BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Foundations
In general, any structure is considered to have two parts, the sub-structure and the superstructure. The sub-structure transmits the load of super structure to the underlying soil
and is termed as foundation.
In general, all foundations consist of three essential parts: the foundation bed, which
consists of the soil or rock upon which the building or structure rests; the footing, which
is normally widened and rests on the foundation bed; and the foundation wall, which
rises from the foundation to a location somewhere above the ground. The foundation
wall, contrary to its name, may be a column or a pedestal instead of a wall. But, when it is
a wall, it forms what is known as a continuous foundation. Figure shows common types
of wall and column foundations

Figure `1 Types of footings

Objectives of foundation
Foundation is provided for the following purposes;
1. To distribute the load of the structure, on large area, so that the intensity of
load does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the underlying soil.
2. To distribute the load on underlying soil evenly and thus to prevent unequal
settlement of the foundation.
3. To provide a level and hard surface for the superstructure to be built over it.
4. To increase the stability of the structure as a hole, against sliding,
overturning or other disturbing forces like wind, rain etc.

Ms.Kandamby

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

5. To prevent lateral movement of the supporting material, so that the safety of

the structure is not endangered.

Types of foundations
Foundations can be broadly classified in to two types

Shallow foundations
Deep foundations

Shallow Foundations
When the foundation is placed immediately beneath the lowest part of the
superstructure, it is termed as shallow foundation. The object of this type of
foundation is to distribute the structural loads over a wider horizontal area at
shallow depth below the ground level. Mainly the following types of
foundations can be categorized under shallow foundations.

Spread Footing Foundation

Mat or Raft foundation

Spread Footing Foundation

In case of spread footing, the base of the member transmitting load to the soil is
made wider so that load of the structure is distributed on sufficient area of the
soil in such a way that the safe bearing capacity of the soil not exceeded.
Following footings are described under this category

Strip Footing
Pad Footing

Combined Footing

Strip Footing Foundation (Wall Footing)

Strip Footing foundation consist of a continuous strip, under walls. Generally, this
strip consists of a concrete footing which is normally widened and rests on the
foundation bed; and the foundation wall, which rises from the foundation to a
location somewhere above the ground. This foundation wall may be constructed
either by using rubble or brick.

Ms.Kandamby

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Figure 2 Strip Footing

Pad Footing Foundation

Pad foundation are used to support an individual point loads such as in columns.
In general, pad foundations are in rectangular shape and consist of a slab of uniform
thickness.

Figure 3a Pad Foundation

Ms.Kandamby

QS/11/26

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

G.L

BTEC HND in QS & CE

4'
3"
1'

Grade-15
concrete

Y12@150 c/c
Bothways

4Yd1-02

2"

Figure 3b Reinforcement arrangement for pad foundation

Combined footing foundation
A common footing provided for two or more columns is known as a combined
footing. The footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. This footing is
provided under the following circumstances:
1. When columns are very near to each other and their individual footings overlap.
2. When bearing capacity of the soil is less, requiring more area under individual
footing.
3. When the end column is located at or near the property line and its footing cannot
be extended on the side of the property line.
In providing combined footing, It should be ensured that there is a uniform pressure
distribution under the footing. To achieve this object, the centre of gravity of
the footing area should coincide with the centre of gravity of the combined
loads of the two columns. A rectangular footing may be preferred for this
purpose. But, If the outer column near the boundary line carries heavier load,
provision of trapezoidal footing becomes essential for uniform pressure
distribution.

Ms.Kandamby

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Figure 4 Combined Foundation

Mat or Raft Foundation

Mat foundations are used to distribute heavy column and wall loads across the entire
building area, to lower the contact pressure compared to conventional spread footings.
Mat-slab foundations can be constructed near the ground surface, or at the bottom of
basements. In high-rise buildings, mat-slab foundations can be several meters thick, with
extensive reinforcing to ensure relatively uniform load transfer.
Following are some of the advantages of this foundation:
1. This foundation type is suitable for when the soil at site is soft and marshy having
uncertain behaviour. Raft foundation eliminates the possibility of differential
settlement.
2. Overall settlement of the structure is reduced, as the total load of the structure is
distributed over a large area and thus intensity of pressure on the foundation soil
is reduced to minimum.
3. Distribution of load on entire area of foundation is uniform.
Raft foundations also are constructed in various forms depending on soil condition
and intensity of loading.
Plain Slab Rafts
Plain slab rafts are suitable for lightly loaded structures such as small houses. They are
also be used for heavier structures if the ground condition is good and no differential
settlement is expected.
A plain slab raft consists of a reinforced concrete slab, usually slightly larger than the area
of the building. Reinforcement in the form of a mesh fabric is provided on both the top
and bottom faces of the slab.
Plain Slab with Stiffened Edge
Ms.Kandamby

