Faculty of Medicine
BIOCHEMISTRY
LABORATORY MANUAL
Vilnius, 2012
ISBN 978-609-459-125-9
3
Content
RULES FOR WORKING IN A BIOCHEMISTRY LABORATORY......................................... 4
1. COLOUR REACTIONS OF PROTEIN (PEPTIDES) AND AMINO
ACIDS........................................................................................................................................ 7
2. DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN CONCENTRATION IN URINE.................................. 9
3. DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN CONCENTRATION IN SERUM...............................10
4. ELECTROPHORESIS OF SERUM PROTEINS.................................................................. 11
5. ISOLATION OF PROTEINS FROM TISSUE. PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
OF AMINO ACIDS................................................................................................................ 11
6. QUALITATIVE REACTIONS OF OXIDOREDUCTASES.
DETERMINATION OF CATALASE ACTIVITY IN BLOOD PLASMA......................... 12
7. DETERMINATION OF ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE (AST) AND
ALANIN AMINOTRANSFERASE (ALT) ACTIVITY IN BLOOD SERUM................. 14
8. DETERMINATION OF LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE (LDG) ACTIVITY
IN BLOOD SERUM............................................................................................................... 15
9. ANALYSIS OF TRYPSIN ACTION....................................................................................... 15
10. DETERMINATION OF -AMYLASE ACTIVITY IN BLOOD SERUM.......................... 16
11. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF VITAMINS.
DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN C IN URINE.............................................................. 17
12. DETERMINATION OF SEROMUCOIDS CONCENTRATION IN SERUM.................. 18
13. THE DETERMINATION OF GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION IN SERUM.................... 19
14. QUALITATIVE REACTIONS FOR URINE CARBOHYDRATES... 20
15. GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION IN URINE..... 22
16. QUALITATIVE REACTIONS FOR KETONE BODIES. ACETONE
CONCENTRATION IN URINE.. 22
17. DETERMINATION OF TRIACYLGLYCEROLS CONCENTRATION IN
SERUM........................................................................................................................... 26
18. QUALITATIVE REACTIONS FOR BILE PIGMENTS AND ACIDS.... 28
19. DETERMINATION OF TOTAL CHOLESTEROL CONCENTRATION IN
SERUM 28
20. DETERMINATION OF LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (LDL)
CONCENTRATION IN SERUM......................................... 30
5
RULES FOR WORKING IN A BIOCHEMISTRY
LABORATORY
There are two major concerns to consider when working in a biochemistry laboratory. The first is
safety: this can never be overemphasized. General guidelines for safety are discussed below. The
second is efficiency in the laboratory work. Although the latter very much depends on the
individuals doing the experiments, there are general rules students are advised to follow:
1. Keep the benches and shelves clean and well-organized.
2. Avoid contaminating the chemicals; use only clean glassware and spatulas; label glassware in
use.
3. Plan your experiments before starting to carry them out.
4. Pay attention to others in the laboratory.
6
5. Special care for eye protection is required. Safety glasses must be used when certain procedures
are being carried out. The instructor will call the students' attention to those procedures. The use of
contact lenses is not recommended, since they reduce the rate of self-cleansing of the eye.
7
1. COLOUR REACTIONS OF PROTEIN (PEPTIDES) AND AMINO ACIDS
Procedure. One test-tube fill with a diluted serum and another with gelatin (which is collagen
hydrolyzate, a mixture of polypeptides) solution. Into both test-tubes add 10 drops of NaOH and 1
drop of 1% CuSO4. The solution in both tubes turns purple.
The Ninhydrin reaction. This reaction is the most important method of detecting proteins, peptides
and - amino acids and indentifying their content of a free -NH2 group. For example, when amino
acids with a free -NH2 group are treated with ninhydrin solution, performing the oxidation of amino acids and decomposition into aldehyde, CO2 and NH3, ninhydrin is becoming reduced; then
the two ninhydrin molecules are bound by N derived from the -NH2 group.
Ninhydrin
Aldehyde
Procedure. To one tube add 5 drops of diluted egg protein or serum and to another 5 drops of 1%
gelatin. Into each tube add 3 drops of 0.5% ninhydrin and keep all the tubes in a boiling water bath.
After 2 3 minutes they yield a red and later a bluish purple colour.
The xanthoproteic (yellow protein) reaction. The xanthoproteic test is a method that can be used
to determine the amount of protein soluble in a solution, using the concentrated nitric acid. Upon
heat the protein with concentrated nitric acid, the solution turns yellow. The solution alkalinization
makes it orange. During the reaction, tyrosine, tryptophan and phenylalanine aromatic rings are
nitrifying to form yellow-coloured compounds.
Tyrosine
Dinitrotyrozine
8
Nitrated benzene derivatives in an alkaline medium transfer to a chinoidic structure. Their solutions
turn orange.
Procedure. To the test-tube add a diluted serum or egg protein, 3 drops of concentrated nitric acid
and heat (carefully!); the solution turns yellow. After cooling, into the content of the tube add 10
drops of concentrated ammonia and 30% NaOH, which yield an orange colour.
