Prirodno-matematicki fakultet
Odsijek matematika
INDEPENDENCE OF PATH;
CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS
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Predmet:
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Predmetni profesor:
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1 INDEPENDENCE OF PATH; CONSERVATIVE VECTOR
FIELDS
1.1 Work Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Independence of Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Work Integrals . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Work Integrals Along Closed Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 A Test for Conservative Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Conservative Vector Fields in 3-Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Exercise Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
3
3
5
8
12
18
19
20
2 GREENS THEOREM
2.1 Greens Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 A Notation for Line Integrals Around Simple Closed Curves
2.3 Finding Work Using Greens Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Finding Areas Using Greens Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Greens Theorem for Multiply Connected Regions . . . . . .
2.6 Exercise Set 17.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
23
26
26
27
28
32
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3 SURFACE INTEGRALS
36
3.1 Definition of a Surface Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2 Evaluating Surface Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
In this section we will study properties of vector fields that relate to the work
they perform on particles moving along various curves. In particular, we will
show that for certain kinds of vector fields the work that the field performs on
a particle moving along a curve depends only on the endpoints of the curve
and not on the curve itself. Such vector fields are of special importance in
physics and engineering.
1.1
Work Integrals
or, equivalently,
Z
F dr
C
Z
F dr =
C
(2)
1.2
Independence of Path
The parametric curve C in a work integral is called the path of integration. One of the important problems in applications is to determine how the
path of integration affects the work performed by a vector field on a particle
that moves from a fixed point P to a fixed point Q. We will show shortly
that if the vector field F is conservative (i.e., is the gradient of some potential
3
function ), then the work that field performs on a particle that moves from
P to Q does not depend on the particular path C that the particle follows.
This is illustrated in the following example.
Example 1
The vector field F (x, y) = yi + xj is conservative since it is gradient of
(x, y) = xy (verify). Thus, the preceding discussion suggest that the work
performed by the field on a particle that moves from the point (0, 0) to the
point (0, 1) should be the same along different paths. Confirm that the value
of the work integral
Z
F dr
C
Z
F dr =
ydx + xdy
ZC1
2tdt = 1
0
(3)
0
0
Figure 17.3.1
x = t, y = t2 (0 t 1) Thus,
Z
Z
Z
ydx + xdy =
F dr =
3t2 dt = 1
1.3
4t3 dt = 1
The following results is the analog of that theorem for work in 2-space.
or, equivalently,
Z
dr = (x1 , y1 ) (xo , y0 )
(5)
Proof.
We will give the proof for a smart curve C. The proof for a
piecewise smooth curve, which is left as an exercise, can be obtained by applying the theorem to each individual smooth piece and adding the results.
Suppose that C is given parametrically by x = x(t)y = y(t)(a t b), so
that the initial and final points of the curve are (xo , y0 ) = (x(a), y(a)) and
(x1 , y1 ) = (x(b), y(b))
Since F (x, y) = , it follows that
F (x, y) =
i+
j
x
y
so
Z
dx +
dy
y
C x
Z b
dx dy
=
+
x dt
y dt
a
Z b
d
=
[(x(t), y(t))]dt = (x(t), y(t))]bt=a
a dt
= (x(b), y(b)) (x(a), y(a))
= (x1 , y1 ) (x0 , y0 )
F (x, y) dr =
c
(6)
Stated informally, this theorem shows that the value of a work integral
along a piecewise smooth path in a conservative vector field is independent
6
of the path; that is, the value of integral depends on the endpoints and
not on the actual pact C. Accordingly, for work integrals along paths in
conservative vector fields, it is common to express (3) and (4) as
Z
(x1 ,y1 )
(x1 ,y1 )
dr = ((x1 , y1 ) (x0 , y0 ))
F dr =
(7)
(x0 ,y0 )
(x0 ,y0 )
Example 2
(a) Confirm that the vector field F (x, y) = yi + xj in Example 1 is
conservative by showing that F (x, y) is the gradient of (x, y) = xy.