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

It has a deeper and more reinforced edge beam. The plain slab raft with stiffened edge is
suitable in soils of high to very high compressibility, such as soft peaty clays or fill
material.
Slab and Beam Raft Foundations
They are used where poor soil conditions are encountered. The slab and beam provides
stiffness and prevents the distortion of the building.
Down-stand Beam Raft Foundations
They are suitable in stiff clays. Difficulties can arise if water bearing soils are
encountered. The main advantage of the down-stand beam raft foundation is that it
provides a level surface slab which can form the ground floor of the building. Another
advantage is the saving in excavation costs.
Up-stand Beam Raft Foundation
They involve extensive earthworks. The foundation not only has to be excavated, but also
has to be backfilled to form the ground floor slab. However, the up-stand beam raft
foundation provides a usable void below the ground floor if a suspended ground floor
slab is used.
With both down-stand and up-stand beam raft foundations, the columns must be
positioned at the intersection of the beams.
Cellular Raft Foundations
They consist of two reinforced concrete slabs linked by internal walls which divide the
void into cells. This type of foundation is suitable where poor soil is encountered at a
shallow depth, and where it would be uneconomical to use slab and beam raft
foundations.

Ms.Kandamby

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Figure 4b Reinforcement arrangement for raft foundation

Deep Foundations
In case of bearing capacity of the soil is very poor and depending on some other
conditions, the structure has to be taken deep in to the soil. There are mainly two types of
deep foundations;
1. Pile foundations
2. Caisson foundations
In building construction most commonly used type of deep foundation is pile foundation.

Ms.Kandamby

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Pile Foundations
What is a pile?
Piles are column like structural elements in a foundation. The function of piles is to
transfer superimposed loads through weak compressible strata or through water, onto
soils of adequate bearing capacity or onto rock strata. As the adequate bearing soil or rock
strata is at an uneconomic depth, the pile may carry the superimposed loads by skin
friction between the pile surface and the soil. Moreover, piles are required to anchor
structures against uplift loads and assist structures in resisting lateral and overturning
forces from winds or waves.
Reasons for selection of pile foundation

Where weak strata over lies firm stratum, piles can be used to reach the firm
stratum by by-passing all the weak/stratum.
Where concentration of loading occurs, it is best dealt with by piling because it is
most economical to transfer a load directly from the point of application to the
bearing stratum.
When uplift to building may occur, friction piles may be used to overcome the
uplifting force.
When the loading is so high that other foundation methods would not be
appropriate. Piles supported on rock create the greatest bearing capacity.
When the ground floor slab has to be carried above the ground, e.g. on a sloping
site.

Classification of Piles
Classification by method of installation
Displacement Piles
Displacement piles comprise solid-section piles or hollow-section piles with a closed end,
which are driven or forced into the ground and thus displace the soil.
Replacement Piles
Ms.Kandamby

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Replacement piles are formed by first removing the soil by boring using a wide range of
drilling techniques. Concrete may be placed into an unlined or lined hole, or the lining
may be withdrawn as the concrete is placed.

Classification by method of load transmission

End Bearing Piles
The base of an end bearing pile rests on a relatively firm soil such as rock, very dense
sand or gravel. The load of the structure is transmitted through the pile into this firm soil.
Because the base of the pile bears the load of the structure, this type of pile is known as
an end bearing pile.
Friction Piles
If the firm soil is at a considerable depth, it may be very expensive to use end bearing
piles. In such situations, the piles are driven through the penetrable soil for some distance.
The piles transmit the load of the structure to the penetrable soil by means of skin friction
or cohesion between the soil and the embedded surface of the pile. This type of pile is
called friction piles.
In most cases, piles work on a combination of the two principles stated above: both the
base end and the friction of the pile bear the load of the structure. In order to classify a
pile as an end bearing pile or a friction pile, we must know which principle is the more
prominent in a particular case.
Piles may be constructed using concrete, steel, timber or composite of above materials.
The concrete piles may be categorized as precast or cast in-situ piles.
In Sri Lanka the main types of piles are Pre-cast concrete piles and concrete cast in-situ
piles.

