over as Prime Minister and
democracy was realized.
Bhutto though continued with the established
paramount of Pakistan Foreign Policy, expressed
desire to improve relation with India. Bhutto and
her counterpart in India Rajiv referred to Shimla
accord and commitment to bilateral approach.
However, anti-India Stance of Pakistan ruling
elite continued.
Foreign Minister I.K.Gujral in 1997 said,I
am willing to make concessions on anything,
except the sovereignty or secular character of our
nation which are non-negotiable. There will be no
other partition of India. For once it seemed that
Pakistan was responding positively. Gujrals
initiatives were carried forward by Prime Minister
A.B.Vajpayee who in February 1999 went to the
extent of going to Lahore on Bus.
LAHORE DECLARATION- 21.02.1999 BETWEEN VAJPAYEE & NAWAZ SHARIF
Agreed to intensity their efforts to resolve all
disputes.
Agreed to take steps to reduce the risk of
accidental or unauthorized use of nuclear
weapons.
Reaffirmed their commitment to SAARC.
Reaffirmed their condemnation of terrorism.
Agreed to carry on the dialogue.
But two unfortunate events failed the
initiatives taken in Lahore. One was ousting of
Nawaz Sharif, the second was the Kargil war
architected by Musharaff. US played the role of
a mediator during Kargil war. India played all
diplomatic games to tarnish Musharaff regime in
Pakistan as illegal and unlawful. It even blocked
Pakistan from attending the Common Wealth
meeting on the grounds of derailing democracy.
However, Vajpayee invited General Musharaff to
Agra for a dialogue.
AGRA SUMMIT-2001 - BETWEEN

VAJPAYEE & MUSHARAFF
Musharaff had a three point agenda at Agra.
India should accept the centrality of the
Kashmir disputes.
He wanted India to agree on a structured
environment for talks in Kashmir.
He wanted a time frame for concluding an
agreement on Kashmir.
On the other hand, the Indian Leaders wanted
to go for series agreements in place on nuclear
restraints, conventions CBMs, trade liberation,
economic co-operation and the state of Crossborder terrorism. As there was no common
agenda for discussion, Agra Summit failed.
Since Agra Summit, relations between India
and Pakistan have continued to worsen. Terrorist
attack on Indian Parliament in December 2001
and Pakistanis involvement in Kashmir has made
India refuse to talk.
2. SIACHEN GLACIER DISPUTE
The 76 km long Siachen is described as the
largest glacier outside the Polar region. Although
Siachen lies within Indian Territory, Pakistan
claims that the glacier falls on its sides of the
border. The Siachen glacier neither included in
the ceasefire line drawn according to the Karachi
agreement of 1949, nor in the LOC as drawn at
the Shimla agreement of 1972. In both instances
the line ended at a point known as NJ9842. No
real agreement has been reached so far on the
glacier issue. The area is inhospitable and
desolate. India is spending Rs.305 Crore day to
station its army there.
3. SIR CREEK DISPUTE
Sir Creek is a 96-km-long disputed territory
between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch
marshlands, which opens up into the Arabian Sea.
The Sir Creek divides the Kutch region of Gujrat
state in India and the Sindh province of Pakistan.
Both sides lay claim to it.
Sir Creek is named after the British
representative. Before India's independence, the
provincial region was a part of Bombay
Presidency of British India. After Indias
independence in 1947, Sindh became a part of
Pakistan while Kutch remained a part of India.
Pakistan lays claim to the entire creek as per
paras 9 and 10 of the Bombay Government
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Resolution of 1914 signed between then the
Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj of
Kutch.
The boundary line, known as the "Green
Line", is disputed by India which maintains
that it is an "indicative line", known as a
"ribbon line".
India sticks to its position that the boundary
lies mid-channel as depicted in another map
drawn in 1925, and implemented by the
installation of midchannel pillars back in 1924.
India supports its stance by citing the
Thalweg Doctrine in International Law. The
law states that river boundaries between two
states may be, if the two states agree, divided by
the mid-channel. Though Pakistan does not
dispute the 1925 map, it maintains that the
Doctrine is not applicable in this case as it only
applies to bodies of water that are navigable,
which the Sir Creek is not. India rejects the
Pakistani stance by maintaining the fact that
the creek is navigable in high tide, and that
fishing trawlers use it to go out to sea.
Several cartographic surveys conducted have
upheld the Indian claim. Another point of
concern for Pakistan is that Sir Creek has changed
its course considerably over the years. If the
boundary line is demarcated according to the
Thalweg principle, Pakistan stands to lose a
considerable portion of the territory that was
historically part of the province of Sindh.
Acceding to India's stance would also result in
the shifting of the land/sea terminus point several
kilometres to the detriment of Pakistan, leading
in turn to a loss of several thousand square
kilometres of its Exclusive Economic Zone
under the United Nations Convention on Law
of the Sea(UNCLOS).
4. GILGIT- BALTISTAN ISSUE
Gilgit-Baltistan is a non-self-governing
territory under Pakistani control and was formerly
known as the Northern Areas. It is the
northernmost political entity within the Pakistanicontrolled part of the former princely state of
Jammu and Kashmir. It borders Pakistan's Khyber
Pukhtunkhwa province to the west, Afghanistan's
Wakhan Corridor to the north, China to the
northeast, the Pakistani-administered state of
Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJK) to the south, and
the Indian-administered state of Jammu and

Kashmir to the southeast. The territory became a
single administrative unit in 1970 under the name
"Northern Areas" and was formed by the
amalgamation of the Gilgit Agency, the Baltistan
District of the Ladakh Wazarat, and the states of
Hunza and Nagar.
Pakistan considers the territory separate from
Kashmir, whereas India and the European Union
consider the territory as a part of the larger
disputed territory of Kashmir that has been in
dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947.
Strategic importance of the area
The Northern Areas have immense strategic
significance as they border the North West
Frontier Province to the west, Afghanistan and
China to the north and Jammu and Kashmir to
the east. Islamabad had transferred territory
from these areas to China in 1963 under the
Sino-Pakistan Border Agreement and it is
through the Northern Areas, which border
Chinas Xinjiang Province, that the Chinese,
in collaboration with Pakistani army
engineers, built the Karakoram Highway
connecting them with China. Moreover, China
has, through its links with the Northern Areas,
become a part of the Kashmir problem. It has
poured money and men into developing
transport links and undertaking major projects
in Gilgit- Baltistan, and analysts claim that it
is only a matter of time before the Northern
Areas get integrated into Western Chinas
economic profile.
Pakistan has approved the Gilgit-Baltistan
Empowerment and Self-Governance Order, 2009,
changing the official name of the region from the
Northern Areas to Gilgit-Baltistan. The GilgitBaltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance
Order-2009
is
aimed
at
introducing
administrative, political, economic and judicial
reforms in the Northern Areas.
Indias reaction to the proposal - India had
lodged a protest over the Gilgit-Baltistan order on
the grounds that the entire state of J&K is an
integral part of India.
In early September 2009, Pakistan signed an
agreement with China of a mega energy project in
Gilgit-Baltistan which includes the construction
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of a 7000-megawatt dam at Bunji in the Astore
District of the Gilgit-Baltistan.
China in Giligit-Baltistan
In a quiet move, Pakistan is handing over defacto control of the strategic Gilgit-Baltistan
region in the Occupied Kashmir to China in an
area witnessing a simmering rebellion against
Islamabad. There are two important developments
in Gilgit-Baltistan; a simmering rebellion against
the Pakistani rule and in a political strategic move
the Chinese Government have moved a
considerable number of soldiers into the Gilgit
Baltistan region. China wants a grip on the
strategic area to assure unfettered road and rail
access to the Gulf through Pakistan and is
building high-speed rail and road link. The link
up would enable Beijing to transport cargo and oil
tankers from eastern China to the new Chinese
built Pakistani Naval base at Gawadar, Pasni and
Ormara in Balochistan, just east of the Gulf in 48
hours.
Note: Pakistan had defied the UN Resolution
by refusing to withdraw its military from POK
and Gilgit. Pakistan again violated the UN
Resolution by transferring 5000 sq. miles of our
territory to China on a lease of 99 years in 1963
in the Karakoram region. He said that Pakistan
acted hostile to the UN Resolution by literally
taking Gilgit-Baltistan as its sixth province in
November 2009, appointing a Pakistani Governor
in Gilgit-Baltistan and installing a so-called Chief
Minister in utter violation of International Law.
China has built 16 defence helipad aerodromes on
the Karakoram Highway within our territory of
J&K. China has a regular troops movement on
the Karakoram Highway upto Peshawar. India
should take up the matter before the International
Court of Justice as Pakistan has violated UN
Charter besides infringed the UNCIP Resolutions
on J&K and further invited China to trespass into
our territory in Gilgit-Baltistan threatening the
international peace and security as well as Indias
peaceful borders.
Indian view:
For a UN Resolution subscribing Plebiscite
monitored by any third neutral party,
Pakistan should first vacate its part of
Kashmir.
The democratically elected Constituent
Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir had

unanimously ratified the Maharaja's
instrument of Accession to India and had
adopted a constitution for the state that
called for a perpetual merger of the state
with the Indian Union.
India does not accept the Two Nation
Theory that forms the basis of Pakistan.
The state of Jammu and Kashmir is made
autonomous by the article 370 of the
Constitution of India.
India and many countries including the
USA alleges that most of the terrorists
operating in Kashmir are themselves
Pakistanis from Pakistan Administered
Kashmir and that Pakistan has been
involved in State sponsored terrorism.
Pakistan's covert designs on Kashmir like
the failed Operation Gibraltar and Kargil
War prove that Pakistan often resorts to
force to settle the issue of Kashmir.
India states that despite Pakistan being
named as an "Islamic Republic", Pakistan
has been responsible for one of the worst
genocide of Muslims by any government in
recent history when it killed millions of its
own countrymen in East Pakistan in the
1971 Bangladesh atrocities.
India also cites the violent repressions of
Balochs and other internal sectarian
violence in Pakistan among fellow Muslims
as further proof that Pakistan is incapable of
a cohesive existence even with Muslim
majority and that its concern over Muslims
in Kashmir is nothing more than shedding
crocodile tears.
The Indian Government believes that
Pakistan has used the Kashmir issue
more as "a diversionary tactic" from
internal and external issues and that the
"survival of Pakistan depends how
effectively it can keep the pot boiling"
India regard Pakistan's claim to Kashmir
based largely on religion alone to be no
longer correct because now India has more
Muslims than Pakistan.
Pakistani view:
Historically, the Pakistani claim on
Kashmir has been based on the fact that the
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majority of Kashmir population is Muslim. It
should be noted, however, that the Hindu
population in Kashmir is constantly declining
due to the fact that numerous Hindu
Kashmiri's are being killed or forced out of
Kashmir in face of new fundamentalism. Since
1951, Pakistan has been demanding India to
hold a plebiscite in Kashmir as agreed by both
nations in 1951. Pakistan claims that
Kashmiris took a violent path to independence
only when they became hopeless and
disillusioned about their future. Pakistan
claims that India is now using excessive state
forces to suppress the freedom struggle of
Kashmiris and in doing so, is causing severe
human rights violations.
According to the two-nation theory by
which Pakistan was formed, Kashmir
should have been with Pakistan, because
it has a Muslim majority.
India has shown disregard to the
resolutions of the UN (by not holding a
plebiscite). It fears that if a plebiscite is
held, the Kashmiris would choose Pakistan.
India however asserts that since 1947 the
demographics of Pakistani side of Kashmir
has been altered with generations of nonKashmiris allowed to take residence in
Pakistan Occupied Kashmir. This, India
believes, would heavily influence any
voting in favour of Pakistan, rendering the
idea of a free and fair plebiscite impossible.
India's pretence to be a secular state is a
deceit. According to Pakistan, in India,
everything is dominated by the Hindus and
the Muslims suffer persecution and
repression except for the facts that: the
President of India is a Muslim; Muslim
Personal Law is in effect to govern the
muslim civil rights including marriage and
succession; Muslims are beginning to get
quotas in universities within India
(especially in the state of Andhra Pradesh);
Muslims are given special laws in
opposition to the wishes of numerous
Hindus; Hindus are not allowed to rebuild
their population in Kashmir because of
property rights; the fact that the Indian
government does very little to stop forced
conversion in India; the fact that the