The Sakaguchi reaction. Proteins treated with hypobromite and -naphthol develop an intensive
red colour in an alkaline medium. In this case, hypobromite oxidizes the guanidine group of
arginine, and the resulting compound condenses with -naphthol a coloured solution:
Arginine
Procedure. To one test-tube add 5 drops of diluted blood serum or egg protein and to another 5
drops of 1% gelatin (partly hydrolyzed collagen). To each tube add 5 drops of 10% NaOH solution,
3 drops of 0.1% -naphthol in ethanol solution and 1 5 drops of 2% sodium hypobromite.
Solutions in the tubes get a red colour.
The Milon reaction. The heated protein solution with the Milon reagent (mercury in nitric acid
solution) produce a reddish-brown precipitate. Protein containing tyrosine (the phenol ring) with
HgNO3 result in a coloured nitrocompound. The Milon reaction does not occur with gelatin,
because it does not contain tyrosine.
Tyrosine
Coloured nitrocompound
Procedure. To one test-tube add 10 drops of diluted egg protein or blood serum and to the other
1% gelatin solution. Into both tubes add 1 2 drops of the Milon reagent and heat (carefully!). The
solution in the first test-tube gets a red colour.
9
Lead acetate test. This is a specific test for sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine and
cysteine. The protein solution upon adding a few drops of lead acetate and heating in an alkaline
medium becomes dark. The reaction takes place also with free amino acids. By heating in an
alkaline medium, they produce sulfur and sodium sulphide:
Cysteine
Lead acetate with sodium hydroxide produce Pb(ONa)2:
Sodium sulfide reacts with Pb(ONa)2 to form dark lead sulphide sediments:
Procedure. To one test-tube add 5 drops of diluted egg protein or blood serum and to the other
test-tube 5 drops of 1% gelatin. To both tubes add 5 drops of 30% sodium hydroxide and one drop
of 5% lead acetate. The solution of the first tube after intensive boiling darkens, and the second
does not change because there are no gelatine amino acids containing sulfur.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
10
Serial
No.
Standard
solution (ml)
Sulfosalicylic acid
(ml)
1
2
3
4
5
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
9.95
9.9
9.8
9.5
9.0
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.75
3.75
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
Protein
concentration
g/l
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Proteinuria and its classification.
2. Proteinuria mechanism. Why plasma albumin in urine appears more easily than many of
globulins? How many and what proteins are there in normal human urine?
3. Uromucoproteins (glycoproteins), the clinical significance of determination.
4. The Bence-Jones protein in urine and its cause.
5. Protein detection method in urine. Is it possible to change sulfosalicylic acid by sulfuric
acid?
6. Importance of electrophoresis for detection of Bence-Jones protein and diagnostics of renal
proteinuria (organic).
3. DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN CONCENTRATION IN SERUM
REAGENT
PROCEDURE
CALCULATION
REACTION
11
CONDITIONS
Temperature
Cell
+37 oC
1 cm
RECOMMENDED
VALUES
6585 g/l
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
12
5. Disproteinemias.
5. ISOLATION OF PROTEINS FROM TISSUE. PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY OF
AMINO ACIDS
Procedure. From the chromatography paper, there is cut a circle a petri dish in size. In the centre of
this circle, draw a small circle with the radius of 1 cm and from the big circular edge up to the small
one cut a 1 cm wide tape, which will be the wick. In the centre of the chromatography paper, draw a
small circle the starting line on which to drip amino acids. The paper disc is placed on a petri dish
and the wick is immersed into the petri dish filled up with the solvent mixture (ethanol and 1M
ammonium acetate 7:3). The chromatogram develops from 1 to 1.5 hours until the solvent reaches
the edge of the paper. Then the chromatography paper is put into a drying oven at a temperature of
50 C. The detection of amino acids on the chromatography paper is performed by dyeing
(sprinkling) with 0.1% ninhydrin solution, and then the sample is put into a drying oven for 5 10
minutes at 50 C to reveal purple spots. You have to measure the distance of moved amino acids in
mm (a), the distance of the moved solvent in mm (b) and to calculate the partition coefficient Rf for
each amino acid by the formula:
The partition coefficient is a constant characteristic of each amino acid and depending on test
conditions.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
13
hydroxylases, which incorporate one oxygen atom into the substrate to form a hydroxyl group on it,
e.g., mitochondrial cytP450 monooxygenase. These enzymes transfer reducing equivalents from
NADPH or NADH;
d) oxidoreductases containing the heme or similar compounds. These enzymes belong to a
group of cytochromes, catalase (mainly in red blood cells) and peroxidase (found in plants).
