SAChE Certificate Program:

Hazard Recognition
Author: Dennis Bernhard
Reviewer: Tom Degnan

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Part 3: Hazards related to the

physical conditions of the
materials or the process

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Hazards Related to Physical

Conditions
Hazards can occur even when the materials present
are relatively innocuous.
The conditions, such as temperature and pressure,
of the material or the containers (vessels) in which
a material is held can lead to hazards or make the
inherent hazards worse.
Most people would not consider water to be
inherently hazardous. However, in the right
circumstances, it can be very dangerous.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Hazards Related to Physical

Conditions

Consider the case of water in a boiler

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

A Modern Boiler

Picture Hurst Boiler & Welding Co., Inc.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Hazards of Boilers
In boilers, water is transformed into steam by the addition
of heat.
Furthermore, steam is almost always generated at high
pressure.
In any case, the pressure rises when water is transformed
into steam in a closed vessel.
If there is no way for the steam to escape, the vessel will
explode.
Corrosion or overheating can also cause a sudden rupture of
the boiler and an explosion.
In the 19th century and early 20th century, boiler explosions
were common occurrences. The frequency of boiler
explosions led the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) to create its Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

More Information on the

History of Boilers
There are many sources of information on the
internet for more information on the history of
boiler accidents, including:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grover_Shoe_Factory_dis
aster
https://www.asme.org/engineeringtopics/articles/boilers/the-history-of-asmes-boiler-andpressure
https://www.asme.org/engineeringtopics/articles/boilers/the-greatest-maritime-disasterin-u-s-history
https://www.asme.org/engineeringtopics/articles/boilers/the-true-harnessing-of-steam
https://www.asme.org/about-asme/engineering-history
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

An Early 20th Century Boiler

Explosion

The Grover
Shoe Factory
Explosion was a
Seminal Event
in the
Development of
the ASME Boiler
and Pressure
Vessel Code
Taken from History of the Brockton Relief Fund by Albert F.
Pierce, March , 1905.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Hazards of Boilers
The point is that boilers contain a fluid (water)
which is non-toxic, non-flammable, and under most
circumstances non-reactive.
Nevertheless, the pressure within a boiler is
sufficient to initiate an explosion.
It is the conditions inside the boiler, not the
inherent properties of water, that make it a
potential hazard.
It is worth noting that steam systems and boilers
are quite common in chemical facilities, so it is
probable that chemical engineers will encounter
them in the course of their careers.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Hazards Related to Physical

Conditions

It is not unusual for physical conditions to be

the cause of a release of inherently hazardous
materials

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case Gas

Processing Facility
In 1998, a major explosion and fire occurred at a
gas processing facility in Victoria, Australia that
separated methane from Liquefied Petroleum Gas
(LPG).
While the materials (hydrocarbons) present in this
process are inherently hazardous because they are
flammable, it was actually the conditions in the
process that initiated the release of a large quantity
of hydrocarbons.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case Gas

Processing Facility
The exact sequence of events that led to the
accident is complicated, but the result was that the
temperature in one of the pieces of equipment (a
heat exchanger) in the process dropped to -48 C.
Normal carbon steel is susceptible to brittle
fracture (the type of failure that occurs when a
banana is frozen in liquid nitrogen and then
smashed on a table) at temperatures below about
-29 C.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case Gas

Processing Facility
Warm lean oil was
introduced into the
heat exchanger that
was cold; the lean
oil was much hotter
than the heat
exchanger itself.
The large
temperature
difference between
the hot lean oil and
the metal in the heat
exchanger created
enough stress to
cause a brittle
fracture.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case Gas

Processing Facility
Rupture of the heat exchanger led to the release of
large quantities of flammable vapor, leading to a
subsequent fire and a series of explosions.
The fire burned for two days.
Two employees were killed. Eight were injured.
The plant was destroyed, and two nearby plants at
the same site were damaged.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Esso
Longford
Facility after
the
explosion

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case Gas

Processing Facility
It would be a mistake to point to temperature as
the sole cause of this accident.
Accidents generally involve multiple failures.
Nevertheless, physical conditions - the
temperatures of the heat exchanger and the fluids
flowing though it - played a critical role in initiating
the release of flammable materials.
The flammable nature of the materials present only
became relevant after the heat exchanger ruptured
and allowed them to escape.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case Gas