conversion of Dalits to Islam and
Christianity is unobjected and accepted by
Indians despite controversies and the fact
that India has states which do not have a
Hindu majority.
The Kashmiri people have now been forced
by the circumstances to rise against the
repression of the Indian army and uphold
their right of self-determination through
terrorism and fundamentalism. Pakistan just
gives the Kashmiri freedom-fighters moral,
ethical and military support.
Pakistan claims that the democracy in
India and the elections in Kashmir are
sham, despite evidence to the contrary and
the United States appreciation of India as
the world's largest secular democracy.
However, Pakistan itself has not been under
democratically elected governments for
most of its history.
2. CHINA PAKISTAN RELATIONS
Pakistan has an enduring, multi-dimensional
and deep-rooted relationship with China. The
long-standing ties of friendship between the two
countries are underpinned by mutual trust and
confidence.
China is the largest investor in the Gwadar
Deep Sea Port, which is strategically located at
the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz.
China has offered to Pakistan military aid in
order to fight against the terrorist activities on
their (Pakistan's) soil.
China played a major role in the development
of Pakistan's nuclear infrastructure, especially
when increasingly stringent export controls in
Western Countries made it difficult for Pakistan
to acquire materials and uranium enriching
equipment from elsewhere. China has supplied
Pakistan with equipment to enrich its indigenous
uranium to weapons grade. In the 1990s, China
designed and supplied the heavy water Khusab
reactor, which plays a key role in Pakistan's
production of plutonium.
China also provided technical and material
support in the completion of the Chasma
Nuclear Power Reactor and plutonium
reprocessing facility, which was built in the mid
1990s.
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China has also launched Pakistan's first
satellite to orbit in 1990 because Pakistan had no
Spaceport.
Since long, India has been facing a
threatening nexus between China and Pakistan.
Through this anti-India collaboration, Chinas
actions have been an irritant to Indian initiatives
and it undermines the Indian concept of defence
deterrence.
India on September 3, 2010 conveyed its
concern to China over its activities and
presence in Pakistan-administered Kashmir.
Indias ambassador to China S Jaishankar met
Chinese vice minister for foreign affairs Zhang
Zhijun in Beijing and conveyed Indias concern
over the presence of Chinese troops in GilgitBaltistan.
Indias concerns have been heightened of late
especially after Beijings denial of visa to a
senior army commander on grounds that his
command included Jammu and Kashmir.
India on September 4, 2010 conveyed its
"serious concerns" to China over the reported
presence of Chinese troops in Pakistanadministered Kashmir and rejected Beijing's
description of Jammu and Kashmir as
"India-controlled Kashmir" and PoK as
"northern part of Pakistan".
3. RIVER WATER DISPUTES
The issues of cross-border water distribution,
utilization, management and irrigation and
hydroelectric power projects affecting the upper
and lower riparian countries are gradually taking
centre stage in defining interstate relations as
water scarcity increases and both drought and
floods make life too often miserable.
Thanks to its location, size and borders with
other South Asian countries, India, as an upper
and lower riparian territory, has come into
conflict with all its neighbours except Bhutan,
on the cross-border water issues. Given an
atmosphere of mistrust, an upper riparian India
has serious issues to resolve with lower-riparian
Pakistan and Bangladesh and, despite being
lower-riparian, with upper riparian Nepal.
Almost all the disputes over water that
have arisen between India and Pakistan are about
dam projects constructed or being constructed by
one of the two countries. The negotiations over
these issues involve divergent concerns and

interests, based on their interpretations of the
Indus Water Treaty.
India has no fewer than 45 dams or power
stations completed, planned or proposed on
Pakistan's western rivers, which Islamabad
believes will give Delhi control over how much
water flows over the border, and the ability to
destroy Pakistan's agriculture, starve its people
and ruin its economy.
India dismisses Pakistan's fears as
paranoid and without scientific basis. It says it
has adhered to the treaty and dams do not affect
its neighbour.
1. Salal Dam on the Chenab River
India felt the need of a run of the river hydro
electric project salal, for the crucial agricultural
needs of the Indian Punjab and economic
progress of the country. In 1974 Pakistan
officially objected to the design of salal Project
arguing that it did not confirm to the criteria for
design of such hydroelectric projects laid down
under the treaty. During the course of
negotiations, India agreed to make some changes
in the design of the dam and to the permanence
closure of the diversion canal after the hydel plant
has been commissioned. The dispute was finally
resolved as per the Salal agreement signed in
April 1978.
2. Baglihar dam on the Chenab river
Divided into two phases, the project would
install 900 MW of electricity capacity. The design
was submitted to Pakistan in 1992 and Pakistan
has been protesting since then. However the
construction continued as the two sides
exchanged further details.
Indias point
Pakistan point
The
power Disruption of the flow
project does not
of the Chenab into the
propose to store
country.
water and will Contravention of the
not
disrupt
1960
river
water
flows
into
sharing treaty brokered
Pakistan.
by the World Bank.
Towards Solution
For the first time, the neutral expert clause in
the Indus Water Treaty was invoked. The World
Bank determined Pakistani claim as a
Difference a classification between less serious
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Question and more serious Dispute and in
Jhelum navigable
western rivers.
May 2005 appointed Professor Raymond Lafitte,
during summer and Sub-paragraph
a Swiss Civil Engineer, to adjudicate the
not a reservoir.
8(h) entitles India
difference.
Controlling water
to
construct
for navigation is
Lafitte declared his final verdict
incidental storage
permissible under
on February 12, 2007
work
on
the
the treaty.
western rivers only
Indias point
Pakistan point
India claimed that
after the design has
His
report He partially upheld some
been
scrutinized
90
percent
of
the
acknowledged
objections of declaring
and approved by
Tulbul
project
Indias right to
that
Pakistan.
Its
would be beneficial
construct
Pondage capacity be
storage
capacity
to Pakistan, as it
gated
reduced by 13.5%
would regulate the
should not exceed
spillways
Height of the dam
10,000 acre feet of
supply
to
Mangla
under
Indus
structure be reduced by
water.
Pakistan
Dam,
which
would
Water Treaty
1.5 metre.
argues that the
increase Pakistans
1960.
Power intake tunnels be
existing water level
capacity of power
raised by 3 meters,
in the Wular Lake
generation
at
thereby limiting some
is enough for small
Mangla,
as
well
as
flow control capabilities
boats to navigate
regulate
the
of earlier design.
between Baramulla
irrigation
network
3. Tulbul Navigation (Indias terminology) /
and Srinagar, so
in the Pakistani
Wular barage (Pakistans terminology) on
there is no need to
Punjab
through
the
River Jhelum
store
additional
triple
canal
system.
The Tulbul navigation project is located just
water.
It
further
below the exit of the Wular Lake, a natural lake.
argues
that
the
India envisages controlled release of water from
Barrage
capacitys
the lake during the lean-season months of
300,000 acres feel
October to February to facilitate year-round
which is 30 times
navigation for commercial trade, employment and
more than the
tourism.
permitted capacity.
Indias point
Pakistans
Maximum
Despite the broad Objection India
Discharge
has violated the

principles
According
to
the
following
articles
of
governing
the
treaty, India is only
treaty India has IWT.
allowed
to
been
allowed, Article 1 (11) that
construct
a
smallprohibits
both
under
certain
runoff water plan
parties
from
conditions
to
with a maximum
undertaking
any
construct a barrage
discharge of 300
man-made
in the light of the
cusecs through the
obstruction that
article
3(4)
turbines which are
may
cause
a
conditions, which
insufficient
to
change
in
the
are enlisted in
generate
960
MW
volume of water.
Annex D and E of
of electricity as
the treaty.
Article
3
(4)
planned by India.
India contends that
prohibits
India
Towards
Solution
- To date, more than
from storing any
the project is an
dozen
rounds
of
talks
and
negotiations
over the
water
on
the
attempt to make the
construction of this barrage have been held but it
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remains the oldest and longest lasting water
dispute between India and Pakistan.
4. Kishenganga Hydro electric project
It is a 330 MW hydro electric project located
about 160 kms upstream of Muzaffarbad and
involves diversion of kishenganga or Neelum
River as is known in Pakistan to a tributary,
Bunar Madumati Nullah of the River Jhelum
through a 22 km tunnel.
Indias point
Pakistan
point
India agreed to
convert
the An adverse effect on
storage and power
the Neelum Jhelum
generation project
link
project
that
into a run-of the
Pakistan initiated in
river project and
1988.
construct pondage Diversion of water
in
accordance
would
ruin
the
with the Indus
Neelam Valley in
Water Treaty.
Pakistan
Towards Solution - Bilateral talks so far
have failed to reach a settlement.
India, Pakistan await IAC decision on
Kishanganga
The International Court of Arbitration is
reviewing the additional required information
over controversial Kishanganga Hydro Power
Project, which both Pakistan and India submitted
recently.
5. URI HYDRO-ELECTRIC PROJECT
The Uri Project is a run-of-river hydroelectric
project on the Jhelum River in Kashmir. The
government of Pakistan has objected to this,
saying it violates the Indus Waters Treaty, since
the Indus Waters Treaty gives Pakistan the
exclusive right to regulate the Jhelum River.
6. DIAMER - BHASHA DAM BY
PAKISTAN on the River Indus in GilgitBaltistan
Recent developments (As of August 2012).
The World Bank has reportedly offered funding
to induce Pakistan to take up the Dasu power
project in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and delay for 10
years the strategically more important DiamerBhasha dam in Gilgit-Baltistan.
The World Bank has linked the financing of the
multi-billion dollar project with Indian
concurrence- given India's opposition to the dam
on claims that it is located in the disputed

territory of Gilgit-Baltistan.
Pakistan's efforts to seek aid for the USD 12billion Diamer-Bhasha dam have run into
problems after the Asian Development Bank
asked it to secure a no-objection certificate from
India to access multilateral funding.
7. Bunji Dam on Indus River in Gilgit
Baltistan, by Pakistan
The dam is being built in the Astore district of
Gilgit Baltistan with the help of China. The
Indian government lodged a protest over the
Bunji Hydroelectric Project in a part of the state
of Jammu and Kashmir under illegal occupation
of Pakistan,
RECOMMENDATIONS to resolve River
water disputes
Indus Water Treaty II should be taken up in
good faith incorporating the genuine and
legitimate interests of both the sides.
A Joint Expert Group (JEG) with
representatives from both countries should be
set up to co-ordinate the activities of various
technical agencies of both the countries.
Both the countries should adopt a transparent
approach to development problem relating to
sharing of water and invite inter disciplinary
communications.
Both the countries should come up with
conservation policies instead of creating more
storage that they have focuses on for long.
Both the countries should shed their boundaries
of distrust and suspicion on each and create a
conducive political environment to resolve any
issues amicably.
Water needs to be managed as a commodity.
Both the countries should ensure that water
serves as a link to bring them together, rather
than taking them further towards conflict.
The Indus Waters Treaty 1960 (signed
between Nehru and Ayub Khan)
The salient features of the Indus Waters
Treaty are:
Three Eastern rivers namely Ravi, Sutlej
and Beas were given to India.
Three Western rivers, Indus, Jhelum and
Chenab were given to Pakistan.
Pakistan to meet the requirements of its
Eastern river canals from the Western rivers
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by constructing replacement works.
Safeguards incorporated in the treaty to
ensure unrestricted flow of waters in the
Western rivers.
Both parties were to regularly exchange
flow-data of rivers, canals and streams.
A permanent Indus Waters Commission
was constituted to resolve the disputes
between the parties. The Treaty sets out the
procedure for settlement of the differences
and disputes. It also provides for settlement
of disputes through the International Court
of Arbitration.
Despite these treaties, serious differences over
water sharing, water management and
hydropower projects continue to spoil relations
between India and Pakistan.
Among its South Asian neighbors, it is only
with Pakistan that India has not been able to
improve relations at the desirable level, despite
the fact that both the countries share common
historical legacy. Indo-Pakistan relations have
been strained because of differences over certain
issues.
CENTER - STATE RELATIONS