Hydrogen peroxide formation and detoxification. Hydrogen peroxide is formed in cells: 1) the
oxidation reduction reactions catalyzed by oxidase, where their flavin coenzymes take from the
substrate hydrogen and transfer it directly to oxygen, 2) by superoxide dismutase (SOD) catalysis:
Catalase acts in two ways: if the intracellular H2O2 is limited, it acquires the properties of
peroxidase and uses H2O2 for the oxidation of the substrate:
if H2O2 is abundant, then catalase cleaves it for protecting cells from the toxic action:
Tyrosine
DOPA
Galachrom
(red coloured compound)
Procedure. Peel a raw potato and cut the upper layers into the blender. Add 10 ml of distilled
water, crush potato chips in it, filtrate the mashed potato. To a clean test tube add 2 3 drops of the
tyrosine solution, 1 2 ml of the filtrate of mashed potato and put it into the thermostat at 37 C.
The solution turns pink and then brown.
Plant oxidase oxidizes Guaiacum resin acid to ozonide it turns blue in colour.
Procedure. Add a few drops of the alcoholic solution of Guaiacum resin onto upper layers of
peeled potato pellet. The edges of potatoes turn blue. Repeat the same reaction with boiled potato;
in this case, there remains the same colour as when cooking a inactivate the enzyme.
14
Determination of catalase activity in blood plasma:
a) a qualitative study.
Procedure. To a test tube add 1 2 ml of 1% H2O2 solution and a drop of blood. There is an intense
release of oxygen;
b) a quantitative study. The enzyme activity is determined from the decrease of hydrogen
peroxide content in the test sample. The rest of H2O2 in it, as well as all infused H2O2 in the control
sample are titrated with KMnO4.
Procedure. Into a 100 ml flask, add a small amount of distilled water and 0.1 ml of fresh blood
taken from a finger. The solution is diluted to 100 ml (blood diluted 1000 times). To two
Erlenmeyer (flat) flasks, add 7 ml of distilled water and 0.1 ml of the diluted blood solution. One
flask contents gently boil for 2 minutes (for catalase inactivation); it is the control sample. After
cooling, to each flask add 2 ml of 1% H2O2 and then leave for 30 minutes at room temperature.
Then to both flasks add 3 ml of 10% sulfuric acid solution. It stops catalase functioning in the acidic
medium. This is required for H2O2 titration. Titrate with 0.02 M KMnO4 solution to develop a pale
pink colour. The difference of potassium permanganate solution in ml consumed in the test (b) and
the control (a) sample, shows the amount of H2O2 fragmented by catalase; 1 ml of 0.02 M KMnO4
is equivalent to 1 ml of 0.05 M (1.7 g / l) H2O2. The value of catalase activity, i.e. the content of
hydrogen peroxide in mg, cleaved in 1 ml of blood within 30 minutes is calculated by the formula:
K=1,7(a-b)1000 mg
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Enzymes as biological catalysts.
2. Classification of enzymes, their nomenclature and code.
3. Environmental conditions acting enzymes.
4. The active zone (centre) of enzymes.
5. Inhibition of enzymes. Inhibitors and activators.
6. A zymogen (or proenzyme) as an inactive enzyme precursor. Coenzymes.
7. The presence of enzymes in cells.
8. Describe the four groups of oxidoreductases.
9. NAD+, NADP+, FMN, FAD structure, importance.
10. Generation of hydrogen peroxide and other reactive oxygen compounds, detoxification.
Antioxidants.
11. Method of detecting catalase activity in blood.
7. DETERMINATION OF ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE (AST) AND ALANIN
AMINOTRANSFERASE (ALT) ACTIVITY IN BLOOD SERUM
Procedure. 1 ml of sample solution is mixed with 100 ml of blood serum and incubated for 3 min
at 37 C. Extinction is measured at a wavelength of 340 nm. Repeat measuring after 2 or 3
minutes. Calculate the change in extinction per minute (A1 and A2). The activity of AST and
ALT is calculated in international units by the formula:
AST U/L = 1746 x A1
ALT U/L = 1746 x A2
Normal AST and ALT activity rates at 37 C: up to 35 U/L for women and up to 40 U/L for men.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Classification of enzymes.
2. Units of enzyme activity.
15
3. Transferases, their subclasses.
4. Write the reaction of aminotransferase. Indicate the importance of the formed product.
The mechanism of aminotransferase reaction, importance of the pyridoxal phosphate
coenzyme.
5. Relation between enzymes and vitamins.
6. The diagnostic value of AST and ALT activity determination.
7. Method of detecting AST and ALT activity.
Amino groups react with formaldehyde in a slightly acidic medium (pH 6.8) (the methylene group
is bound to the N atom, and the amino group loses its alkaline properties); free carboxyl groups
must have titrate with alkali.
Procedure. To the Erlenmeyer flask add 50 ml of casein solution and 10 ml of trypsin. Mix.