Processing Facility
A complete report on the accident entitled The
Esso Longford Gas Plant Accident was published by
the state of Victoria, Australia.
A summary also appears in the Process Safety
Beacon Cold Embrittlement located in the
resources tab on the top right hand corner of the
slide.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Hazards Related to Physical

Conditions Other Examples

There are examples of physical conditions

other than temperature or pressure that led
to catastrophic events

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Other Examples Hydraulic

Shock
Hydraulic shock can occurs where is a rapid change of
velocity and momentum of the liquid flowing through
piping. It is sometimes referred to as water hammer.
If you have ever closed a water faucet rapidly and heard the
water pipes make a knocking sound, youve experienced
one form of hydraulic shock.
In August 2010 hydraulic shock of piping led to the release
of 15,000 kg (32,000 lbs) of anhydrous ammonia at a facility
which used ammonia as a refrigerant.
See the CSB Report on the Millard Refrigerated Services
Ammonia Release for more information on this event.
The important point for now is that it wasnt the properties
of ammonia that caused the release.
Instead a physical phenomenon was the cause.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Other Examples Hydraulic

Shock
A pipe broken
as a result of
hydraulic
shock at
Millard
Refrigerated
Services, Inc. in
August 2010.

Taken from CSB Report Key Lessons for Preventing Hydraulic Shock
in Industrial Refrigeration Systems: Anhydrous Ammonia Release at Millard
Refrigerated Services, Inc., January 2015.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Other Examples Dust

Explosions
It is not unusual for combustible dusts to ignite and explode
In this case it is the fact that the material is present as a fine
powder or dust dispersed in air which renders it susceptible
to an explosion.
Common combustible materials, which seem innocuous, can
be dangerous when they are finely divided and dispersed in
air.
Grain silos have exploded because they contain grain dust
suspended in air
Similar events can occur in industrial operations where
combustible dusts are handled
For some examples, see the CSB reports on the Imperial
Sugar Company Dust Explosion and Fire and the AL Solutions
Fatal Dust Explosion
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Other Examples Dust

Explosions
The
Imperial
Sugar
Company
facility
after a dust
explosion
on
February 7,
2008.
Taken from CSB Report Investigation Report Sugar Dust Explosion and
Fire, September 2009.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Summary Hazards Related

to Physical Conditions
Physical conditions can result in hazards, even
when the materials present in a process are inert.
Hazards related to physical conditions are just as
important to recognize as hazards inherent to a
material because physical conditions can start a
chain of events that leads to a release of a
hazardous material.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Part 4: Hazards that are

associated with the size of the
system

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Hazards Resulting from the

Size of a System
For far we have looked at hazards that are
inherent properties of the materials used or
manufactured in the process, or
related to the physical conditions of the
materials or the process.
The size of a system is also important.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Hazards Resulting from the

Size of a System
The size (or scale) of a system affects the extent of
hazards associated with it. It can
create a hazard that would otherwise not exist, or
worsen an existing hazard.

The release of a large quantity of a material

contained within a process is generally more severe
than the release of a small quantity.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Hazards Resulting from the

Size of a System
One way to understand hazards resulting from the
size of a system is to compare the sizes and impacts
of items and materials you might find in an
ordinary home and similar items and materials you
might find in industry.
Of course, many items and materials used in
industry systems would never be present in an
ordinary home, and so a direct comparison is not
possible.
But some are.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case Ammonium

Nitrate
Ammonium nitrate is commonly used as a fertilizer on farms, and
it may be present in small quantities in an ordinary home.
Most people would hardly consider a bag of fertilizer to be
dangerous.
In fact, ammonium nitrate is quite safe at ambient temperature
and pressure.
It doesnt burn.
In small amounts, it is harmless.
But when it is heated in a confined space, it can decompose
rapidly and detonate.
Please see the link in the resources tab at the top right hand
corner of this slide for information on the Management of Solid
Ammonium Nitrate Prills.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case Ammonium

Nitrate
On April 17, 2013 a fire broke out in a fertilizer storage
and distribution facility in the town of West, Texas.
The facility stored large amounts of ammonium nitrate
for use as a fertilizer.
The fire caused approximately 27 tonnes (30 tons) of
ammonium nitrate to detonate.
The explosion led to extensive damage and destruction
in the town of West, Texas.
It also caused 15 fatalities and many more injuries.
Please see the resources tab for the CSB investigation
of the explosion.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case Ammonium

Nitrate
The site was
completely
destroyed.