PART XII
UNION-STATE RELATIONS
The constitution describes India as a Union of
States which indicates two things:1. Indian federation is not the result of an
agreement by the units (like the American
Federation).
2. The units have no right to secede from the
Union. The centre- state relations can be
studied under the following headings.
1.
LEGISLATIVE
RELATIONS
(ART.245-255 IN PART 9)
The constitution adopts a 3-fold distribution
of legislative power
Union List- 97 subjects.
State List- 66 subjects.
Concurrent List- 47 subjects.

Subjects mentioned in the Union list are of
national importance and only Parliament is
competent to make laws on these subjects. For
state list, only the states have exclusive powers to
make laws. Concurrent list is a Twilight Zone
where both the Union and the States are
competent to make law, without any conflict

Residuary powers (art.248) are vested with the
Union. Wherever the conflict arises as to a
subject matter, the Union Law supersedes the
state law. Though under normal circumstances,
the Union does not legislate on the State subjects,
in the following cases Union Parliament can
legislate on the State subject.
1. Resolution by RS (Art 249)-In the national
interest, if RS passes a resolution supported by
2/3rd of the members present and voting in that
respect. The resolution remains in force for
one years. It can be renewed any no. of times.
2. When emergency is in force- (Art.250)-the
parliaments acquires the power to legislate
w.r.t. State list. The laws become inoperative
on the expiration of 6 months after the
emergency has ceased to operate.
3. On requisition by the States (Art.252) - Article
252 says Parliament can legislate on a subject
exclusively within the domain of states only
after request for such a legislation was passed
by two state legislatures. This law would be
applicable to other states only if their
legislature desired to adopt it.
4. Implementation of International agreements
(Art.253)- Parliament has the powers to make
any law for the whole or any part of the
territory of India
for
implementing
international
treaties,
agreements
and
conventions.
5. During President Rule (Art.256) - Parliament
is empowered to make laws w.r.t. all matters
in the state list. A law made so continues to be
operative even after the presidents rule. But
such a law can be repealed or altered or reenacted by the state legislature.
6. Residuary Powers - Article 248 of the
Constitution which speaks of residuary powers
of legislation confers exclusive power on
Parliament to make any law with respect to
any matter not enumerated in the Concurrent
List or the State List.
Besides the above, the constitution empowers
the centre to exercise control over the states
legislative functions in the following ways:1. Certain bills (related to compulsory
acquisition of property or power of the
HC) passed by the State Legislature have to
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be reserved by the Governor of the State for
the consideration of the President. The
president enjoys absolute veto over them.
2. Bills on certain matters enumerated in the
State list can be introduced in the State
legislature only with the previous sanction of
the president. (For example the bills
imposing restrictions on the freedom of
trade and commerce).
3. The president can direct the states to reserve
money bills and other financial bills passed
by the state legislature for his consideration
during a financial emergency.
Hence it is clear that the constitution has
assigned a position of supremacy to the centre
in the legislative sphere.
2. ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS (Art.
256-263 in Part 9)
1. Centers Direction to states
The centre is empowered to give directions to
the states w.r.t. the exercise of their executive
power in the following matters:a) Construction and maintenance of means of
communication (declared to be of national or
military importance) by the state
b) Measures to be taken for the protection of the
railways within the state.
The executive power of the states is to be so
exercised as to ensure compliances with the laws
of parliaments and the union executive has the
power to give such directions to a state as it may
deem fit. (Art.256). It is to be ensured that the
exercise of the executive power by the states does
not impede or prejudice the exercise of the
executive powers of the union (Art.257). The
centres direction to state has a coercive sanction
under Article 365, failing which Art.356 should
be used.
2. Mutual Delegation of functions
The president may with the consent of the
state government entrust to that government any
of the executive functions of the centre Art
258(1). Conversely, the governor of a state may
with the consent of the Central Government, Art
258 (2) entrust to that government any of the
executive functions of the state. This mutual
delegation of functions may be conditional or
unconditional. The executive functions of the
Centre can be delegated to the State without the
consent of the state, by the Parliament and not the

President (Art.258 (2)).
3. Centre State Co-operation
a) Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of
inter-state rivers or river valleys by the
Parliamentary law. (Art 262)
b) Establishment of Inter State council under
Art.263 by the president, to discuss subject of
common interest between the centre and states.
Such a council was set up in 1990.
c) Full faith and credit (Art 261) is to be given
throughout the territory of India, to public acts,
records, judicial proceedings of the centre and
every state.
d) Parliament has the power to constitute an
Inter-State Commence commission (Art 307)
and empower it to execute such functions as it
may deem fit.
4. All India Services
These are controlled jointly by the centre and
the states. The ultimate control lies with the
Union while the immediate control lies with the
state governments. Art.312 of the constitution
authorizes the Parliament to create new All India
Services on the basis of a RS resolution to that
effect.
5. Other Provisions
1) Power to appoint and dismiss governor (art
155-156).
2) Power to appoint judges of HC (art 217).
3) Power to appoint member of state PSC (art
317).
4) Power to remove election commissioner by the
president.
5) Art.355 imposes two duties on the centre
1. To protect every state against external
aggression and internal disturbance
2. To ensure that the government of every state
is carried on in accordance with the provision
of the constitution
3. FINANCIAL RELATIONS Art-268-293
in part 12
1. Allocation of taxing powers
a) The parliament has exclusive power to levy
taxes on subjects enumerated in Union list
which are 14 in numbers.
b) The state legislature has exclusive power to
levy taxes on subjects enumerated in the state
list which are 20 in numbers.
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c) Both the parliament and the state legislature
can levy taxes on subjects mentioned in the
concurrent list which are 3 in number.
d) The residuary power of taxation is vested in
the parliament. Under this provision the
parliament has imposed gift tax, wealth tax and
expenditure tax.
The constitution draws a distinction
between the power to levy and collect a tax and
the power to appropriate the proceeds of the tax
so levied and collected. For example the income
tax is levied and collected by the center but its
proceeds are distributed between the center and
the states.
The constitution has placed the following
restrictions on the taxing powers of the states:
1. A state legislature can impose taxes on
professions, trades, callings and employments.
But the total amount of such taxes payable by
any person should not exceed Rs.2500 per
annum. (Originally this limit was only Rs.250
per annum. The 60th amendment act of 1988
raised it to Rs. 2500 per annum)
2. A state legislature can impose taxes on the sale
or purchase of goods (other than
newspapers). But this power of the states is
subjected to the following conditions:
No tax can be imposed on the sale or
purchase taking place outside the states.
purchase taking place in the course of
interstate trade and commerce.
purchase taking place in the course of import
or export.
A tax imposed on the sale or purchase of
goods declared by parliament to be of special
importance in inter-state trade and commerce
is subject to the restrictions and conditions
specified by the parliament.
3. A state legislature can impose tax on the
consumption or sale of electricity. But no tax
can be imposed on the consumption or sale of
electricity, which is consumed by the center or
sold to the center.
4. A state legislature can impose tax in respect of
any water or electricity stored, generated,
consumed, distributed or sold by any authority
established by parliament for regulating or
developing any inter-state river or river valley.