Transfer 10 ml of this mixture into another flask and place the rest of it in a thermostat at 37 40
C. To the flask containing 10 ml of the mixture, add 2 ml of 0.4% HCl, 3 ml of formalin and a few
drops of phenolphthalein. Titrate with NaOH up to a light pink colour. Every 20 minutes to a 10 ml
mixture add specified quantities of HCl, formalin and phenolphthalein, then titrate with NaOH
again. Repeat it four times. According to the obtained results draw a graph. Mark the time to on the
abscissa axis and the amount of NaOH titration ml on the ordinate. Plot the curve. An increase in
the content of carboxyl groups shows trypsin activity.
16
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Proteolytic enzymes. The importance of proteolysis processes in the body.
2. Cathepsins.
3. Proenzymes (zymogens).
4. Enzymatical degradation of dietary protein in the human gastrointestinal tract.
5. Proteolytic hydrolases synthesized and secreted by the exocrine cells of the pancreas.
6. Convertion of trypsinogen (zymogen) to trypsin.
7. The specificities of trypsin and other proteases in the gastrointestinal tract.
8. The optimal pH of trypsin.
9. Casein. Phosphoproteins.
10. Procedure for the determination of trypsin activity.
-amylase
pNP-G7
pNP-G
glucoamylase
-glucosidase
pNP-G
REAGENTS
PROCEDURE
R1: buffer
GOODS buffer (pH 7.2)
Sodium chloride
Calcium chloride
R2: substrate
pNP-G7
-glucosidase + - glucoamylase
50 mmol/l
50 mmol/l
5 mmol/l
>0.5 mmol/l
(8 + 2) U/l
CALCULATION
RECOMMENDED
VALUE
Serum, plasma
Urine
Up to 180 U/l
Up to 900 U/l
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Hydrolases, the subclasses of hydrolases. Glycoside hydrolases.
17
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Procedure. To 1 2 drops of thiamine solution add 5 10 drops of 10% NaOH or KOH and 1..2
drops of K3[FeCN)6], mix. The heated solution turns yellow.
Measurement of pyridoxol (vitamin B6). Vitamin B6 is a pyridine derivate. It is soluble in water
and alcohol and destroyed by acids. It is degraded rapidly by oxidizing agents such as potassium
permanganate (KMnO4), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and others.
Procedure. Mix 5 drops of pyridoxol with 1 drop of 5% FeCl3. The yield is a red complex of iron
phenolate.
Measurement of cholecalciferol (vitamin D3). Vitamin D3 is fat-soluble, steroid-dependent.
Procedure. Mix 1 drop of fish oil with 5 drops of chloroform (the tube must be dry), add 1 drop of
aniline. After heating, the solution turns pink.
Measurement of phylloquinone (vitamin K1). Phylloquinone is a pale yellow viscous liquid
(oil), water-insoluble but soluble in organic solvents ether, ethanol, benzene. Thermostable, easily
inactivated by ultraviolet rays. Chemists have successfully synthesized water-soluble compounds:
vicasol, menadione, and others.
Procedure. Mix 5 drops of vicasol, 5 drops of cysteine solution, and 1 drop of 10% NaOH.
Initially, the solution turns yellowish in colour, but it quickly changes into orange.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Water and fat soluble vitamins.
2. Enzymes and vitamins: connection.
3. B1, B6, D3, and K vitamins, their structure and properties.
18
4. B1 and B6 vitamin conversion to coenzymes. Significance of its for specific metabolic
pathway.
5. Conversion of vitamin D3 to 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, its mechanism of action and the
importance of Ca and P metabolism; the importance of other hormones in the metabolism
of Ca and P (parathormone and calcitonin).
6. The importance of vitamin K for the postsynthetic modification of blood coagulation
factors.
7. The deficiency of vitamins B1, B6, D3 and K.
8. Symptoms of D3 hypervitaminosis.
9. Dietary sources of vitamins B1, B6, D3 and K, their dietary reference intakes.
19
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Characteristics of glycoproteins.
2. Proteoglycans: their structure and functions.
3. Major glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) (hyaluronic acid, heparin, chondroitin sulphate,
keratan sulphate, dermatan sulphate): structure, location, physiological role.
4. Mucopolysaccharidoses diagnosis, causes, and consequences.
5. The structure of plasma glycoproteins.
6. The structure of fucosis and sialic acid.
7. The physiological role of ceruloplasmin, transferrin, haptoglobin, orosomucoid (alpha1 acid
glycoprotein), glycophorin, fibronectin.
8. The method for the determination of seromucoid concentration in serum; Changes of
seromucoid concentration in case of a pathology.
PRINCIPLE
GPO
2. 2H2O2 + 4 AA + Phenol
REAGENTS
R: reagent
Phospahate buffer (pH 7.4)
Phenol
4 aminoantipyrine (4 AA)
Glucose oxidase (GOD)
Peroxidase (POD)
ST: standard
Glucose
POD
13.8 mmol/l
10 mmol/l
0.3 mmol/l
10000 U/l
700 U/l
5.55 mmol/l
100 mg/dl
SAMPLE
REACTION
CONDITIONS
Wavelength
500 nm
Temperature
+37 C
Cuvette
1 cm light path
1. Pipette 1 ml of the reagent (R) into the first cuvette (the cuvette
is called a "blank").