Concrete Piles
Reinforced Concrete piles can be divided mainly into two groups:

Precast Concrete Piles

Cast in-situ Piles

Precast Concrete Piles

Ms.Kandamby

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

General
Precast reinforced concrete piles are constructed of reinforced concrete with internal
reinforcement consisting of a cage made up of longitudinal bars and lateral or tie steel.
The piles are usually in the form of square but could be circular or octagonal. The lengths
of pile sections are often dictated by practical considerations.
The use of the main longitudinal bars is provided to prevent the bending moments
induced when the pile is lifted from its casting to the stacking area. On the other hand,
lateral steel in the form of hoops and links resist shattering or splitting of the pile during
driving.
Sometimes, it may be necessary to extend the pile by casting a length on to it in-situ . In
such situations, the concrete at the top of the original pile should be stripped to expose the
reinforcement. The new longitudinal reinforcement is then joined to the original
reinforcement.
Precast Concrete piles have following advantages,
1) The reinforcement is not disturbed from its actual position while concreting
2) Proper control in casting and curing can be exercised and if any defect is noticed
after casting, it can be rectified before piles are put to use.
3) They can be driven under water
4) They can be subjected to loading immediately after their driving and no time is
wasted
Disadvantages,
1) Being very heavy, it may be very difficult to transport, handle and drive them.
2) Extra steel has to be provided near top and bottom of the piles to resist stresses
developed during handling and driving.
3) Careless handling causes to breaking the piles.
4) If pile length is different from required length either it will have to be cut or part
of it has to be cast in-situ.

Pile driving equipments

A pile driving instrument is used to drive a pile into the ground. It consists of piling frame
and a hammer. The piling frame has the function of guiding the pile at its correct
alignment from the stage of first pitching in position to its final penetration. It also carries
the hammer and maintains it in position co-axially with the pile . The essential parts of a
piling frame are the leaders or leads, which are stiff members of solid, channel, box, or
tubular section held by a lattice or tubular mast.
Ms.Kandamby

10

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

There are many types of pile driving hammers.

There are:
a. drop hammer,
b. single-acting steam or compressed air hammer,
c. double-acting hammer,
d. diesel hammer, and
e. vibratory pile driver.
Drop Hammer
The simplest form of hammer, the drop hammer consists of a shaped a block of cast iron
or steel. The hammer is raised by a winch and then released to fall under gravity on to the
pile head.
Single-acting Steam of Compressed Air Hammer
This type of hammer is similar to a drop hammer in that the hammer falls freely under
gravity. The blows are provided by a heavy falling cylinder. The cylinder is raised by
steam power. Normal working speed is about 40 blows per minute, with a maximum of
60 blows per minute. The height of drop of the cylinder is usually 1.4 m. This hammer is
more efficient than the drop hammer.

Figure 5 Drop Hammer

Figure 6 Single acting Hammer

Double-acting Hammer
The double-acting hammer, is powered both upwards and downwards by compressed air
or steam.The driving force is less than that of a drop hammer or single-acting hammer,
but works fast, delivering 90 to 225 blows per minute.
Ms.Kandamby

11

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Double-acting hammers are suited to sites where the headroom is restricted and where the
use of other types of hammer are prohibited. The double-acting hammer is also used in
underwater piling where the hammer is activated by means of compressed air.
Vibratory Pile Hammer
The equipment consists of a vibrator mounted on the pile head. This unit vibrates the pile
and temporarily negates the friction between the pile and the soil. The pile therefore sinks
into the subsoil under its own weight and the weight of the vibrator.
This type of hammer is comparatively silent but can only be used in granular soil, such as
gravel and loose sands.

Figure 7 Double acting Hammer

Figure 8 Vibratory

Hammer

Cast in-situ concrete piles

In constructing the cast in-situ concrete piles, various techniques could be used and two
main techniques are described below;
Bored piles supported by casing or bentonite
Truck or crane mounted drilling rigs with or without casing are used to excavate these
piles.
The four stages in the installation of these piles are described below.
Stage1
A short length of casing is pitched in the required position. Excavation is carried out
within the casing by means of a helical auger (or grab), and the casing is then inserted
Ms.Kandamby

12

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

into the ground. This short length of casing prevents surface water and debris from
entering the borehole. It also prevents the collapse of the loose surface soil at the mouth
of the borehole, and the loss of the bentonite through the loose surface soil.
Stage2
The borehole is filled with bentonite suspension from storage tanks. Boring proceeds
through the bentonite, which is fed continuously into the hole during boring.
Stage3
Boring stops when the desired depth is reached. The auger is then withdrawn. A
reinforcement cage is lowered through the bentonite and concrete is placed through a
tremie pipe. The bentonite, which is displaced by the concrete, is pumped back into
storage tanks. The bentonite can be strained to remove soil particles, and then re-used.
Stage4
On completion of the concreting, the tremie pipe is removed and the short casing is
withdrawn. The pile length can be varied to suit site conditions, and piles can be as long
as 60m.
However, care must be taken to ensure that the reinforcement cage is correctly positioned
to provide adequate cover to all the reinforcement.
Driven and cast in-situ piles
Driven-and-cast-in-place piles are installed by driving to the desired penetration a heavysection steel tube with its end closed. A reinforcing cage is next placed in the tube. The
tube is withdrawn while placing the concrete or after it has been placed. In other types of
pile, thin steel shells or precast concrete shells are driven by means of an internal
mandrel, and concrete, with or without reinforcement, is placed in the permanent shells
after withdrawing the mandrel.