But such a law to be effective should be
reserved for the presidents consideration and
receive his assent.
2. Distribution of tax revenues
The 80th Amendment act 2000 was enacted to
give effect to the recommendations of the tenth
finance
commission.
The
commission
recommended that out of the total income
obtained from certain central taxes and duties
29% should go to the states. This is known as the
Alternative Scheme of Devolution and came
into force from April 1, 1996 retrospectively.
Taxes
Details
Levied
by Stamp duties.
centre collected Excise duties on medicinal
and toilet preparations
and
containing alcohol.
appropriated
by the states
Levied
and Inter state trade (other than
newspaper).
collected by the
Centre
but
assigned
to
states
Levied
and All taxes and duties
referred to in the union list
collected by the
except 1) those above 2)
centre
but
Surcharge on taxes below
distributed
3) Any cess levied for
between
the
specific Purposes.
centre
and
states
For the purpose Surcharges on duties and
taxes mentioned above in 2
of centre
and 3.
Levied collected Those enumerated in State
list which are 20 in
and
retained
numbers
e.g.
Land
by the state
revenue, tolls.
3. Grants in aid to the States
1. Statutory Grants under Art 275 are given to
the states on the recommendation of Finance
Commission.
2. Discretionary Grants under Art 282 are
given to the states on the recommendation of
Planning Commission.
4. Finance Commission
It is the balancing wheel of the Fiscal
Federalism in India. Art.280 provides for a F.C as
a quasi judicial body. It is constituted by the
president every 5th year or even earlier.
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5. Borrowing by the States
Indian federalism has an in-built tendency to
The Central government can make loans to centralise under certain circumstances, this
any state or give guarantees in respect of loans nonetheless makes it quasi-federal. Within the
raised by any state. Any sums required for the allotted domain, the state is as sovereign as the
purpose of making such loans are to be charged union. The principle on which the founding
on the consolidated Fund of India.
fathers divided powers between the centre and
6. When Emergency is in force
the states was that the division of powers must
1. National Emergency- art 352
be in consonance with the distribution of
The president can modify the constitutional responsibilities. The centre has been assigned
distribution of revenues between the Centre and the important roles of:
States This continue till the end of the financial
(i) nation-building and nation preserving;
year in which the emergency ceases to operate.
(ii) maintaining and protecting national
2. Financial Emergency art.360
unity and integrity; and
The centre can give directions to the States.
(iii) maintaining constitutional political
a) To observe specified canons of financial
order throughout the union of India.
propriety.
The states have been assigned only those
b) To reduce the salaries and allowances of all subjects which are purely local in nature.
class of persons serving in the state including Besides, having autonomy of legislation,
the HC judges.
regulation and execution of the subjects
c) To reserve all money bills and other financial assigned to it, the states are expected to
bills for the consideration of the president.
coordinate, cooperate and execute the policies of
FEDERATION IN INDIA
union specially with regard to those belonging
The government of India Act 1935, for to the nation-building aspect.
the first time provided for a federal form of
It is in accordance with the imperatives of
government in India. But due to strong national development and the maintenance of
opposition, particularly from the princely states, it national unity and integrity that the degree of
could not come into existence. Our constitution federalism may vary from time to time. Indian
makers again provided it in the new constitution.
federalism is complex enough to defy
The Indian federal system is based on the any singular generalisation and characterisation.
Canadian model Art 1 describes India as a At best, one can characterise it as Union type
Union of states which implies that the state federal polity. Such a polity usually combines
have no right to secede from the federation. The the features of a dual federalism (i.e., divided
term federation has nowhere been used in the sovereignty);
cooperative-collaborative
constitution. There are different opinions federalism (a model of collectivism, where
regarding the character of our Federation Let us union and states collectively resolve and take
examine the nature of Federal polity in India.
decision on the issues of common concern); and
Prof. K. C. Wheare in his book Federal the interdependent federalism (a model of
government refers to the federal principles reciprocal dependence, if states depend heavily
without which no polity can becalled Federal on union government for fiscal help, so the
K. C. Wheares Federal principle states that the union government on the states for execution of
fields of government is divided between the its policies and programmes).
Federal and the state governments, neither of
The provisions of the Indian constitution in
which is subordinate to the others, but are co- the light of the above principle are:ordinate and independent within the sphere 1. Division of Power- There is a clear cut
allotted to them. However Wheare himself
division of power between the union and the
asserts that exceptions are permissible provided
states. 7th Schedule of the constitution
Federal principle is retained predominantly.
provided for three lists namely:CRITQUE ON INDIAN FEDERALISM AS
QUASI FEDERAL
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a) Union list with 97 subjects wherein the 2. Strong centre- The distribution of powers
Union
government
has
exclusive
heavily tilts in favour of the Union. The centre
jurisdiction.
dominates in about 2/3rd of the total no. of
b) State list with 66 subjects wherein the States
subjects of the three lists together. Even in the
have exclusive jurisdiction.
state list the constitution permits the Union
Legislature to enact a law if the RS passes a
c) Concurrent List with 47 subjects wherein
resolution to that effect by special majority.
both the union and states have jurisdiction,
Not only this generally in a classical federation
but in case of conflict between the two, law
the residuary powers belong to the states but in
of the Union prevails.
India they belong to the Union.
2. Written constitution- The source of power of
both the government Union and States is the 3. No Territorial integrity- Unlike in other
written constitution enacted by the constituent
federations, the states in India have no right to
Assembly.
territorial integrity. The parliament can by
3. Rigidity of the constitution- The procedure for
unilateral action change the area, boundaries
amending the constitution W. R. T Federal
or name of any state, by simple majority.
principle is rigid. It requires not only the 4. Single Citizenship- Ordinarily in a federation,
there prevails dual citizenship i.e. Citizenship
absolute majority of the members of the two
rd
of the Union and that of the state But in India
houses of parliament and 2/3 majority of the
there is no such provision. The constitution
members present and voting but also
provides for single citizenship.
endorsement of the legislatures of at least half
5. Unified Judicial System-In a classical
the states.
federation like US, there is a double system of
4. Supremacy of the constitution- all the
authorities of the union and states such as
courts whereby the federal law are enforced by
legislative, executive and judiciary get their
the federal judiciary and the state law by the
powers from the constitution and are
state judiciary But Indian constitution provides
subordinate to it.
for a single integrated judicial system where
5. Impartial and Independent Judiciary- The
the SC is the highest court of appeal for both
constitution provides for a SC which is the
the Union and States.
highest authority in India regarding the 6. All India Services- are common to both the
centre and the state. The members of these
interpretation of the constitution.
services are recruited and trained by the centre
6. Bicameralism- The constitution provides for a
which also possesses ultimate control over
bicameral legislature consisting of an Upper
them.
House (Rajya sabha/ Council of states) and a
lower House (Lok sabha/ council of people). 7. Appointments of Governor- The Governor
who is the head of the state is appointed by the
The Rajya Sabha represents the states of
president He holds office during the pleasure
Indian federation, while the Lok Sabha
of the president Quite often he acts as an agent
represents the people of India as a whole.
of the centre.
Though the Indian constitution possesses
almost all the essential features of a federal 8. Emergency Provisions- During emergencies
(viz. national, state and financial emergencies)
polity, during emergencies (viz. national, state
the central government becomes all powerful
and financial emergencies) the central
and the states go into the total control of the
government becomes all powerful and the states
centre.
go into the total control of the centre. There are
certain factors that deviate from the generally 9. Veto over State Bills- The president enjoys
absolute veto over state bills reserved for his
accepted norms of federalism. They are:1. Single Constitution- The states do not have a
consideration by the governor
separate constitution of their own except 10. No financial autonomy- The constitution has
distributed the financial resources in such a way
Jammu and Kashmir.
that states have to seek grants from the Union
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government The president of India appoints the
Finance commission of India, which
recommends allocation of such grants.
Conclusion
Thus it is very clear that the constitution
makers intended to make a very strong centre.
Thus it can be said that the Indian constitution
establishes a Unitary State with subsidiary federal
features rather than federal state with unitary
features. Hence K. C. Wheare described the
constitution of India as Quasi Federal.
SHOULD ARTICLE 356 BE DELETED?
The socio-political experience of the framers
of the constitution made them acutely aware that
security of the Nation and the stability of its
polity could not be taken for granted. The road to
democracy was not expected to be smooth owing
to the diversity of India. Hence keeping in mind
the spirit of co-operative federalism, our founding
fathers of the constitution incorporated article 356
patterned upon the section 93 of in a situation of
political breakdown, the governor should explore
all possibilities of having a government the Govt.
of India Act 1935.
Unfortunately it so happened that over the
years Art 356 has been frequently abused or
misused rather than used. Dr B. R. Ambedkar
while replaying to the critics of this provision in
the constituent Assembly hoped that the drastic
power conferred by Art 356 would remain a
dead letter and would be used only as a
measure of last resort. However what was hoped
to be a dead letter has turned to be a deadly
weapon targeting the Indian federal spirit. In
view of this, many states are demanding the
deletion of Art 356.
Rationale use of Art 356
It is important that Art 356 is read with the
other relevant articles viz. articles 256, 257, 355
and 365. Art 355 speaks of the duty of Union to
protect the state against external aggression and
internal disturbance and to ensure that the
government of the state Id carried on in
accordance with the constitution. The Union can
also act under Art 355 (i.e) without imposing
presidents rule. Art 355 can stand on its own.
Also Union government can issue certain
directions under art 256 and 257. While art 356
authorizes the president to issue a proclamation
imposing presidents rule over a state if he is