2. Pipette 1 ml of the reagent (R) and 10 l of the standard (ST)
into the second cuvette (the cuvette is called a "standard").
3. Pipette 1 ml of the reagent (R) and 10 l of the sample into the
third cuvette (the cuvette is called "sample").
OPERATING
PROCEDURE
20
"Blank"
1 ml
Reagent (R)
Standard (ST)
Sample
Cuvettes:
"Standard"
1 ml
10 l
"Sample"
1 ml
10 l
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Glucose concentrations in the capillary blood, plasma (serum), cerebrospinal fluid. Hyper
and hypoglycemia. The importance of glucose for the brain.
2. Glucose-6-phosphate metabolism.
3. Glycolysis and its regulation.
4. Glucogenic compounds. Gluconeogenesis and its regulation.
5. The mechanism of the hormones action (insulin, glucagon, adrenaline, glucocorticoids and
STH), their importance in carbohydrate metabolism.
6. The formation cAMP and its biological role.
7. Renal threshold for glucose. Glucosuria process.
8. Alimentary and renal glucosuria.
9. Diabetes. Glucose tolerance test.
10. The method for determining serum glucose concentration.
Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
Blue colour
2 Cu(OH)2 + glucose
2CuOH
Cu2O + H2O
Red colour
21
During the reduction process of Cu(OH)2 to CuOH by the glucose aldehyde group, following group
is converted into a carboxyl group. CuOH and its degradation product, Cu 2O, are coloured
compounds. In excess of CuSO4, the high Cu(OH)2 content may lead to the formation of black
CuO particles. They dont form in the Fehlings reaction. Fehlings reaction is a modified Tromers
reaction, in which the reagent containing Segnets salt reacts with the formed excess of Cu(OH)2.
Procedure.
Tromers reaction. Add to the tube 1 2 ml of urine containing glucose, and an equal volume of
10% NaOH solution. Mix gently and add a few drops of 5% CuSO4. The content of the tube is
heated by holding the tube over a heater. In the beginning the colour of the solution is yellow, and
more heated it becomes red. If there is no glucose in the urine, the colour of the mixture does not
change.
Nilenders reaction. Add into the test tube 1 ml of pathological urine, 1 ml of Nilenders reagent
(which contains bismuth salt), and place the tube in a boiling water bath. After a few minutes, the
liquid begins to get darker glucose reduces Bi(OH)3 until free bismuth and black precipitate are
formed. This reaction is sensitive and allows detecting glucose even when its concentration is low
(about 0.5 g/l).
Qualitative reactions for the detecting lactose and other monosaccharides in urine
Fischer reaction. Glucose, lactose, and other carbohydrates with a free aldehyde group (reducing
carbohydrates), heated with an excess of phenyl hydrazine, form ozazones, nearly insoluble crystals
of various shape. During the reaction of phenyl hydrazine with glucose, crystals in the shape of a
whisk, and with lactose in the shape of sea urchins are formed. Usually, this reaction is used to
distinguish between glucose and lactose. However, it can be used to identify other monosaccharides
on the basis of the different melting temperatures of their ozazones: glucozazons, fructozazons melt
at +210 C, galactozazon melts at +180 C, and pentozazons melt at +160 C.
Procedure. Add into the tube 0.3 g of phenyl hydrazine, 0.1 g of sodium acetate (CH3COONa), a
drop of glacial acetic acid and 1 ml of 1% glucose solution. Place the tube for 30 minutes in a
boiling water bath and then rapidly cool its content to fall out yellow needle shaped crystals of
glucose ozazones (the crystals are examined under a microscope).
The Selivanov reaction. It is used to separate ketoses (fructose) from glucose and other aldoses.
During the reaction of fructose with hydrochloric acid, oxymethyfurfural is forming, which reacts
with resorcinol to form a red coloured compound. With aldoses this reaction is very slow.
Procedure. Add into the tube 1 2 ml of the Selivanov reagent (0.05 g resorcinol in 100 ml of 20%
hydrochloric acid) and 1 ml of 1% fructose solution. The tube is placed in a boiling water bath. The
boiling content of the tube turns red.
The reaction to separate pentoses from hexoses. Pentoses react with acids to form furfural.
Furfural, interacting with aniline, gives a red compound and with orcinol green (BIAL reaction).
Procedure. Add into the tube 1 2 ml of orcinol reagent. Bring the content of the tube to the boil
and add quickly a few drops of pentose solution. After the heating for 2 3 minutes, the content of
the tube turns blue.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The biological role of carbohydrates, dietary norms. Food carbohydrates.
2. Classification of carbohydrates.
3. Monosaccharides and their derivatives: acids, alcohols (sorbitol, xylitol), hexosamines,
deoxyhexoses (methylpentoses), phosphoric acid esters.
