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150
Rizzo et al:
one and only one superior. Such an arrangement is intended to ensure systematic and
consistent reporting, evaluation, and control
of the work of the subordinate. This prevents
the allocating of time and effort according
to individual preferences, rather than according to the demands of the task, or the directions of superiors. Subordinates cannot play
one superior against another, and thus prevent accurate evaluation of performance by
ambiguous or misleading reporting of performance and allocation of time.
Role theory states that, when the behaviors
expected of an individual are inconsistentone kind of role conflict-he will experience
stress, become dissatisfied, and perform less
effectively than if the expectations imposed
on him did not conflict. Role conflict can
therefore be seen as resulting from violation
of the two classical principles and causing
decreased individual satisfaction and decreased organizational effectiveness.
Both classical organization theory and role
theory deal with role ambiguity. According
to classical theory, every position in a formal
organizational structure should have a specified set of tasks or position responsibilities.
Such specification of duties, or formal definition of role requirements, is intended to
allow management to hold subordinates accountable for specific performance and to
provide guidance and direction for subordinates. If an employee does not know what
he has the authority to decide, what he is
expected to accomplish, and how he will be
judged, he will hesitate to make decisions
and will have to rely on a trial and error
approach in meeting the expectations of his
superior.
Role theory likewise states (Kahn et al.,
1964) that'role ambiguity-lack of the necessary information available to a given organizational position-will result in coping
behavior by the role incumbent, which may
take the form of attempts to solve the problem to avoid the sources of stress, or to use
defense mechanisms which distort the reality
of the situation. Thus, according to role
theory, ambiguity should increase the probability that a person will be dissatisfied with
his role, will experience anxiety, will distort
reality, and will thus perform less effectively.
151
Previous Research
Relation of unity of command to member
satisfaction and performance. Are organizations with a clear and single flow of authority from the top to the bottom less characterized by role conflict among their members
and more satisfying for their members; and
do such organizations enjoy more effective
and economic performance and goal achievement than organizations without a single
clear flow of authority? Although not much
research has been conducted to compare the
relative effectiveness of organizations that
violate the chain-of-command principle and
those that observe it, one can draw inferences from the experience of organizations
that have more than one flow of authority.
Professional organizations frequently exhibit violations of the chain-of-command
principle. As Blau and Scott (1962) pointed
out, two sources of authority exist when organizational discipline is based not only on
position power-supported by formal sanctions, and derived from the legal contract
governing employment of the organizational
member and the formal sanctions vested in
the superior's position-but also on professional expertise which is enforced by collegial authority. Several studies have shown
that (1) multiple authority disrupts the individual's orientation to his organization or
to his profession by requiring him to choose
between the two (Kaplan, 1959; Etzioni,
1959; La Porte, 1965; Evans, 1962; Reissman, 1949; Gouldner, 1958a; 1958b); (2)
individuals oriented primarily toward their
professional norms are more critical of the
organization and more likely to ignore administrative details (Blau and Scott, 1962);
and (3) professionals in such organizations
frequently experience stress as result of being caught in the middle (Kaplan, 1959; La
Porte, 1965; Evans, 1962).
These findings are reinforced by research
conducted in a completely different kind of
organization setting, namely hospitals. Concerning hospital hierarchies, Perrow (1965:
957) stated:
The differences between hospitals and most or.
ganizations are obvious, and a basic one that
researchershave focused upon is a system of
multiple authority or multiple subordination.
152
Specifically, the reference is to the administrative and medical hierarchies,with nurses as the
prime example of groups who are caught between the two lines of authority.Anothertheme,
again concerning the anomalousposition of the
doctor, is the way the doctor appearsto be both
a staff member (providing a specialized skill
that is required outside the organization) and a
member of the "line" (doing the productive effort). Finally, there is the anomalous position
of the doctor as a "guest"in the house, bringing
in his own patients and using the facilities but
not being a bona fide member of the organization in the usual sense of being reimbursedby
it and subject to its authority;yet also being a
member in that he exercises control, serves in
a bureaucraticrole, and to some degree has his
own interests tied to the interest of the hospital.
Such deviations from the Weberian (classical)
model of bureaucracy . . . . have fascinated
social scientists.
party organization and from workers' committees. Frank's study indicated that the
manager responded by (1) providing for
safety factors, (2) simulating the meeting
of standards, and (3) using personal influence to obtain favors and concessions.