(b) Use the Fundamental Theorem of Work Integrals to evaluate
R 1,1
0,0
F dr
Solution (a).
i+
j = yi + xj
x
y
(1,1)
F dr = (1, 1) (0, 0) = 1 0 = 1
(0,0)
Wee see from this that the more closely the unit tangent vector T to
C aligns with F along C, the greater the integrand and hence the greater
value of integral. However, the length of the curve C also affects the value
of the integral. Thus, in comparing the three curves in Figure, we see that
the alignment of T with F is best for the line, but the line has the shortest
length. The alignment are not as good for y = x2 and y = x3 , but they have
greater lengths so compensate. Thus, it seems plausible that the integrals
have the same value.
1.4
Parametric curves that begin and end at the same point play an important
role in the study of vector fields, so there is some special terminology associated with them. A parametric curve C that is represented by the vectorvalued function r(t) for a t b is said to be closed if the initial point r(t)
coincide; that is, r(a)=r(b)(Figure 17.3.2)
y
r(a)=r(b)
Figure 17.3.2
It follows from (5) that is a particle moving in a conservative vector field
traverses a closed path C that begins and ends at (x0 , y0 ), then the work
performed by the field is zero. This is because the point (x1 , y1 ) in (5) is the
same as (x0 , y0 ) and hence
Z
F dr = (x1 , y1 ) (x0 , y0 ) = 0
C
Our next objective is to show that the converse of this result is also true.
That is, we want to show that under appropriate conditions a vecto field in
which the work is zero along all closed paths must be conservative. For this
to be true we will need to require that the domain D of the vector field be
connected, by which we mean that any two points in D can joined by some
piecewise of tho or more separate pieces (Figure 17.3.3).
Connected
Not connected
Figure 17.3.3
Theorem 1.2 If f(x,y) and g(x,y) are continuous on some open connected region D, then the following statements are equivalent (all true or all
false):
(a)
F (x, y) = f (x, y)i + g(x, y)j
is a conservative vector field on the region D. (b)
Z
f dr = 0
C
= f (x, y)and
= g(x, y)
x
y
(8)
Now choose a fixed point (a,b) in D, let (x,y) be any point in D, and
define
Z x,y
F dr
(9)
(x, y) =
a,b
Z
F dr +
(x, y) =
C1
(x1 ,y)
F dr =
C2
Z
F dr +
(a,b)
F dr
C2
Since the first term does not depend on x, its partial derivative with
respect to x is zero and hence
Z
Z
F dr =
f (x, y)dx + g(x, y)dy
=
=
x
x
x C2
C2
However, the line integral with respect to y is zero along the horizontal
line segment C2 so this equation simplifies to
Z
=
f (x, y)dx
(10)
x
x C2
To evaluate the integral in this expression, we treat y as a constant end
express the line C2 parametrically as
10
x = t, y = y(x1 t x)
At the risk of confusion, but to avoid complicating the notation, we have
used x both as dependent variable in the parametric equation of the line
segment. With the latter interpretation of x, it follows that (8) can be
expressed as
Z x
=
f (t, y)dt
x
x x1
Now we apply Part 2 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (theorem
7.6.3), treating y as constant. This yields
= f (x, y)
x
which approves the first part of (6). The proof that /y = g(x, y) can
be obtained in a similar manner by joining (x, y) to a point (x, y1 ) with a
vertical line segment(Exercise 33).
y
(x,y)
(x1,y)
C2
C1
(a,b)
Figure 17.3.4
11
1.5
r(a)=r(b)
r(b)
r(a)=r(b)
r(a)
Closed but
not simple
Simple but
not closed
Figure 17.3.5
12
Simple and
closed
Multiply connected
Simply connected
Figure 17.3.6
The following theorem is the primary tool for determining whether a
vector field in 2-space is conservative.
Theorem 1.3 (Conservative Field Test) .
If f(x,y) and g(x,y) are continuous and have continuous first partial
derivatives on some open simply connected region D, then F (x, y) =
f (x, y)i + g(x, y)j is a conservative vector field on D if and only if
g
f
=
y
x
(11)
at each point in D.
A complete proof of his theorem requires results from advanced calculus
and will be omitted. However, it is not hard to see why (9) must hold if F is
conservative. For this purpose suppose that F = , in which case we can
express the function f and g as
= f, and,
=g
x
y
(12)
Thus,
f
2
g
2
=
( )=
and
=
( )=
y
y x
yx
x
x y
xy
But the mixed partial derivatives in these equations are equal (Theorem
15.4.6), so(9) follows.