4. Disaccharides: maltose, lactose, sucrose. Their structure, properties, significance.
5. Concentration of lactose in milk.
6. Lactosuria and its causes.
22
7. Fructose and galactose metabolism, the potential disoders.
8. Methods of the determination of glucose and other sugars in urine.
Acetoacetic acid
Acetone
-hydroxybutiric acid
23
Ketone bodies can be used a source of energy. They are transported from the liver to peripheral
tissues, where acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate can be reconverted to acetyl-CoA to produce
energy, via the citric acid cycle. Acetone is produced by spontaneous (without enzyme)
decarboxylation of acetoacetate in the liver in cases of overproduction of acetoacetate, when it cant
be used by peripheral tissues. Healthy human body is producing only little amount of acetone.
Acetone is harmful, because it melts body lipids, i.e. may be vulnerable to the membrane. Acetone
cannot be converted back to acetyl-CoA, so it is excreted in the urine and skin, or exhaled by the
lungs.
Under physiological conditions (when is enough of carbohydrates, especially oxalacetate) the
production of ketone bodies is low, because acetyl-CoA is oxidased in Krebs cycle. Also the excess
acetyl-CoA of can be moved from the cytoplasm to the mitochondria, in form of citrate, and can be
used to synthesized fatty acids and cholesterol (Figure 2).
24
of low blood glucose, most other tissues have additional energy sources besides ketone bodies (such
as fatty acids), but the brain has not, because fatty acid -oxidation doesnt happens in the brain.
In normal individuals, there is a constant production of ketone bodies by the liver and their
utilization by extrahepatic tissues. The concentration of ketone bodies in blood is maintained around
0.01 0.02 mmol /L (0.15 2 mg%). When the rate of the synthesis of ketone bodies exceeds the
rate of utilization, their concentration in blood increases; this is known as ketonemia. It is followed
by ketonuria excretion of ketone bodies in urine. The overall picture of ketonemia and ketouria is
commonly referred to as ketosis. The concentration of ketone bodies in blood in case of ketosis can
reach 20 mmol/l; it lowers the pH of the blood and leads to metabolic acidosis.
25
In healty individuals, the excretion of ketone bodies in urine is very low (1020 mg) and is
undetectable by routine urine tests. In case of ketosis, the excretion of ketone bodies reaches 150 g,
and it will cause the further removal of water and electrolytes from the blood. This can lead to
exsiccosis water deficiency in the body.
Qualitative reactions of ketone bodies
Libens reaction. The reaction of acetone with iodine in an alkaline medium gives iodoform:
Procedure. Add into the test tube containing 3 ml of study sample 5 drops of iodine solution and 5
drops of 10% NaOH. Mix. If the sample contains acetone, the characteristic odor iodoform
precipitate comes out.
Legals reaction. The reaction of acetone and acetoacetic acid with sodium nitroprusside in an
alkaline medium gives a red orange coloured complex compound.
The addition of acetic acid changes the structure of the complex, and its red-orange colour turns
cherry.
Procedure. Add to the test tube containing 3 ml of urine (study sample) 5 drops of 10%
Na2Fe(CN)5NO and 1 ml of 10% NaOH; they give an orange colour; upon adding 2 ml of
concentrated acetic acid, it turns cherry.
Determination of acetone concentration in urine
The method is based on the detection of iodine, required to convert acetone into iodoform. Acetone
is blown into alkaline iodine solution. Non-reacted iodine is titrated with sodium thiosulfate
solution.
Procedure. Add 20 ml of the study sample, 0.2 g of oxalic acid, and 10 g NaCl to the flask A. Add
into the flask B 20 ml of 0.1 N iodine solution, 15 ml of 25% KOH and 25 ml of water. Stoppered
flasks are connected with each other to the air stream for 30 minutes. Acetone with a stream of air
passes to the flask B, where acetone reacts with iodine to form iodoform. Then add concentrated
HCl to the flask B, until a bright yellow colour appears. Add a couple of drops of starch solution
into the flask. Titrate iodine non-reacted with acetone with 0.1 N Na2S2O3 solution until the blue
colour disappears.
26
Calculation. The quantity of acetone (mg) per 100 ml of study sample (mg/dl) can be calculated
using the formula:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Write the formulas of ketone bodies; indicate the relationship between these compounds.
2. Synthesis of ketone bodies (ketogenesis). Ketogenic amino acids.
3. Oxidation of hydroxybutyric and acetoacetic acids in peripheral tissues (ketolysis). Write
the reaction, note the energy value.
4. Why hyperketonemia occurs in cases of diabetes, after a long fasting or receiving inadequate
amounts of dietary carbohydrates? What is the concentration of ketone bodies in urine?