satisfied that a situation has arisen in which the
government of state cannot be carried on in
accordance with the provisions of the
constitution, art 365 says that where a state fails
to comply with Union directions (under art 256,
257 and others) it shall be lawful for the president
to hold that a situation has arisen in which the
government of the state cannot be carried on in
accordance with the provisions of the
constitution.
Thus the scheme of the constitution seems to
clearly suggest that before rushing to issue a
proclamation under art 356, all other avenues
should be explored.
Judicious action of governor
In a situation of political breakdown, the
governor should explore all possibilities of having
a government enjoying majority support in the
assembly. If it is not possible for such a
government to be installed and if fresh elections
can he held without avoidable delay, he should
ask the outgoing Ministry (if there is one) to
continue as a care taker government, provided the
Ministry was defeated solely on a issue
unconnected with any allegation of mal
administration or corruption and is agreeable to
continue The governor should then dissolve the
legislative Assembly leaving the resolution of the
constitutional crisis to the electorate
Judicial Review and Art 356
The 38th Amendment act of 1975 made the
satisfaction of the president in involving Art 356
final and conclusive and beyond judicial review.
But this provision was subsequently deleted by
44th Amendment Act 1978.
In Bommai case 1994, the SC has laid down
the following propositions on imposition of
Presidents rule in a state under Art 356:1. The presidential proclamation imposing
president rule is subject to judicial review.
2. The satisfaction of the president must be based
on relevant material.
3. Burden lies on the centre to prove that relevant
material exist to justify the use of Art 356.
4. The court cannot go into the correctness of the
material or its adequacy but it can see whether
it is relevant to the action
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Raja sir, Joining Cracking IAS for General Studies Mains turned out to be one
of the best decisions in my life till date. Personal
Personal attention and knack to predict
questions is simply unparalleled. IAS Express is better than anything else in the
market and highly recommended to any serious civil services
service
d,s^>E
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aspirant.
CLONING
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Cloning is a technique wherein, a group of genetically iden
identical organisms is
produced.
Cloning of Sheep (Mechanism): Dr. Ian Wilmut has produced a cloned sheep
called Dolly by nuclear transplantation method.
method To produce cloned sheep he took the
udder cell which is a somatic cell with diploid number
number of chromosomes. An egg cell was
also removed from a donor sheep. The egg cell cannot
cannot grow into a new sheep on its own
because it only has half a set of chromosomes (n). The body cell cannot grow into a new
sheep on its own because it is not a reproductive cell.
cell. So udder cell nucleus (2n) was
removed. Similarly the egg cell nucleus (n) was also
also removed. The nucleus of the somatic
cell (Udder) was injected into the enucleated
enucleated egg. The egg after the nuclear
transplantation comes to possess full set of chromosomes
chromosomes viz. the 2n diploid. The egg was
then transplanted back into the uterus of the sheep from which it was removed. The egg
also can be transplanted to a new surrogate mother for development. The egg cell grew
and developed into a sheep (Dolly). This cloned sheep
sheep is genetically identical to the donor
sheep, which donated the diploid nucleus of its somatic
somatic cell and not the sheep which
donated the egg cell.
An udder cell iss one of the cells found in a female mammal's udder,
udder which is the
location of the milk glands in a number of kinds of mammal.
Types of cloning
1. DNA Cloning: The gene of interest is isolated from the chromosomal DNA using
us
restriction enzymes and then united with a plasmid that has been cut with the same
restriction enzymes. When the fragmented chromosomal
chromosomal DNA is joined with the cloning
vector in the lab, it is called a recombinant
DNA molecule.
. Following introduction into
suitable host cells, the recombinant
recombinant DNA can then be reproduced along with the host cell
DNA. First Cloned MonkeyMonkey ANDi derived its name from inserted DNA, spelled in a
backward manner. ANDi- First Cloned Monkey is the foremost rhesus monkey subjected
to genetic modifications.
2. Reproductive
eproductive Cloning:
Cloning: Reproductive cloning involves the following steps:
steps a) a cell is
removed from an organism thatll be replicated which
which is extracted by an incision in the
skin, b)) a female reproductive cell is taken from the female
female organism, c) an entire
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is also removed from the
the donor cell, d) donor DNA is then
forced into the second cell nucleus and a process known
known as fusion combines the two cells,
e)) finally a woman must be found to carry the cloned child. In 1996, the first mammal ever
to be cloned from adult DNA was a sheep, named Dolly.
Doll
3. Therapeutic Cloning:
Cloning Therapeutic cloning (also known as embryonic cloning)
cloning is the
idea of using human stem cells in order to study human development and treat disease.
disea A
potential use of this kind of cloning can be made to
to transplantation of organs. The real goal
of this kind of cloning is the harvesting of stem cells.
cells. The good use of these harvested stem
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cells can be made in the purpose of study of the development of human being. The stem
cells thus produced can be used for the treatment of several diseases as well. The reason
behind this is that the stem cells are capable of generating almost any kind of specialized
cell that exists in any human body.
Advantages of cloning
Cloning can prove to be a proper solution of infertility.
If any person looses any important part of the body that part can be replaced by way of
transplantation via cloning. The researches found that the therapeutic Human Cloning
can facilitate the regenerative medicine a lot as it can provide the cells which are
identical generically and are required for the purpose of this kind of medicine.
Through human cloning it is also possible to provide the parts like cells, tissues as well
as organs of the same kind and can be transplanted in the human body. There are some
cases where the stem cells are transplanted from one person to other with 100% safety.
These cells, tissues as well as organs produced in this way do not kick start any kind of
negative response in the immune system. These cells tissue or organs will also not
need any kind of usage of the immuno suppressive drugs.
The advantage of cloning also includes the treatment of many serious diseases. It is
found that stem cells can be turned into many other types of cell if the right kind of
prompting is applied. It is also said that with cloning the doctors can be able to
transplant the tissues as well as organs that are damaged due to disease or injury. This
will ensure healthy function of of the body.
Applications of the stem cells can treat any kind of illnesses significantly. The
illnesses and diseases include Parkinsons disease, diabetes, Alzheimers, heart attack,
multiple sclerosis. The illnesses in the blood, bone as well as bone marrow ailments are
also curable through cloning. It can cure to burns by way of skin grafting. The injuries
in the spinal cord as well as cancer is also have possibility of curing through cloning
Extinct and Endangered animals/ plant species can be cloned to maintain and
conserve bio-diversity.
Among the benefits of cloning, special mention should be made regarding its role in
biodiversity. Cloning will help to maintain biodiversity. It can bring back even the
animals which have become extinct recently and safe guard all endangered species
facing extinction.
Though human cloning has its own ethical problems, the principle could be used to
grow new organs from the cloned stem cells. Such organ culture may solve
transplantation problems, such as tissue incompatibility, tissue Rejection.
Disadvantages of cloning
A well known disadvantage of cloning is that cloning is till date not a perfect process
- it still has a lot of loopholes. The success rate in the process of cloning is very low. A
thorough study reveals that the cloning of the sheep named Dolly had as many as 276
failures before cloning of the sheep was possible. As the success rate is so low people
often believe that the time has not yet come when the cloning process should be tried
among the human beings. According to them when the research will be improved
considerably then only it is advisable to start cloning of human being as well a any
organ of human body.
It will create a loss of individuality, creativity as well a freedom of being oneself. If a
human clone of a man is made at the time when the man exists it will create a lot of
problem. As there will be a lot of similarity among the clones which are supposed to be
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Biosignature
/
Bio
markers
near identical with the person who has been cloned a identity crisis might be formed.
No clone or actual human being will have any individuality anymore. This can be a
major problem as if used negatively it can cause many identity thefts and can cause a
lot of confusions as well s troubles in the lives. for this reason there are a lot of
question arising on the future of cloning.
Ethical Issues of cloning
It is feared that attempts to clone human may lead to the birth/production of wrong
persons.
Cloning cannot produce children like the children born to genetic mothers. Variations
in traits are bound to appear.
When organisms are created by cloning from somatic cells of the adult, the longevity
of the new born, disease tolerance capacity are some criteria to be considered. Cloned
animals have also developed diseases like arthritis.
Cloning also leads to wastage of egg cells. In the cloning of Cat, 200 egg cells were
used and 57 were implanted. Out of that only one cloned cat survived to birth.
Cloned animals may have health problems. They may die at a much earlier age than
the rest of the species. So cloned animals from somatic cells of adult may have short
life span.
A substance such as an element, isotope, or molecule present in something such as a
meteorite that is characteristic of life and is used as evidence of past or present life.
They offer the means for homogeneous classification of a disease and risk factors, and
the can extend our base information about the underlying pathogenesis of disease.
Biomarkers include tools and technologies that can aid in understanding the prediction,
cause, diagnosis, progression, regression, or outcome of treatment of disease.
There are two major types of biomarkers: biomarkers of exposure, which are used in
risk prediction, and biomarkers of disease, which are used in screening and diagnosis
and monitoring of disease progression.
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Photocatalys
is
Photo-Catalysis is defined as "acceleration by the presence light as catalyst".

When photocatalyst titanium
dioxide
(TiO2)
absorbs
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from
sunlight or illuminated light
source (fluorescent lamps), it
will produce pairs of electrons
and holes. The electron of the
valence band of titanium
dioxide becomes excited when
illuminated by light. The
excess energy of this excited
electron promoted the electron
to the conduction band of
titanium dioxide therefore
creating the negative-electron
(e-) and positive-hole (h+) pair.
This stage is referred as the
semiconductor's
'photoexcitation' state. The energy
difference between the valence
band and the conduction band is known as the 'Band Gap'. Wavelength of the light
necessary for photo-excitation is: 1240 (Planck's constant, h) / 3.2 ev (band gap energy) =
388 nm
The positive-hole of titanium dioxide breaks apart the water molecule to form hydrogen
gas and hydroxyl radical. The negative-electron reacts with oxygen molecule to form super
oxide anion. This cycle continues when light is available.
Sterilizing Effect - Photocatalyst Nano-TiO2 super disinfections power has been verified
not only can kill bacteria, virus and fungi, but also can eliminate foul smell.
Deodorizing Effect - Photocatalyst Nano-TiO2 also has been tested can eliminate the toxic
and carcinogen gases, like VOC and formaldehyde, etc. It was reported that VOC and
formaldehyde emitted after renovation may affect the health of human, especially causing
children blood cancer.
Air Purifying Effect - The photocatalytic reactivity of titanium oxides can be applied for
the reduction or elimination of polluted compounds in air such as NOx, cigarette smoke, as
well as volatile compounds arising from various construction materials.
Anti fogging, Self-Cleaning - Most of the exterior walls of buildings become soiled from
automotive exhaust fumes, which contain oily components. When the original building
materials are coated with a photocatalyst, a protective film of titanium provides the selfcleaning building by becoming antistatic, super oxidative, and hydrophilic. The
hydrocarbon from automotive exhaust is oxidized and the dirt on the walls washes away
with rainfall, keeping the building exterior clean at all times.
Water Purification - Photocatalyst coupled with UV lights can oxidize organic pollutants
into nontoxic materials, such as CO2 and water and can disinfect certain bacteria. This
technology is very effective at removing further hazardous organic compounds (TOCs) and
at killing a variety of bacteria and some viruses in the secondary wastewater treatment.
Pilot projects demonstrated that photocatalytic detoxification systems could effectively kill
fecal coli form bacteria in secondary wastewater treatment.
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Bioregions are defined through physical and environmental features, including watershed
boundaries and soil and terrain characteristics. Bioregionalism stresses that the
determination of a bioregion is also a cultural phenomenon, and emphasizes local
populations, knowledge, and solutions. The bioregionalist perspective opposes a
homogeneous economy and consumer culture with its lack of stewardship towards the
environment. This perspective seeks to:
Bioregions
Ensure that political boundaries match ecological boundaries.
Highlight the unique ecology of the bioregion.
Encourage consumption of local foods where possible.
Encourage the use of local materials where possible.
Encourage the cultivation of native plants of the region.
Encourage sustainability in harmony with the bioregion.
Plastic roads mainly use plastic carry-bags, disposable cups and PET bottles that are
collected from garbage dumps as an important ingredient of the construction material.
When mixed with hot bitumen, plastics melt to form an oily coat over the aggregate
and the mixture is laid on the road surface like a normal tar road.
Waste plastic is ground and made into powder; 3 to 4 % plastic is mixed with the
bitumen. Plastic increases the melting point of the bitumen and makes the road retain
its flexibility during winters resulting in its long life. Use of shredded plastic waste
acts as a strong binding agent for tar making the asphalt last long. By mixing plastic
with bitumen the ability of the bitumen to withstand high temperature increases. The
plastic waste is melted and mixed with bitumen in a particular ratio. Normally,
blending takes place when temperature reaches 45.5C but when plastic is mixed, it
remains stable even at 55C.
The durability of the roads laid out with shredded plastic waste is much more
compared with roads with asphalt with the ordinary mix. Roads laid with plastic waste
Plastic
mix are found to be better than the conventional ones. The binding property of plastic
Roads
in
makes the road last longer besides giving added strength to withstand more loads.
India
While a normal 'highway quality' road lasts four to five years it is claimed that plasticbitumen roads can last up to 10 years. Rainwater will not seep through because of the
plastic in the tar. So, this technology will result in lesser road repairs. And as each km
of road with an average width requires over two tonnes of polyblend, using plastic will
help reduce non-biodegradable waste.
The cost of plastic road construction may be slightly higher compared to the
conventional method. However, this should not deter the adoption of the technology as
the benefits are much higher than the cost. Plastic roads would be a boon for Indias
hot and extremely humid climate, where temperatures frequently cross 50C and
torrential rains create havoc, leaving most of the roads with big potholes.
The Public Works Department of Himachal Pradesh in northern India has started
constructing roads with plastic and polythene waste. Its an attempt to save the
environment from the menace of plastic waste. The plastic will actually make roads
stronger.
Bioremediation uses living organisms to clean up contaminated soil or water. The use
of plants to clean up the environment is known as phytoremediation. Bioremediation
BIO
depends on the natural biological processes of microorganisms (i.e) metabolism.
REMEDIAT
The main types of bioremediation are as follows:
ION
1. Biostimulation -- Nutrients and oxygen - in a liquid or gas form - are added to
contaminated water or soil to encourage the growth and activity of bacteria already
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Global
dimming
existing in the soil or water. The disappearance of contaminants is monitored to