From US Chemical Safety Board; West Explosion Photo by CSB

investigator Mark Wingard, who surveyed the site with a remotecontrolled aircraft.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case Ammonium

Nitrate
This video shows the extent of the damage to the
town.
Buildings near the site were destroyed, and the
middle school located 0.8 km (0.5 mile) away from
the explosion was heavily damaged.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case - Ammonium

Nitrate
The CSB noted that the use of combustible
materials at the site introduced the risk of a fire,
which could then trigger an ammonium nitrate
explosion.
Regardless of the reason for the fire and explosion,
one of the lessons is that the large volume of
ammonium nitrate stored at the facility created a
hazard that does not exist with an ordinary 10 or 20
kg bag of fertilizer.
In other words, the size of the system strongly
influences the extent of the hazard.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case - Ammonium

Nitrate
Note that there are many factors which can
contribute to an accident, and the cause was not
the amount of ammonium nitrate in storage.
Nevertheless, the amount of the ammonium
nitrate present affected the magnitude of the
disaster.
If a smaller amount had been present, it would
have affected a smaller area of the community.
And if the amount had been small enough, there
would have been no impact at all on the
community.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case - LPG

Another example of the impact of size involves
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
LPG is a fuel which is especially useful for cooking
and heating (and so it is naturally flammable).
It is used in both homes and industry.
Like other materials, it is stored in large quantities
at facilities where it is produced or at facilities that
distribute LPG to customers.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case - LPG

For example, a reasonable size for a Liquefied
Petroleum Gas (LPG) tank used for home heating
would be 1.9 m3 (1900 liters or 500 gallons).
By contrast the largest LPG tanks located at a
Mexico City LPG terminal which in 1984
experienced a fire and multiple explosions
contained 2,400 m3 of LPG.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case - LPG

The Mexico City facility had 6 spherical storage tanks
and 48 smaller horizontal cylindrical tanks.
On 19 November 1984 an LPG leak occurred at the
Mexico City terminal. The exact cause could not be
determined with certainty after the event because of
damage to the site.
In any case, the LPG leak continued for 5-10 minutes
and a cloud of LPG vapor estimated to be 200 m x 150
m x 2 m high formed.
The cloud ignited. The explosion knocked storage tanks
off their supports and ruptured piping, causing more
LPG to be released.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case - LPG

A burning
propane sphere.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case - LPG

A series of explosions which destroyed the site
followed.
In addition to destroying the facility, the fire and
explosions killed 600 people and injured 7000 others.
Most of the casualties were members of the public
living in surrounding communities.
Again, many factors contributed to this level of
destruction and loss of life, not just the amount of LPG.
At the same time, the level of destruction and loss of
life was related to the amount of LPG in storage (the
size of the system).
The consequence of an explosion involving the contents
of an LPG tank installed at a house would be very much
different.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case - LPG

The aftermath
of the fire and
explosion.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Example Case - LPG

It is possible to demonstrate the difference
between a release of 2400 m3 of LPG and a release
of 1.9 m3 of LPG (the amount that might be
present in a home LPG tank).
There are many assumptions in these calculations,
and these assumption do not necessarily apply to
the situation at the Mexico City terminal.
They are simply intended to illustrate the difference
between possible impacts of releasing a small
amount of LPG vs. a large amount.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case - LPG

A vapor cloud explosion involving 1.9 m3 (920 kg)
of LPG would break windows 0.2 km away. This is
the distance to a 1 psi overpressure.
A vapor cloud explosion involving 2400 m3
(290,000 kg) of LPG would break windows 1.8 km
away.
Outside these distances, people are unlikely to be
seriously injured.
So the explosion of a home LPG tank might cause
damage a few houses away.
The explosion of a large LPG tank, by contrast,
might damage or destroy entire communities.
Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard
Recognition

Example Case - LPG

A short summary of the event can be found in the
Process Safety Beacon LPG Tragedy located in the
resources tab.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition

Summary Hazards Resulting

from the Size of a System
The size of a system influences how hazardous it is.
Naturally, large systems can have a larger impact
than small systems.
The impact of a release of a hazardous material can
have a significant impact and can endanger not
only employees by members of the public.

Process Safety Level 1 - Unit 2 Hazard

Recognition