5. Why in the above mentioned cases acetone is formed in the liver?
6. Ketosis and its consequences.
7. Qualitative reactions of ketone bodies.
8. The method for the quantitative determination of ketone bodies in the urine.
Enzymatic colorimetric
Endpoint
PRINCIPLE
LPL
GK
GPO
4. H2O2 + 4 AA + 4Phenol
REAGENTS
R: reagent
Buffer (pH 6.8)
Phenol
Glycerol + 3FFA
Glycerol 3 P + ADP
DHAP + H2O2
POD
50 mmol/l
3 mmol/l
27
4 aminoantipyrine (4 AA)
ATP
Mg2+
Lipoprotein lipase (LPL)
Glycerolkinase (GK)
Peroxidase (POD)
ST: standard
Glycerol
0.5 mmol/l
2 mmol/l
40 mmol/l
1200 U/l
1000 U/l
10000 U/l
2.26 mmol/l
SAMPLE
REACTION
CONDITIONS
Wavelength
500 nm (20 nm)
Temperature
+37 C
Cuvette
1 cm light path
1. Pipette 1 ml of the reagent (R) into the first cuvette (the cuvette
is called a "blank");
2. Pipette 1 ml of the reagent (R) and 10 l of the standard (ST)
into the second cuvette (the cuvette is called a "standard");
3. Pipette 1 ml of the reagent (R) and 10 l of the sample into the
third cuvette (the cuvette is called a "sample").
Cuvettes:
"Blank"
"Standard"
"Sample"
Reagent (R)
1 ml
1 ml
1 ml
Standard (ST)
10 l
Sample
10 l
OPERATING
PROCEDURE
1.8 mmol/l
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Characterization of lipids, their biological importance.
2. Lipid classification.
3. TAG classification and their properties.
4. Fatty acids and their properties. The human body's fatty acids. Essential fatty acids.
5. The synthesis of 6 and 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
6. The synthesis of eicosanoids and their biological role.
7. TAG hydrolysis in the body: in the digestive tract, adipose tissue, and blood.
8. Emulsifying of lipids. Emulsifiers.
9. Soaps. What kind of soaps can be produced in the human digestive tract?
10. Fat hydrogenation. Margarine. The advantages and disadvantages.
11. The diagnostic significance of the determination of serum TAG concentration.
28
Enzymatic-colorimetric
PRINCIPLE
29
1. Cholesterol ester + H2O
2. Cholesterol + O2
cholesterol esterase
cholesterol oxidase
Cholesterol + FFA
R: reagent
Buffer (pH 7.2)
p chlorophenol
Sodium chlorate
4 aminoantipyrine
Cholesterol esterase (CHE)
Cholesterol oxidase (CHO)
Peroxidase (POD)
ST: standard
Cholesterol
peroxidase
50 mmol/l
2 mmol/l
8 mmol/l
0.6 mmol/l
400 U/l
200 U/l
500 U/l
5.17 mmol/l
SAMPLE
REACTION
CONDITIONS
Wavelength
510 nm (480520 nm)
Temperature
+37 C
Cuvette
1 cm light path
1. Pipette 1 ml of the reagent (R) into the first cuvette (the cuvette
is called a "blank").
2. Pipette 1 ml of the reagent (R) and 10 l of the standard (ST)
into the second cuvette (the cuvette is called a "standard").
3. Pipette 1 ml of the reagent (R) and 10 l of the sample into the
third cuvette (the cuvette is called a "sample").
OPERATING
PROCEDURE
Reagent (R)
Standard (ST)
Sample
"Blank"
1 ml
Cuvettes
"Standard"
1 ml
10 l
"Sample"
1 ml
10 l
<5.2 mmol/l
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. The importance of cholesterol.
2. The molecular formula of cholesterol. Formation of cholesteryl esters in tissues.
3. Exogenous and endogenous cholesterol.
30
4.
5.
6.
7.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Characterization of lipoproteins.
Lipoprotein fractions in plasma, concentrations, methods of their fractionation.
Blood plasma lipoprotein structure their lipids and proteins.
Metabolism of chylomicrons. Lipoprotein lipase.
Metabolism of very low density lipoproteins (VLDL).
Metabolism of low density lipoproteins (LDL). Atherogenity of cholesterol.
Metabolism of high density lipoproteins (HDL). Antiatherogenity of cholesterol.
Dyslipoproteinemia.
The principle of detecting LDL concentration in blood plasma and its diagnostic value.
Enzymatic colorimetric
PRINCIPLE
urease
2NH3 + CO2
31
Urease
Stabilizers
R1b: buffered chromogen
Phosphate buffer (pH 6.9)
EDTA
Sodium salycilate
Sodium nitroprusside
R2 : Alkaline hypochlorite
Sodium hypochlorite
NaOH
ST: standard
Urea
SAMPLE
REACTION
CONDITIONS
OPERATING
PROCEDURE
20 mmol/l
2 mmol/l
60 mmol/l
3.4 mmol/l
10 mmol/l
3.4 mmol/l
8.3 mmol/l
(50 mg/dl)
Serum or heparinized plasma free of hemolysis and urine
Wavelength
600 nm (10 nm)
Temperature
+37 C
Cuvette
1 cm light path
1. Preparation of the working reagent No.I: mix the enzyme
reagent (R1a) with the buffered chromogen (R1b).