13
-2
-1
2
-2
-1
Figure 17.3.7
f
g
= 6xy 2 =
y
x
so (9) holds for all (x,y).
Solution(2). Since the field F is conservative, there is a potential function
such that
= 2xy 3 , and,
= 1 + 3x2 y 2
x
y
(13)
Z
k(y) =
k (y)dy =
1dy = y + K
1,4
J
REMARK. Note that the constant K drops out. In future integration
problems we will omit K from the computations.
Example 6
Let F (x, y) = ey i + xey j.
1. Verify that the vector field F is conservative on the entire xy-plane.
2. Find the work done by the field on a particle that moves from (1,0) to
(-1,0) along the semicircular path C shown in figure 17.3.8
Vector not to scale
0
-1
Figure 17.3.8
Solution (1). For the given field we have f (x, y) = ey and g(x, y) = xey .
Thus,
y
(e ) =
(xey )
y
x
so (9) holds for all (x,y) and hence F is conservative on the entire xy-plane.
Solution (2). From Formula (33) of Section 17.2, the work done by the
field is
Z
Z
W =
F dr =
ey dx + xey dy
(16)
C
= ey and
= xey
x
y
We will integrate the first. We obtain
Z
= ey dx = xey + k(y)
(18)
(19)
Differentiating this equation with respect to y and using the second equation in (16) yields
1.6
All of the results in this section have analogs in 3-space. Theorems 17.3.1
and 17.3.2 can extended to vector fields in 3-space simply by adding a third
variable and modifying the hypotheses appropriately. For example, in 3space, Formula (3) becomes
Z
F (x, y, z) dr = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) (x0 , y0 , z0 )
(20)
C
f
g f
h g
h
=
,
=
,
=
(21)
y
x z
x z
y
that is, curl F=0. Conversely, a vector field satisfying these conditions
on a suitably restricted region is conservative on that region if f,g, and h are
continuous and have continuous first partial derivatives in the region. Some
problems involving Formula (18) and (19) are given in the supplementary
exercises at the end of this chapter.
1.7
Conservation of Energy
W =
C
(22)
That is, the work done by the field is the negative of the change in potential energy. In particular, it follows from the 3-space analog Theorem 17.3.2
that if a particle traverses a piecewise smooth closed path in a conservative
vector field, then the work one by the field is zero, and there is no change
in potential energy. To take this a step further, suppose that a particle of
mass m moves along any piecewise smooth curve (no necessarily closed) in
a conservative vector field, starting at (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with velocity vi and ending
point at (x1 , y1 , z1 ) with velocity vf . If we let Vi denote the potential energy
at the starting point and Vf the potential energy at the final point, then it
follows from the Work-Energy Theorem (Theorem 8.6.4) that
1 2 1 2
mv mv = Vf Vi
2 f 2 i
which we can rewrite as
1 2
1
mvf + Vf = mvi2 + Vi
2
2
This equation states that the total energy of the particle (kinetic energy
+ potential energy) does not change as the particle moves along a path in
a conservative vector field. This result, called the conservation of energy
19
1.8
Exercise Set
Evaluate
the integral
R ,1
y sin xdx cos xdy
(0,1)
using Theorem 17.3.1,
and confirm that the value is the same as obtained in part (2).
3. F (x, y) = x2 i + 5xy 2 j
4. F (x, y) = ey cos xi ex sin yj
5. F (x, y) = (cos y + y cos x)i +
(sin x + x sin y)j
9.
6. F (x, y) = x ln yi + y ln xj
7.
(1,2)
3ydx + 3xdy
10.
R (1,/2)
11.
R (3,2)
12.
R (0,1)
(0,0)
(0,0)
2xey dx + x2 ey dy
(1,2)
(3xy+1)dx(x+4y+
2)dy
Evaluate
the integral
R
2
1,
3y
dx
+ 2xydy
1,2
using Theorem 17.3.1,
and confirm that the value is the same as that
obtained in part (2).
8.
R (4,0)
13.
R (1,0)
14.
R (3,3)
(2,2)
2xy 3 dx + 3y 2 x2 dy
y
(ex ln y ex )dx + ( ey
e ln x)dy, where x and y are
positive.
(1,1)
y
Show that
R the line integral
y sin xdx
C
cos xdy is independent
of the path.