ensure that remediation occurs.
2. Bioaugmentation -- Microorganisms that can clean up a particular contaminant
are added to the contaminated soil or water. Bioaugmentation is more commonly and
successfully used on contaminants removed from the original site, such as in
municipal wastewater treatment facilities. To date, this method has not been very
successful when done at the site of the contamination because it is difficult to control
site conditions for the optimal growth of the microorganisms added. Scientists have
yet to completely understand all the mechanisms involved in bioremediation, and
organisms introduced into a foreign environment may have a hard time surviving.
3. Intrinsic Bioremediation -- Also known as natural attenuation, this type of
bioremediation occurs naturally in contaminated soil or water. This natural
bioremediation is the work of microorganisms and is seen in petroleum contamination
sites, such as old gas stations with leaky underground oil tanks. Application of this
technique requires close monitoring of contaminant degradation to ensure that
environmental and human health are protected.
All three types of bioremediation can be used at the site of contamination (in situ) or on
contamination removed from the original site (ex situ). In the case of contaminated soil,
sediments, and sludges, it can involve land tilling in order to make the nutrients and
oxygen more available to the microorganisms.
The role of biotechnology in bioremediation is to efficiently apply these existing
mechanisms to clean up environmental contamination. Various microorganisms are being
studied to see if they can remediate various chemicals often present at contaminated
industrial sites. Also, scientists are currently looking into genetically engineering certain
microorganisms to increase their ability to metabolize specific chemicals, such as
hydrocarbons, in contaminated sites. For example the oil industry uses bacteria from the
Pseudomonas family to clean up pollution created by spills and underground leaks, and
to clean up waste products from oil production.
Sustainable Development and Bioremediation
Bioremediation uses the resources available in nature to clean up contamination.
Using biological processes, as in the case of bioremediation, usually means lowered costs
compared to chemical treatment processes for various contaminated sites. It is also less
disturbing to the environment. However, because it is a natural process, it requires time.
Global dimming is a recently discovered phenomenon that reduces the amount of solar
radiation reaching the Earth's surface. It is caused by an increase in particulates such as
sulphate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action.
Cause - These pollutants include sulfur dioxide, ash and soot. These pollutants have
increased as the rate of burning of fossil fuels has increased. These aerosol particles in the
atmosphere have been associated with global dimming.
Process - Water droplets in clouds are formed by water vapour condensing on
particulates. The increased number of particulates in the air increases the number of water
droplets in clouds. As a result, there is an increased amount of reflection of solar radiation
back into space. This reduction of solar radiation reaching the earth is known as global
dimming.
Remedy - Global dimming can be reduced by cleaning up the emissions from burning
fossil fuels and the emissions from vehicles. However, a focus on particulates only would
result in an increased effect of global warming. In essence, the sources of both greenhouse
gases and air particulates must be addressed.
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Approach to global dimming and global warming - Climatologists emphasise that the
source of global warming and global dimming must be tackled together. Drastic reductions
of the burning of fossil fuels is required to reduce the effects of greenhouse gases and the
particulates which are giving rise to global dimming.
Economics
It is a tax on currency trades across borders. First proposed by James Tobin,
Ph.D., a Nobel laureate economist in 1978. Interest has grown rapidly in such a
mechanism, as the pace of foreign exchange transactions and financial deregulation
has accelerated over the past two decades.
Why Tobin tax?
It has potential to prevent financial crises.
This would reduce the volatility of exchange rate fluctuations and

provide exporters, importers and long-term investors a more stable exchange rate
in return for paying the tax.
The tax would give more autonomy to governments to set national fiscal
and monetary policies by making possible greater differences between short-term
interest rates in different currencies. Such a tax would also reinvigorate the
capacity of central banks to alter exchange rate trends by intervening in currency
markets. By cutting down on the overall volume of foreign exchange transactions,
Tobin tax
central banks would not need as much financial clout to intervene.
In the globalized economy, there is a lack of adequate funding for global

problems such as disease, poverty and hunger. Global climate change,
deforestation, population growth and unemployment, declining fisheries and
pollution threaten local communities worldwide. Projects which could help to
address these needs and create jobs will cost more than $400 billion annually.
Private donors do not meet the need, and some nations cut their aid budgets. New
multilateral approaches to public finance, such as Tobin Taxes, may provide
part of the answer.
Hindrances
There are two key political issues involved with putting such a tax in place. First,
it would be necessary to forge agreement amongst the major countries to implement
a uniform tax, and second, there would have to be agreement on the collection and
distribution of the tax revenue.
Dumping is said to have taken place when an exporter sells a product to
India at a price less than the price prevailing in its domestic market. However,
the phenomenon of dumping is per se not condemnable as it is recognized that
producers sell their goods at different prices to different market. Where dumping
causes or threatens to cause material injury to the domestic industry of India, the
Designated Authority initiates necessary action for investigations and subsequent
Anti
imposition of anti-dumping duties.
Dumping
Sections 9A, 9B and 9C of the Customs Tariff Act, 1975 as amended in
Measures in
1995 and the Customs Tariff (Identification, Assessment and Collection of AntiIndia
dumping Duty on Dumped Articles and for Determination of Injury) Rules, 1995
framed there under form the legal basis for anti-dumping investigations and for
the levy of anti-dumping duties. These laws are based on the Agreement on AntiDumping which is in pursuance of Article VI of GATT 1994.
Anti-dumping action can be taken only when there is an Indian industry
which produces like articles when compared to the allegedly dumped imported
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goods. The article produced in India must either be identical to the dumped
goods in all respects or in the absence of such an article, another article that has
characteristics closely resembling those goods.
ANTI-DUMPING DUTIES - Duties are imposed on a source specific basis
and can be expressed either on ad valorem or specific basis. Non-cooperative
exporters are required to pay the residuary duty, which is generally the highest of
the co-operative exporters.
Lesser Duty Rule - Under the GATT provisions, the national authorities
cannot impose duties higher than the margin of dumping. It is, however,
suggested that it would be desirable if the appropriate Government authorities
impose a lesser duty which is adequate to remove the injury to the domestic
industry. Under the Indian laws, the Government is obliged to restrict the antidumping duty to the lower of the two i.e. dumping margin and the injury margin.
De Minimis Margins - Any exporter whose margin of dumping is less than
2% of the export price shall be excluded from the purview of anti-dumping
duties even if the existence of dumping, injury as well as the causal link is
established.
INDIAS INTERNAL SECURITY CHALLENGES
Internal security means ensuring the safety of individual citizens living within a states
borders. The roots of Indias secular and pluralistic traditions are implanted deep in our ancient
history. Our security is vulnerable to threats, tensions and conflicts originating both from
indigenous and exogenous sources. Indias internal security problems, arising from varied sources,
are influenced by a host of factors among which are its past history, geography, colonial legacy, a
burgeoning population, sharp social and economic disparities and complex socio-cultural and ethnoreligious traditions, hostile and suspicious neighbors which interplay freely in our secular democracy.
DIMENSIONS OF INTERNAL SECURITY
Internal
The domestic dynamics of Indias internal security are reflected in its socio-political milieu,
the main feature of which is its diversity. It is reflected in the variety of its communities and castes,
races and ethnic groups, languages and dialects, religious beliefs and customs and traditions, with
different manifestations of culture, all operating in a dynamic environment.
Ethnic Militancy
Ethno-communal strife in our country is a result of uneven economic development and
unfulfilled aspirations of people, which creates a sense of deprivation. Issues of ethno-nationalism
and identity are outcome of our failure to integrate diverse segments of the Indian society. The root
cause is social and economic insecurity. If there is just and equitable distribution of economic and
developmental benefits people feel satisfied. It is the absence of this satisfaction that drives
affected groups to assert themselves and the main target is the government both local and
central.
Greater mobility of non-Maharastrians to Mumbai facilitated by liberalization policies has
aggravated Sons of Soil feeling among the separatist forces like Maharashtra Navnirman Sena
(MNS).
The state policy of secularism came under threat in 1960s when the politicians started
manipulating emotional sensitivities of communities and vote banks of communities on communal
and religious denomination were created. Inept handling of Babri Masjid issue and failure of
government to prevent its destruction resulted in communalism entering as a key element in the
fragmentation of the society and the nation. The environment of unity and secularism was
disturbed.
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The electoral politics since 80s has led to expansion of the social base of politics and
politicization and aggravation of all problems. More than any other single factor, the exploitation of
diversities has resulted in breakdown of the cohesiveness of the society, created insecurity of cultural
identity, encouraged religious revivalism in its fundamentalist form, heightened ethnicity and widened
the gap between the sub national groups and nationalism.
North-East is an extremely heterogeneous region with high level of ethnic, cultural,
linguistic and religious diversity. The conflicts in the North-East centre on human frustration born out
of deprivations of various types primarily in the socio-economic fields with political articulation,
possibly with the exception of Nagas which is deep rooted in their feeling of being separate with
no political, cultural and economic links with their neighbouring communities. Even this is
undergoing a change, while peoples orientation is towards peace, development and economic well
being, the NSCN (IM) still articulates the political stance of independence. Meiteis feel deprived as
compared to the hill tribes (due to reservations for the tribals) in the economic and employment fields.
Similarly, Assamese feel deprived compared to rest of India, as do Bodos compared to the Assameseprimarily in the economic fields. Mizoram feels constrained due to its geographical location and
experience of Mautam (famine) in 1959, again basically the cause is economic deprivation. Tribal
insurgency in Tripura is as a result of alienation of Tribal land due to Bengali influx resulting in
economic and social deprivation. Due to the growing nexus between Pakistan, ISI, the North East
insurgents and the Islamic fundamentalists, the dimensions of internal security threats to the region
have increased. This needs to be countered on a long-term basis.
It is essential to devise a holistic approach which combines security, development, culture and
foreign policy initiatives into a forward looking time-bound programme of action for the North East
region. India's search for a new economic relationship with South East Asia should no longer be
driven by considerations of globalization, but to facilitate development of the Northeast by increasing
its connectivity to the outside world. Instead of trying to isolate the Northeast from external
influences, as it had done in the past, India should recognize the importance of opening it up for
commercial linkages with South East Asia.
Left wing extremism
Maoist (Naxalite) movements have gripped a significantly large portion of India and presently
pose one of the most serious threats to our internal security. Though the ideology and the
methodology may be imported, the basic causes are indigenous. There is a wide-spread perception
that land reforms and efforts at redressal of genuine grievances have only been superficial and that
the exploiters continue to exploit the poor and the landless agriculturists.
A majority of Indias small farmers have been facing severe economic problems due to
various factors, including globalization, credit crunch, non-inclusive economic progress etc. It would
not be difficult for the Maoists to project themselves as the sole protectors of the poor farmers
interests and the militant way as the only viable redressal procedure available to them.
The Left wing Extremism can only be contained and defeated by an integrated action plan
incorporating security and developmental aspects. Trans-state nature of Left Wing Extremist activities
will require coordinated implementation and joint action in the security field.
Maritime & Cargo Security
Apart from the conventional maritime threats to Indias national security, special attention
needs to be paid to the protection of Indian interests in the exclusive economic zone, to the protection
of the (lives and) interests of Indian fishermen, to threats of sabotage/drug trafficking/smuggling
posed by container traffic etc. The potential of the presence of the Sea Tigers in the Palk Strait (and
of the clashes between the Sri Lankan Navy and the Sea Tigers in that area) becoming a serious threat
to Indias national security cannot be forgotten or ignored.
Cyber terrorism
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Information Technology (IT) has revolutionized warfare and in the internal security field it
has provided means to the underworld to expand their reach for criminal activities without direct
physical involvement. Pak ISI has made full use of it by linking up with the Bombay underworld. Our
responses have to be quicker and based on the developing technological inputs. This will require
updating educational levels in the security forces and developing a technological temper.
India is becoming notorious as a major originator of spam and phishing on the internet.
Cyber-based economic offences like illegal money transfers to anti-social entities, laundering of black
money, share market manipulation; bank frauds etc. are on the increase.
While problems will intrinsically rest on domestic roots, external factors will also play a
major role in aggravating these. Our inner weaknesses and instability has encouraged external
threats and pose a serious challenge to national security.
External Factors
Pakistan in keeping with its anti India stance over the years has been using state sponsored
terrorism as an important instrument of its foreign policy. The threat from ISI is real and grave and its
primary focus is to undermine Indias internal security: Indias open democratic system, judiciary and
sociopolitical setting provide hostile agencies wide ranging opportunities to exploit contentious
political issues and local tensions. Pakistan in order to implement its nefarious designs has used ISI
for subversive activities by instigating communal disturbances, perpetrating terrorist acts, infiltrated
militants and mercenaries and inducted weapons and explosives into India. Hizb-ul-Mujahideen
(HUM), Lashker-e-Toiba (LET) and Jammu and Kashmir Islamic Front have expanded their
operations to Delhi, Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P., Haryana and Punjab.
ISI agents have also cultivated transborder operators and couriers for smuggling of arms and
explosives via Punjab, J & K, Rajasthan and Gujarat. It has also established espionage networks in
different parts of the country. After Punjab and J&K, it has now intensified its activities in the North
East exploiting local insurgencies. In the North East, the Siliguri corridor with its porous borders
along Bangladesh and Nepal has become a major conduit for ISI subversive activities. The
mushrooming of madarsas along the Indo Nepal and Indo Bangladesh borders is a design
contrived by ISI.
Instigated by the ISI, and spurred by domestic factors, there has been a steady increase in the
growth of pan-Islamic militant outfits which have been preaching fundamentalism and spreading
subversion and violence. Over the years, the reach of these networks has spread to areas in Central
and South India. The Muslim pockets have become the breeding ground for mafia, smugglers, gun
running, hawala transactions. narco-trafficking, influx of fake Indian currency and terrorist activities.
There is direct link between drug trafficking and terrorism. The Golden Crescent is a major
source of heroine and hashish for the West, which is smuggled through the Indo-Pak border. The ISI
has been using these established channels for smuggling of arms and explosives, which has provided
terrorism greater teeth.
The Golden triangle produces over 1000 tons of opium which is refined into very high grade
heroin. Very little of it is seized in the North East due to ineffective surveillance and enforcement. A
clear indicator of the likely illegal narcotic trade in the North East is the high incidence of drug
addiction and abuse in Manipur, Mizoram, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
China had, at one stage, provided shelter and support to ethnic-separatist militancy in
the north-east. Chinese resorted to giving financial aid, arms and sanctuaries to Naga, Mizo and
Meitei extremists.
Various militant groups operating in Indias northeast have often found safe haven and
operational bases in Bangladesh. Illegal immigration from Bangladesh has led to a demographic
upheaval and generated serious communal, political, social and economic tensions and conflicts in
several areas of the North East region. Bangladesh immigrants are a source of communal and ethnic
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tension. Their transgression into land and providing cheap labour is a cause of social and economic
insecurity for local communities and a cause of tension and violence. The problem is not only
increasing but getting more complex. We need to tighten our immigration controls and there is need
for evolving an immigration policy and establishing a set up similar to the Immigration and
Naturalisation Service on the lines that exist in USA.
Left-Wing extremist groups, specially the Peoples War Group and the Maoist Communist
Centre, have been continuing to enlarge their violent activities which have progressively spread to
cover vast tribal areas in several States. The linkages between the Maoists in Nepal and those in the
bordering states in India remain a cause for major concern.
The external forces in conjunction with internal forces of dissent will endeavour to exacerbate
our security problems. Threats due to terrorism, narcotics and drugs, small arms proliferation, voids in
energy requirement and information warfare loon large on the horizon. Maintenance of internal
security will thus be one of the biggest challenges facing the country.
Way ahead
Security is not a luxury and is not merely a function of the state; it is a way of life. We have a
paradoxical situation that both the state and the society are insecure. Our approach to security
management should be more holistic and sensitive to peoples feeling and to generate responses to
states efforts.
The political system needs readjustment and changes. People are no longer satisfied with
representation only; they also want participation and real empowerment. Local and minor issues
should not emotionally be blown up to become a major national issue. Religion must be an affair of
individual and the community and not to be a part of the political system or process.
The planning process for economic development should have clear orientation of
infrastructure creation at the national and central level and local orientation at the state and lower
levels. Employment generation should be part of economic planning, which will require reorientation
of education to science and technology, vocational training and community work.
Our responses to internal security challenges have generally been reactive and confined to law
and order dimensions only. The policy parameters should extend beyond the security (Law and
Order) spectrum to embrace political and socio-economic dimensions of each of the problems in a
holistic fashion, aiming to alleviate people deprivation and creating a secure and healthy environment.
Failures of governance have promoted greater distrust and alienation among the neglected
communities. Failures of this kind arise from continuing mal-administration, unaccountability and
corruption. While good governance is a prime requirement everywhere, it becomes a key element
in a disturbed environment. Since the ultimate battle is for the hearts and minds of the people and
deprivation is the core, therefore major areas of concern for governance are provision of basic civic
amenities, Public Distribution System, health, communications and transportation, housing and
rehabilitation and restoration and functioning of the education system. The main concern should be to
establish the credibility and legitimacy of the state and its institutions.
There is need for a long term and professional assessment on employment of police and
intelligence forces as prevention of infiltration and to check transborder terrorism networks that have
a nexus with smugglers and insurgents is equally important as dealing with the internal elements.
Structural changes are required in decision making process, to ensure independent functioning of
law enforcement agencies and a holistic policy incorporating political, economic, and socio-cultural
and law and order aspects.
However the variety of internal security threats makes it essential that coping with those
threats cannot be left to be the sole responsibility of the state alone. It needs to involve all political
and religious entities, private security agencies, educationists, social workers and the civil society as a
whole to protect our nation. Prevention should be the primary objective, with effective detection and
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deterrent punishment (when prevention fails) as the backup. It is in the area of prevention that the
total involvement of the nation could be made most effective.
General Studies-III: Technology, Economic Development, Bio diversity, Environment, Security
and Disaster Management.
Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization of resources, growth, development
and employment.
Inclusive growth and issues arising from it.
Government Budgeting.
Major crops cropping patterns in various parts of the country, different types of irrigation and
irrigation systems storage, transport and marketing of agricultural produce and issues and related
constraints; e-technology in the aid of farmers
Issues related to direct and indirect farm subsidies and minimum support prices; Public
Distribution System- objectives, functioning, limitations, revamping; issues of buffer stocks and
food security; Technology missions; economics of animal-rearing.
Food processing and related industries in India- scope and significance, location, upstream and
downstream requirements, supply chain management.
Land reforms in India.
Effects of liberalization on the economy, changes in industrial policy and their effects on
industrial growth.
Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways etc.
Investment models.
Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life
Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing
new technology.
Awareness in the fields of IT, Space, Computers, robotics, nano-technology, bio-technology and
issues relating to intellectual property rights.
Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment
Disaster and disaster management.
Linkages between development and spread of extremism.
Role of external state and non-state actors in creating challenges to internal security.
Challenges to internal security through communication networks, role of media and social
networking sites in internal security challenges, basics of cyber security; money-laundering and
its prevention
Security challenges and their management in border areas; linkages of organized crime with
terrorism
Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate
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*HQHUDO6WXGLHV,9(WKLFV,QWHJULW\DQG$SWLWXGH
Raja sir, Joining Cracking IAS