Ms.Kandamby

13

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Figure 9 Piling using Mandrel

Comparison with pre-cast piles

Advantages,
1) Comparatively lighter reinforcement is required as there are no handling and
driving stresses.
2) The piles can be cast in required length and hence there is no wastage of any
materisl
3) It is easy to drive and maintain verticality of the casing pipe.
4) Transportation difficulty is eliminated
Disadvantages,
1) Position of reinforcement may get disturbed while concreting the pile.
2) They are very difficult to be casted under water
3) It is difficult to have proper control in the construction of these piles
4) Any defect in form of voids if left unnoticed, may become cause of failure of
the structure.
Ms.Kandamby

14

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Factors Affecting Choice of Pile type

Depth to be reached.

Loading requirements.

Soil conditions regarding strength and ground movement, etc.

Environmental restrictions e.g. noise and air pollution control.

Access of site may limit the use of long precast pile.

Congested or open site may limit the use of piling rigs.

Headroom restriction e.g. under a bridge flyover.

Effect on adjoining buildings, if adjoining buildings are unstable,

excessive vibrations is to be avoided.

Piling plant and equipment available.

Reliability of types of piles and the expertise and familiarity of the

specialist sub-contractor.

Time available for completion of the piling contract.

Cost per unit length of pile.

Pile Cap
A pile cap is defined as a concrete block cast on the head of a pile, or a group of piles, to
transmit the load from the structure to the pile or group of piles.
Generally, pile cap transfers the load form the structures to a pile / pile group, then the
load further transfers to firm soil.
The functions of a pile cap are :
1. To distribute a single load equally over the pile group and thus over a greater area
of bearing potential.
2. To laterally stabilise individual piles thus increasing overall stability of the
ground.

Ms.Kandamby

15

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Figure 10 Pile cap

Other types of piles

Sheet Piles
Used to act as retaining walls
Fender piles
Used to protect concrete deck or other water front structures from impact
Anchor piles
Provide anchorage against horizontal pulls and thrusts
Batter piles
These piles are not vertical but driven inclined to resist horizontal and inclined
forces more effectively

Reference
Thomlinson, M.J.(1994) Pile Design and Construction Practice. 4th ed., London:
Spon.

E & FN

Bary,R(1999). The Construction of Buildings Volume 1. 7th ed., Oxford: Blackwell

Science Ltd.

Ms.Kandamby

16

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

Review
1.
2.
3.
4.

Explain the purpose of providing a foundation.

What are the types of foundations?
What are the factors that have to be considered in selecting a foundation type?
Why is most of property developers around this area using raft foundation in
their property development?
5. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of cast in-situ and pre-cast piles.

Suggested Reference
Bary,R(1999). The Construction of Buildings Volume 1. 6th ed., Oxford: Blackwell
Science Ltd. PP 7-13
Frank Harris (1994). Modern Construction and ground engineering equipment and
methods. 2nd ed., Essex: Longman Scientific & Technical pp 125-145

Glossary
Pile
A column like structure used in foundation construction.
Pile cap
A concrete block cast on the head of a pile, or a group of piles.
Casing:
A pipe used to line boreholes.
Cased Bore:
A bore in which a pipe, usually a steel sleeve, is inserted simultaneously with the boring
operation. Usually associated with Auger Boring.
Uncased Bore:
Any bore without a lining or pipe inserted, i.e., self-supporting, whether temporary or
permanent.
Drill Bit:
Ms.Kandamby

17

QS/11/26

BTEC HND in QS & CE

Week No: 02
BCT/02/02/03

A tool which cuts the ground at the head of a drill string

Drilling Fluid/Mud:
A mixture of water and usually bentonite and/or polymer continuously pumped to the
cutting head to facilitate cutting, reduce required torque, facilitate the removal of cuttings,
stabilize the borehole, cool the head and lubricate the installation of the product pipe.
Marshy
Soft and wet; boggy. E.g. Marshy land
Settlement
Sinking of all or part of a structure. Settlement may be uniform or differential.
Headroom
The vertical space available

Ms.Kandamby

18

QS/11/26