Evaluate the integral in
part (1) along the line
segment (0, 1) to , 1
20
15. F (x, y) = xy 2 i + x2 yj
23.
24.
25. Prove:
if F (x, y, z)
=
f (x, y, z)i + g(x, y, z)j +
h(x, y, z)k is conservative field and f,g, and h are continuous and have continuous
first partial derivatives in a
region, then
f
g f
h g
h
=
,
=
,
=
y
x z
x z
y
in the region.
21
is conservative.
28. (a) In Example 3 of section
17.1 showed that
c
(x, y) = 2
(x + y 2 )1 /2
is a potential function for
the two-dimensional inversesquare field.
c
F (x, y) =
3
(x2 + y 2 ) 2 (xi + yj)
y
x
30. Let F (x, y) = x2 +y
2 i + x2 +y 2 j
(a) Show that
Z
Z
F dr 6=
F dr
C1
C2
GREENS THEOREM
In this section we will discuss a remarkable and beautiful theorem that express
the double integral over a plane region in terms of a line integral around its
boundary.
2.1
Greens Theorem
Proof. For simplicity, we will prove the theorem for regions that are
simultaneously type I and II (see Definition 16.2.1). Such region is shown in
Figure 17.4.1. The crux of the proof is to show that
Z
ZZ
f
dA
(24)
f (x, y)dx =
y
C
R
and
ZZ
g(x, y)dx =
g
dA
x
(25)
To prove (2), view R as a type I region and let C1 and C2 be the lower
and upper boundary curves, oriented as in Figure 17.4.2. Then
23
g2(x)
h1(y)
g1(x)
x
a
h2(y)
x c
b
R viewed as a type I region
Figure 17.4.1
f (x, y)dx =
f (x, y)dx +
f (x, y)dx
C1
or, equivalently,
Z
Z
f (x, y)dx =
c
C2
Z
f (x, y)dx
f (x, y)dx
C2
C1
C2
C1
x
a
Figure 17.4.2
24
(26)
(This step will help simplify our calculations since C1 and C2 are then both
oriented left to right). The curves C1 and C2 can be expressed parametrically
as
C1 : x = t, y = g1 (t)(a t b)
C2 : x = t, y = g2 (t)(a t b)
Thus, we write () as
The proof of (23) is obtained similarly by trending R as a type II region.
We omit the details.
Example 1
Use Greens Theorem to evaluate
Z
x2 ydx + xdy
C
x
1
Figure 17.4.3
Solution. Since f (x, y) = x2 y and g(x, y) = x, it follows from (21) that
25
ZZ
x ydx + xdy =
C
2
[ (x)
(x y)]dA =
x
y
Z
=
Z
0
2x
(1 x2 )dydx
(27)
x 1 1
] =
2 0 2
This agrees with the result obtained in Example 7 of section 17.2, where
we evaluated the line integral directly. Note how simpler this solution is J.
2.2
)dA
x y
C
R
)dA
(28)
f (x, y)dx + g(x, y)dy =
(
x y
C
R
2.3
It follows from Formula (37) of Section 17.2 that the integral on the left side
of (5) is the work performed by the vector field F (x, y) = f (x, y)i+g(x, y)j on
a particle moving counterclockwise around the simple closed curve C. In this
case where this vector field is conservative, it follows from Theorem 17.3.2
that the integrand in the double integral on the right side of (5) is zero, so the
work performed by the field is zero, as expected. For vector fields that are
not conservative, it is often more efficient to calculate the work around simple closed curves by using Greens Theorem than by parametrizing the curve.
Example 2
26
Find the work done by the force field F (x, y) = (ex y 3 )i + (cos y + x3 )j
on a particle that travels once around the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1 in the
counterclockwise direction (Figure 17.4.4).