for General Studies Mains
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Contributions of moral thinkers and
philosophers from India and world
PLATO
Plato- the disciple of Socrates and the
teacher of Aristotle adopted the method of
dialogues and lectures to propound his
philosophy. He was born in a noble Athenian
Family. The execution of Socrates filled his heart
with scorn for democracy and mob. He left his
native state and spent most of the time paying
visits to Greece, Egypt and Italy. He returned to
Athens in 386 B.C. and set up an academy which
is often
ften described as the first university of the
ancient world.
Works of Plato
The Republic 386 B.C.; The Statesman 360
B.C.; The Laws 347 B.C.
The Apology and Crito, The Meno
The Protagoras and Gorgias
His
Dialogues.
The greatest influence on Plato was
exercised by his teacher Socrates. He accepted
three doctrines enunciated by Socrates viz.
Virtue is knowledge Good involves
knowledge as in the ability to make, use and
choose good things and actions. Without
knowledge it is impossible to fulfill
f
our desires
and make us happy. Things for Socrates are
neither good nor evil. It is only because of
knowledge or lack of it that makes them either.
On this basis Plato built up his concept of Rule
of philosopher king.
Socrates' idea is that
Theory of Reality - Socrates's
reality is unavailable to those who use their
senses. Socrates says in the Republic that
people who take the sun-lit
lit world of the senses
to be good and real are living pitifully in a den
of evil and ignorance. Socrates admits that few
climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance.

Summing up Beauty could exist without a
beautiful
thing
(i.e.
its
outward
manifestation.). Plato thinks of an ideal state
based on this.
Theory of Knowledge - The acquisition of
knowledge is valuable for man because it
makes him virtuous and happy. Socrates
repudiated any ornamental theory of
knowledge. In similar fashion Socrates would
deplore the use of knowledge merely for
material success in life. Knowledge is ethically
and morally important for all men. Each man
must develop his skill in critically appraising
propositions through the reasoning process.
The Republic or Concerning Justice is the
greatest work of Plato and represents his thought
fully. Plato took Organic view of the state and
found no conflict betweenn the ends of the state
and those of the individual.
THE IDEAL STATE
Plato's educational ideas derived in part
from his conception of justice, both for
individuals and for the ideal state. He viewed
individuals as mutually dependent for their
survival and well-being,
being, and he proposed that
justice in the ideal state was congruent with
justice in the individual's soul.
soul
Plato's ideal state was a republic with
three categories of citizens: artisans, auxiliaries,
and philosopher-kings,, each of whom possessed
distinct
tinct natures and capacities. Those proclivities,
moreover, reflected a particular combination of
elements within one's tripartite soul, composed of
appetite, spirit & reason.. Artisans, for example,
were dominated by their appetites or desires, and
therefore
re destined to produce material goods.
Auxiliaries, a class of guardians, were ruled by
spirit in their souls and possessed the courage
necessary to protect the state from invasion.
Philosopher-kings,
kings, the leaders of the ideal
state, had souls in which reason
rea
reigned over
spirit and appetite, and as a result possessed the
foresight and knowledge to rule wisely. In Plato's
view, these rulers were not merely elite
intellectuals, but moral leaders. In the just state,
state
each class of citizen had a distinct duty to
t remain
faithful to its determined nature and engage solely
in its destined occupation. The proper
management of one's soul would yield immediate
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happiness and well-being, and specific
educational methods would cultivate this brand of
spiritual and civic harmony.
CONCEPT OF JUSTICE
Justice resides both in the individual as well as
the society. Like human mind, the state has three
ingredients namely Reason, Spirit and Appetite,
which are represented by the rulers, soldiers and
farmers respectively. Human beings (like gold,
silver, and bronze) possess different natures that
fit each of them to a particular function within the
operation of the society as a whole.
1. Justice with reference to the individual implies
harmonious operation of each part of the
individual (i.e.) Reason, Spirit and Appetite.
This makes the individual virtuous and social.
2. Plato maintained that the proper functions
performed by its disparate classes, working
together for the common good, provide a ready
account of the need to develop significant social
qualities or virtues.
Since the rulers are responsible for making
decisions according to which the entire city
will be governed, they must have the virtue of
wisdom, the capacity to comprehend reality
and to make impartial judgments about it.
Soldiers charged with the defense of the city
against external and internal enemies, on the
other hand, need the virtue of courage, the
willingness to carry out their orders in the face
of danger without regard for personal risk.
The rest of the people in the city must follow
its leaders instead of pursuing their private
interests, so they must exhibit the virtue of
moderation, the subordination of personal
desires to a higher purpose.
When each of these classes performs its own
role appropriately and does not try to take over
the function of any other class, Plato held, the
entire city as a whole will operate smoothly,
exhibiting the harmony that is genuine justice.
Thus justice implies a sort of Functional
Specialization, and the principle of
interference and harmony.
In the "Phaedrus", Plato presents the
tri-partite nature of the human soul with the
image of a charioteer (reason) trying to control
two horses pulling in opposite directions - one
(the spirited element) is good, needing no touch
of the whip, ever obeying the voice of reason;
the other (bodily appetites) needs constant