2. Preparation of the working reagent No.II: dilute alkaline
hypochlorite (R2) in 100 ml of distilled H2O.
3. Pipette 1 ml of working reagent No.I into the first cuvette (the
cuvette is called "blank").
4. Pipette 1 ml of working reagent No.I and 10 l of the standard
(ST) into the second cuvette (the cuvette is called a
"standard");
5. Pipette 1 ml of working reagent No.I and 10 l of the sample
into the third cuvette (the cuvette is called "sample").
"Blank"
Working reagent 1 ml
No.I (R1a+R1b)
Standard (ST)
Sample
"Standard"
1 ml
"Sample"
1 ml
10 l
10 l
CALCULATION
REFERENCE
VALUES
1 ml
1 ml
1 ml
32
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
X * 8.8 = mmol/24h;
here C1 concentration of study solution (g/dl);
C2 concentration of the standard solution (0.1 g/dl);
Ex extinction coefficient of the study solution;
Est extinction coefficient of the standard solution;
X creatinine quantity (g) per day in urine;
8.8 convertion factor to mmol.
33
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Synthesis of creatine phosphate. Its importance.
2. S-adenosyl (SAM) formation and the importance of the methylation process.
3. Creatinine generation. How much creatinine is excreted in the urine per day? Creatinine
ratio.
4. Creatine and creatinine levels in blood serum. Hypercreatininemia.
5. Hypercreatinemia, creatinuria.
6. The method for the determination of creatinine concentration in urine.
Standard
Supernatant CCl3COOH
I (ST)
II(S)
0.5 ml
1.5 ml
0.5 ml
Distilled
H2O
0.5 ml
Na2CO3
0.7 ml
0.7 ml
Folins
reagent
1 drop
1 drop
After 10 minutes perform a calorimetric measurement, using a green light filter. Uric acid
concentration is calculated using the formula:
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The molecular formula of purine and pyrimidine bases. Properties of these bases.
The structure, importance and properties of mononucleotides.
Polynucleotides: DNA and RNA. Polynucleotide backbone.
Double-helical stucture of DNA. Nucleotide complementarity.
Hydrolysis of nucleic acids. Endo- and exonucleases. Restrictase.
Degradation of purine nucleotide. Uric acid and its salts (urate).
Contentration of uric acid in the blood serum and the amount in the daily urine.
Hyperuricemia. Xanthinuria.
8. Gout and its causes.
34
9. Synthesis of purine nucleotides. Sources of carbon and nitrogene atoms in the purine ring.
10. Functional role of DNA. Nucleosome.
11. RNA types, functions. Ribosome.
12. The method for the determination of uric acid concentration in the blood serum.
Serum
Caffeine reagent
NaCl 0.9%
Ehrlich's
diazo reagent
First tube
(total bilirubin)
0.5 ml
1.75 ml
0.25 ml
Test tubes
Second tube
(direct bilirubin)
0.5 ml
1.75 ml
0.25 ml
Third tube
(control)
0.5 ml
1.75 ml
0.25 ml
After 10 minutes, transfer the content of the second tube (direct bilirubin) to the cuvet and perform
a calorimetric measurement. After 20 minutes, transfer the solutions from the first (total bilirubin)
and the third tubes (control) to cuvets and perform a calorimetric measurement.
For these measurements, use a green light filter (compared with water) and a cuvette with a 5 mm
ply.
Calculation. Take the extinction value of the control sample from the extinction values of the first
and second samples. Use the calibration curve to find the total and direct bilirubin concentrations.
The indirect bilirubin is the difference between the total and the direct bilirubin. If the concentration
value, expressed in mg/dl, is multiplied by a conversion factor equal to 17.104, the concentration of
bilirubin, expressed in mol/l can be obtained.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
35
acetic acid; add 1 ml of urine containing blood, and a few drops of H2O2. The solution turns green
or blue.
Gaiac resin reaction. Add into the test tube some urine containing blood; add 2 ml of Gaiac resin
and a few drops of H2O2. The solution turns blue.
The formation of hemochromogen crystals. During the forensic medical examination of blood
stains, hemoglobin is converted to hemochromogen, which can be identified by its characteristic
absorption spectrum or by getting its crystals.
Add on the slide a drop of blood and a few drops of the reagent (containing pyridine, sodium
hydroxide, and glucose) beside. Gently warm the slide at 37 C. The heme interacts with pyridine;
the formed compound composes crystals. They can be observed through a microscope.
The formation of hemin chloride crystals (Teichmann's sample). By the examination of blood
stains, Teichmann's reaction can be also carried out. The reaction is based on the formation of
hemin chloride crystals (hemin is a heme product).
Add a drop of blood on the slide and dry it out (the temperature cannot be higher than 30
C). Then place several crystals of NaCl on top of dry blood and put a cover glass; drip 1 2 drops of
glacial acetic acid on the top of the cover glass. Heat up the slide. A small needle shape hemin
chloride crystals can be observed through the microscope.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.