1
-1
Figure 17.4.4
Solution. The work W performed by the field is
I
I
W =
F dr = (ex y 3 )dx + (cos y + x3 )dy
C
ZCZ
x
3
3
(cos y + x )
(e y ) dA
=
y
R x
Z Z
Z Z
2
2
=
(3x + 3y )dA = 3
(x2 + y 3 )dA
Z R Z
Z R
3
3
= 3 2 1(r2 )rdrd =
2 =
4 0
2
0
0
2.4
(29)
Greens Theorem leads to some useful new formulas for the area A of a
region R that satisfies the condition of the theorem. Two such formulas can
be obtained as follows
Z Z
I
A=
dA =
xdy
R
and
Z Z
A=
I
dA =
(y)dx
C
27
2.5
(31)
Recall that the plain region is said to be simply connected if it has no holes
and is said to be multiply connected if it has one or more holes (see Figure
17.3.6). At the beginning of this section we stated Greens Theorem for a
counterclockwise integration around the boundary of a simply connected region R (Theorem 17.4.1). Our next goal is to extend this theorem to multiply
connected regions. To make this extension we will need to assume that the
region lies on the left when any portion of the boundary is traversed in the
direction of its orientation. This implies that the outer outer boundary curve
28
of the region is oriented counterclockwise and the boundary curves that enclose holes have clockwise orientation (Figure 17.4.5b). If all portions of the
boundary of R has positive orientation.
C1
R
C2
(a)
C1
R
C2
R
(b)
Figure 17.4.5
We will now derive a version of Greens Theorem that applies to multiply
connected regions with positively oriented boundaries. For simplicity, we will
consider a multiply connected region R with one hole, and we will assume
that f(x,y) and g(x,y) have continuous first partial derivatives on some open
set containing R. As shown in figure 17.4.5b, let us divide R into two regions
R0 and R00 by introducing two cuts in R. The cuts are shown as line
segments, but any piecewise smooth curves will suffice. If we assume that
f and g satisfy hypotheses of Greens Theorem on R (and hence on R0 and
29
R00 ), then we can apply this theorem to both R0 and R00 to obtain
ZZ
g f
(
)dA =
x y
ZZ
ZZ
g f
)dA
x y
R00
I
IR0
= f (x, y)dx + g(x, y)dy + f (x, y)dx + g(x, y)dy
g f
(
)dA +
x y
R00
R0
(32)
However, the two line integrals are taken in opposite directions along
cuts, and hence cancel there, leaving only the contributions along C1 and C2 .
Thus,
ZZ
g f
x y
I
dA =
I
f (x, y)dx + g(x, y)dy +
C1
(33)
which is extension of Greens Theorem to a multiply connected region
with one hole. Observe that the integral around outer boundary is taken
counterclockwise and the integral around the hole is taken clockwise. More
generally, if R is a multiply connected region with n holes, then analog of
(7) involves a sun of n + 1 integrals, one taken counterclockwise around the
outer boundary and the rest taken clockwise around the holes.
Example 4
Evaluate the integral
I
C
ydx + xdy
x2 + y 2
x2
y
y
, g(x, y) = 2
2
+y
x + y2
so that
g
g
y 2 x2
= 2
=
2
2
x
(x + y )
y
30
(34)
if x and y are not both zero. Thus, if C does not enclose the origin, we
have
g f
=0
x y
(35)
on the simply connected region enclosed by C, and hence the given integral is zero by Greens Theorem.
Solution (b). Unlike the situation in part (a), we cannot apply Greens
Theorem directly because the functions f(x,y) and g(x,y) in (8) are discontinuous at the origin. Our problems are further compounded by the fact that
we do not have a specific curve C that we can parametrize to evaluate the integral. Our strategy circumventing these problems will be to replace C with
a specific curve that produces the same value for the integral and then use
that curve for the evaluation. To obtain such a curve, we will apply Greens
Theorem for multiply connected regions to a region that does not contain the
origin. For this purpose we construct a circle Ca with clockwise orientation,
centered at the origin, and with sufficiently small radius a that it lies inside
the region enclosed by C (see Figure 17.4.6). This creates a multiply connected region R whose boundary curves C and Ca have the orientations required
by Formula (7) and such the within R the functions f(x,y) and g(x,y) in (8)
satisfy the hypotheses of Greens Theorem (the origin is outside of R). Thus,
it follows from (7) and (9) that
I
ZZ
I
ydx + xdy
ydx + xdy
0dA = 0
+
=
x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2
Ca
C
R
31
C
R
Ca
x
Figure 17.4.6
within the region enclosed by C. Such a circle can be expressed parametrically
as x = a cos t, y = a sin t, (0 t 2); and hence
I
C
ydx + xdy
=
x2 + y 2
Z
=
(36)
1dt = 2
0
2.6
3.
y dx + x dy, where C
is the square with vertices
(0,0),(1,0),(1,1), and (0,1) oriented counterclockwise.