control to prevent it from plunging all three off
the road.
A SOCIETY REFLECTING THE
SOUL
A city, says Plato, is man "writ large
against the sky". The classes of Plato's ideal
society correspond to the elements of the
individual soul. Plato conceives of the soul as
having three driving forces - reason, the spirited
element, and bodily appetites. An individual
person is just when all the elements of the soul
(reason, the spirited element, and bodily
appetites) function properly in harmony and due
subordination of the lower to the higher.
Plato asserts that there will be no
difference between a just man and a just society
and in the same way that a society is just when
each of the three types of human character
performs its own function, the individual will be
a just person, which is synonymous with
fulfilling his function, only if the three parts of
his soul or nature fulfill theirs. These three parts,
the rational, the spirited element, and the
appetite, correspond to the Ruler, the Guardian,
and the tradesman respectively. The soul,
mirroring the city, will be a unity and enjoy
justice when each part exercises its proper
function of ruling or being ruled. Thus, Reason
must rule with wisdom, Spirit will employ
courage and do battle for Reason and
temperance and justice will result. Plato pointed
out that states are not made "of oak and rock,"
but of men, and as the men are, so will the states
be.
Criticism
1) No legal sanction
2) Three fold class division is not possible in
practice
3) Subordination of Individual to the State
4) Ignores the humanitarian principles like
equality, freedom and individualism.
Significance
Platos concept of justice belongs not to
the sphere of legality, but to that of Social
morality. Plato considered justice as the root of
well-ordered society.
ETHICS IN GOOD GOVERNANCE
Ethics in Governance essentially refers
to customary values and rules of conduct in
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public administration. Selflessness, integrity,
objectivity, accountability, openness, honesty,
leadership were the seven principles of public
life identified by the Lord Nolan Committee in
UK. Openness and accountability are essentially
procedural in nature and procedures can be
devised to ensure openness and accountability.
Objectivity and leadership are performance
related. The biggest challenge, however, is to
make our public servants act with integrity,
honesty and selflessness. These are the attributes
solely ethical in nature and therefore pose
difficulty in setting measurable standards for
them.
The issue of ethics in public life has been
rightly remarked by Justice Verma in the Vineet
Narain judgment wherein he very aptly
observed holders of public office are entrusted
with powers to be exercised in public interest
alone, and therefore, the office is held by them in
trust for the people. Any deviation from the path
of rectitude by any of them amounts to a breach
of trust and must be severely dealt with instead of
being pushed under the carpet.
Anticipating perhaps the crisis of ethics
that lay in the future, Mahatma Gandhi, the
father of the nation, warned us against Seven
Deadly Sins: Wealth without work, pleasure
without conscience, science without humanity,
knowledge without character, politics without
principle, commerce without morality, worship
without sacrifice.
None can disagree that for our survival as
an independent, democratic and prosperous
society, it is essential that we as a people and all
of us in government must maintain the highest
ethical standards. The challenge, however, is
ensuring that ethical values are followed and
applied in our daily lives, and in particular, in the
matter of governance. This is a challenge faced
today not only by India but by the whole world.
While on one hand, the world is witnessing many
positive developments of great promise, on the
other, greed, selfishness, materialism and

dishonesty are threatening our social fabric.
In our society, corruption and abuse of
office has been aggravated by three factors. First,
there is a colonial legacy of unchallenged
authority and propensity to exercise power
arbitrarily. In a society which worships power, it
is easy for public officials to deviate from ethical
conduct. Second, there is enormous asymmetry
of power in our society. Nearly 90% of our
people are in the unorganized sector. Quite a
number of them lead a precarious existence,
depending on subsistence wages with no job
security. And nearly 70% of the organized
workers with job security and regular monthly
wage are employed by the state directly or
through public sector undertakings. Almost all
these employees are educated in a largely
illiterate
and
semiliterate
society
and
economically even the lowliest of public servants
are better off than most people in the country.
What is more, their employment in
government comes with all the trappings of
power. Such asymmetry of power reduces
societal pressure to conform to ethical behaviour
and makes it easy to indulge in corruption. Third,
as a conscious choice, the Indian state in the
early decades after Independence chose a set of
policies whose unintended consequence was to
put the citizen at the mercy of the State. Over
regulation, severe restrictions on economic
activity, excessive state control, near-monopoly
of the government in many sectors and an
economy of scarcity all created conditions
conducive to unbridled corruption. In addition,
many state subsidies and beneficiary-oriented
programmes in a situation of asymmetry of power
converted the public servant into patron and
master and reduced most citizens into
mendicants. This at once enhanced opportunities
to indulge in corruption and reduced the citizens
capacity to resist extortionary demands.
A factor which increases corruption is
over-centralization. The more remotely power is
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exercised from the people; the greater is the
distance between authority and accountability.
The large number of functionaries between the
citizen and final decision-makers makes
accountability diffused and the temptation to
abuse authority strong. The net results are
weakened citizenry and mounting corruption.
Corruption is not a recent phenomenon. It has
been with us through several centuries. Even at
the time Kautilya wrote Arthasastra, commenting
on the political economy of the Maurya era, he
had said, Just as it is not possible not to taste
honey or poison placed on the surface of the
tongue, even so it is not possible for one dealing
with the money of the king not to taste the money
in however small a quantity.
The fact remains that the costs and
consequences of corruption have been
debilitating. The state and a system of laws exist
in order to enforce compliance and promote
desirable behaviour. Therefore, enforcement of
rule of law and deterrent punishment against
corruption are critical to build an ethically sound
society.
Perhaps the most important determinant
of the integrity of a society or the prevalence of
corruption is the quality of politics. If politics
attracts and rewards men and women of integrity,
competence and passion for public good, then the
society is safe and integrity is maintained. But if
honesty is incompatible with survival in politics,
and if public life attracts undesirable and corrupt
elements seeking private gain, then abuse of
authority and corruption become the norm. In
such a political culture and climate, desirable
initiatives will not yield adequate dividends.
Competition and decentralization certainly reduce
corruption in certain sectors. But if the demand
for corruption is fuelled by inexhaustible appetite
for illegitimate funds in politics, then other
avenues of corruption will be forcibly opened up.
As a result, even as corruption declines in certain
areas, it shifts to other, sometimes more
dangerous, areas in which competition cannot be
introduced and the state exercises a natural

monopoly. What is needed with liberalization is
corresponding political and governance reform to
alter the incentives in politics and public office
and to promote integrity and ethical conduct.
In a vast majority of cases of bribery, the citizen
is a victim of extortion and is compelled to pay a
bribe in order to get a service to which he is
entitled. Experience has taught most citizens that
there is a vicious cycle of corruption operating
and they often end up losing much more by
resisting corruption. Delays, harassment, lost
opportunity, loss of precious time and wages,
uncertainty and, at times, potential danger of loss
of life or limb could result from resistance to
corruption and non-compliance with demands. In
such cases, the citizen is an unwilling victim of
coercive corruption. But there are several cases of
collusion between the bribe giver and corrupt
public servant. In such cases of collusive
corruption, both parties benefit at immense cost to
society. Awarding of contracts for public works
and procurement of goods and services,
recruitment of employees, evasion of taxes,
substandard projects, collusive violation of
regulations, adulteration of foods and drugs,
obstruction of justice and concealing or doctoring
evidence in investigation are all examples of such
dangerous forms of corruption. As the economy is
freed from state controls, extortionary corruption
declines and collusive corruption tends to
increase.
All forms of corruption are reprehensible
and we need to promote a culture of zerotolerance of corruption. But some forms of
corruption are much more pernicious than others
and deserve closer attention. We need to fashion
strong and effective instruments to deal with this
growing menace of collusive corruption, which is
undermining the very foundations of our
democracy and endangering society.
In India, some recent anti-corruption
initiatives are steps in the right direction. The
Supreme Court has ruled that candidates
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contesting elections should file details regarding
their wealth, educational qualifications and
criminal antecedents along with their nomination
papers. The Right to Information Act is a potent
weapon to fight corruption. The introduction of
information communication technologies, egovernance initiatives and automation of
corruption prone processes in administration have
succeeded in reducing corruption.
Much more remains to be done however,
and beyond the realm of existing regulation. The
escalating levels of corruption in various
segments of our economy resulting in large-scale
generation of black money, serious economic
offences and fraud (For instance Satyam
Imbroglio in the recent past), and money
laundering leading even to the funding of terrorist
activities against the State, have created a grave
situation which needs to be dealt with severely.
Benami properties of corrupt public servants need
to be forfeited, as also the assets illegally
acquired from corrupt practices. Whistleblower
legislation has to be put in place to protect
informants against retribution. Also, we have to
suitably strengthen the institutional framework
for investigating corrupt practices and awarding
exemplary punishment to the corrupt thereby
raising the risk associated with corrupt behaviour.
Ethics in governance, however, has a much wider
import than what happens in the different arms of
the government.
An across-the-board effort is needed to
fight deviations from ethical norms. Such an
effort needs to include corporate ethics and ethics
in business; in fact, there should be a paradigm
shift from the pejorative business ethics to
ethics in business. There is need for ethics in
every profession, voluntary organization and civil
society structure as these entities are now vitally
involved in the process of governance. Finally,
there should be ethics in citizen behaviour
because such behaviour impinges directly on
ethics in government and administration.

The crux of ethical behaviour does not lie
in bold words and expressions enshrined as
standards, but in their adoption in action, in
sanctions against their violations, in putting in
place competent disciplinary bodies to investigate
allegations of violations and impose sanctions
quickly and in promoting a culture of integrity.
General Studies- IV: Ethics, Integrity, and
Aptitude
This paper will include questions to test the
candidates attitude and approach to issues
relating to integrity, probity in public life and his
problem solving approach to various issues and
conflicts faced by him in dealing with society.
Questions may utilise the case study approach to
determine these aspects. The following broad
areas will be covered.
Ethics and Human Interface: Essence,
determinants and consequences of Ethics in
human actions; dimensions of ethics; ethics in
private and public relationships. Human
Values lessons from the lives and teachings
of
great
leaders,
reformers
and
administrators; role of family, society and
educational institutions in inculcating values.
Attitude: content, structure, function; its
influence and relation with thought and
behaviour; moral and political attitudes;
social influence and persuasion. Aptitude
and foundational values for Civil Service ,
integrity, impartiality and non-partisanship,
objectivity, dedication to public service,
empathy, tolerance and compassion towards
the weakersections.
Emotional intelligence-concepts, and their
utilities and application in administration and
governance.
Contributions of moral thinkers and
philosophers from India and world.
Public/Civil service values and Ethics in
Public administration: Status and problems;
ethical concerns and dilemmas in government
and private institutions; laws, rules,
regulations and conscience as sources of
ethical guidance; accountability and ethical
governance; strengthening of ethical and
moral values in governance; ethical issues in
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QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (ANTI-WHITE FURY)

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