Phelen (1960) used Frank's hypothesis
about ambiguity of goals and conflicting
standards in a historical analysis of the
Spanish colonial bureaucracy. He concluded
that his findings and Frank's suggested that
in the presence of multiple and conflicting
standards whose relative importance is undefined, subordinates must determine the
priority of accomplishment. They select those
standards most in accord with their own incentives and those most likely to be used by
superiors in evaluating them. Thus, multiple
standards allowed a wide range of discretion
to subordinates. Kahn et al. (1964) found
Zawacki (1963) found that role conflict re- that persons reporting role conflict stated
sults from the dual hierarchy of hospitals that their trust in the persons who imposed
and that those affected respond with hostility the pressure was reduced, they liked them
to physicians and passive resistance to formal less personally, they held them in lower esrules. Ben-David (1958) reported that phy- teem, they communicated less with them,
sicians who became members of a govern- and that their own effectiveness was dement public health insurance system felt creased.
dissatisfied, exploited, and experienced a loss
Woodward's (1965) findings were not enof professional independence because of con- tirely consistent with the findings reported
flict with the organization.
by others. She found consistent adherence
Thus, the evidence indicates that multiple to the principle of unity of command only
lines of authority are accompanied by role in large batch and mass production firms;
conflict and dissatisfaction for the members adherence to the principle was not widely
and loss of organizational efficiency and ef- practiced in firms with greater or less techfectiveness. However, these dysfunctions ap- nological complexity. Successful multiple
pear to be necessary concommitants and command was found only in technically adcosts of providing professional control over vanced process firms where the design or
the technical aspects of the organization's mechanism for the coordination of work is
activities.
intrinsic in the process itself. Furthermore
Do violations of the principle of unity of she found successful multiple-command recommand result more in role conflict and lationships in a case analysis of two organidecreased satisfaction for recipients of com- zations. In one, 30 supervisors-all of whom
mands and in decreased organizational ef-- had had experience working under a single
fectiveness? There are a few studies that superior at some time in their careers-reexamine applications or violations of the ported to and received direction from 5 exprinciple of unity of command. On the basis ecutives; yet 28 of them said that close
of case analysis, both Frank (1958) and association with the 5 supervisors meant that
Ditz (1959) found that the Communist fac- they knew everything that was going on in
tory manager was subject to performance the firm and any development contemplated.
expectations not only from the rational In the second firm, two-thirds of those interclaims of his functional role-the rule of his viewed said that on the whole they thought
superiors and the implicit rule of the market the organization worked well. First-hand ob-but also from the political hierarchy of the servation by Woodward's researchers led to
Rizzo et al:
153
154
Rizzo et al:
155
ADMINISTRATIVE
156
TABLE
1.
SCIENCE QUARTERLY
QUESTIONNAIRE
ITEMS
Factor
loadings
.30
Item
number
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
Items 10
Role
conflict
Statement
Role
ambiguity
.51
.42
.60
.43
.31
.60
.62
.56
.61
.54
.36
-.35
.34
.32
.59
.43
.61
.56
.41
.52
.35
.52
.59
.39
.30
Rizzo et al:
Satisfaction: the degree to which the satisfaction condition described in the item is
perceived to exist or be fulfilled (7-point
scale).
Leadership: the frequency with which the
respondent perceives his boss engaging in
given behaviors (Ohio State University
Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire,
5-point scale).
Organization: the degree of which certain
organizational or management practices are
perceived to exist (7-point scale).
Anxiety: true-false description of existence
of physical symptoms, feelings of pressure or
stress, both general and job induced. (Part
of the items were drawn from the Taylor
Manifest Anxiety Scale).
Demographic: age, education, tenure,
organization level.
Propensity to leave: the plans for and conditions under which the respondent would
leave the organization, each ranging from
low to high propensity to leave.
57
Sample
The questionnaire was administered to a
35 percent random sample of the central
offices and main plant of the firm and to a
100 percent sample of the research and
engineering division. All respondents were
salaried managerial and technical employees,
excluding salesmen, first level foremen, and
clerical personnel. The total number of respondents were treated as two samples.