H
2. C ydx + xdy, where C is the
unit circle oriented counterclockwise.
C
32
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
ZZ
=
y
x
(ye )
(e ) dA
x
y
where
(a) C is the circle x2 + y 2 = 1
(b) C is the boundary of the
region enclosed by y = x2 and
x = y2.
16. In Example 3, we used
Greens Theorem to obtain
the area of an ellipse. Obtain
this area using the first and
the second formula in (6).
17. Use a line integral to find the
area of the region enclosed by
the astroid
x = cos3 , y = a sin3
(0 2)
[See Exercise 18 of Section
8.4]
18. Use a line integral to find the
area of the triangle with vertices (0,0), (a,0), and (0,b),
where a > 0 and b > 0.
1
x=
2A
1
y=
2A
x2 dy
y 2 dx
y=x
y=x 3
25.
r = a(1 + cos ), (0 2)
24. Let R be a plane region with
area A whose boundary is a
26.
34
+(x2 y3 x3 y2 )+(x3 y1 x1 y3 )]
(c) Find a formula for
the area of a polygon
with
successive
vertices
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), ...(xn , yn ) going counterclockwise.
(d) Use the result in part (c)
to find the area of a quadrilateral with vertices (0,0), (3,4),
(-2,2), (-1,0).
27.
-a
(a,b)
28.
35
SURFACE INTEGRALS
In previous sections we considered four kinds of integrals-integrals over intervals, double integrals over 2-dimensional regions, triple integrals over 3dimensional solids, and line integrals along curves in 2- or 3-dimensional
space. In this section we will discuss integrals over surfaces in 3-dimensional
space. Such integrals occur in problems involving fluid and heat flow, electricity, magnetism, mass, and center of gravity.
3.1
k=1
f (xk , yk , zk )Sk
(37)
k=1
where (xk , yk , zk ) is an arbitrary point on k . Now repeat the subdivision process, dividing into more and more patches in such a way that
the maximum dimension of each patch approaches zero as n +. If (1
approaches a limit that does not depend on the way the subdivisions are
made or how the points (xk , yk , zk ) are chosen, then the limit is called the
surface integral of f(x,y,z) over and is denoted by
ZZ
f (x, y, z)dS = lim
n
X
n+
36
k=1
f (xk , yk , zk )sk
(38)
Area
Sk
Figure 17.5.1
3.2
The are various procedures for evaluating surface integrals that depend on
how the surface is represented. The following theorem provides a method
for evaluating a surface integral when is represented parametrically.
Theorem 3.1 Let be a smooth parametric surface whose vector equation is
r = x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k
where (u, v) varies over a region R in the uv-plane. If (x,y,z) is continuous on , then
ZZ
ZZ
f (x, y, z)dS =
r r
f (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) x dA
u v
(39)
To motivate this result, suppose that the parameter domain R is subdivided as in Figure 16.4.10, and suppose that the point (xk , yk , zk ) in
(2) corresponds to parameter values of uk and vk . If we use Formula (9)
of Section 16.4 to approximate 4Sk , and if we assume that errors in the
37
n
X
r r
f (x, y, z)dS = lim
f (x(uk , vk ), y(uk , vk ), z(uk , vk )) x dAk
n+
u v
k=1
which suggest Formula (3).
We will discuss various applications and interpretations of surface integrals later in this section and in subsequent sections, but for now we will
focus on techniques for evaluating such integrals.
Example 1
Evaluate the surface of integral
RR
(40)
and
r r
x = sin
From the i-component of r, the integrand in the surface integral can be
expressed in terms of and as x2 = sin2 + cos2 . Thus, it follows from
(3) with and in place of u and v and R as the rectangular region in the
-plane determined by the inequalities in (4) that
38
ZZ
r r
(sin cos ) x dA
x dS =
R
Z 2 Z
sin3 cos2 dd
=
0
Z0 2 Z
3
=
sin d cos2 d
0
0
Z 2
1
3
=
cos cos cos2 d
3
0
0
Z 2
4
cos2 d
=
3 0
2
1
4
4 1
+ sin 2
=
=
3 2
4
3
0
2
ZZ
39
(41)