Sample A (N = 199) represents a 35 percent sample of central office and main plant
personnel plus 35 percent of the respondents,
the total universe, of the research and engineering division. Thus sample A consists
of a 35 percent random sample of salaried
employees of the total organization with exceptions previously noted. Sample B (N =
91) represents the remaining 65 percent of
the research and engineering personnel who
completed the questionnaire but were not
randomly placed in sample A. The samples
were divided in the above manner to permit
a representative sampling of the entire firm
and to permit maximum sampling of the research and engineering division. Approximately 70 percent of both samples were between the ages of 25-50 years; 93 percent
were married; and 65-70 percent were with
Factor Analysis
The responses to the role questionnaire
items were factor analyzed using an image
covariance method and rotated using a
varimax criterion (Kaiser, 1958a, 1958b) in
order to test relationships and structural relationships of the role conflict and ambiguity
definitions. Table 3 presents item means,
standard deviations, and the unrotated and
rotated factor structures. Two factors were
extracted which account for 56 percent of
the common variance of the 30-item set.
Factor I was named role conflict because
it primarily reflected items drawn from the
role conflict definition. Items loading .30, or
greater are shown in Table 1. Of the 15 role
conflict items, 9 are represented with loadings greater than or equal to .30. Among the
remaining 6 items, 3 items (7, 15, 29) loaded
primarily on factor II, role ambiguity, 2
items (1, 17) were complex lower-loading
items, and one item (3) loaded in the expected direction but with a low magnitude.
Five of these 6 items were from that part of
the role conflict definition representing
person-role or intrasender conflict. Four role
ambiguity items loaded on this factor (6, 14,
28, 30). They are drawn from both parts of
158
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160
ADMINISTRATIVE
TABLE
3.
SCIENCE QUARTERLY
ITEMS,
FOR SAMPLE
Factor loadings
Unrotated
Standard
deviation
Role
conflict
Role
ambiguity
Item
Mean
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Items 10 and
3.85
1.81
-.33
4.00
1.80
-.49
1.88
4.00
.08
-.30
3.95
1.70
.54
4.19
1.80
1.80
.49
4.12
4.46
1.72
-.19
2.87
1.61
.13
.53
3.60
1.93
1.48
-.27
4.16
.44
4.50
2.04
-.49
5.05
1.60
.43
3.66
1.98
4.33
.50
1.92
5.90
1.14
-.19
4.05
-.17
1.88
1.63
3.01
-.35
3.96
-.24
1.68
.33
4.70
2.06
4.20
1.67
-.53
3.88
2.04
.50
.33
3.01
1.88
.44
4.35
1.89
-.23
3.66
1.76
.45
4.24
1.82
3.92
1.58
-.38
.53
1.88
3.66
.61
3.76
1.77
4.52
1.58
-.25
.38
3.32
1.69
18 were identical; only item 10 was scored.
.08
.27
.18
.30
.29
.07
.24
.17
.29
.57
.34
.39
.33
-.05
.18
.29
.13
.56
.28
.36
.28
.03
.11
.14
.26
.15
.17
.19
.29
.00
Rotated
Role
conflict
Role
ambiguity
-.21
-.22
.17
-.05
.60*
.43
.00
.21
.60
.14
.56*
-.16
.54*
.36
-.04
.05
-.20
.15
.48*
-.20
.56*
.28
.41*
-.09
.52*
-.21
.52*
.59
-.02
.30
.26
.51*
.09
.42*
-.10
-.24
.31
.06
-.10
.62*
.00
.61*
.00
-.35
.26
.34
.32
.59
.02
.61*
-.08
-.17
-.18
.25
-.07
.35*
-.19
-.22
.39
-.23
Rizzo et al:
161
using several criteria. First, only items loading greater than or equal to .30 were considered. Second, complex items-those with
relatively high loadings on both factorswere excluded in order to achieve greater
independence of scores. Third, items were
then subjected to reliability analysis (KuderRichardson internal consistency reliabilities
with Spearman-Brown corrections), using an
interative technique which selected items
contributing to the reliability of the final
sets for each scale. Items selected for scoring-marked with an asterisk in Table 3were summed for each respondent and
divided by the number of items in the set.
Factor II items were reflected before scoring (response of 7 changed to 1, 6 to 2, etc.).
Reliabilities are reported in Table 2.
162
Rizzo et al:
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