EconomicGeology

Vol. 82, 1987, pp. 108-123

StuartShelf-AdelaideGeosynclineCopperProvince,SouthAustralia
IAN B. LAMBEBT,JANICEKNUTSON,T. H. DONNELLY,AND H. ETMINAN
BaasBeckingGeobiological
Laboratory,GPO Box378, Canberra,A.C.T.2601,Australia
Abstract

Coppermineralization
of severaldifferenttypesformedin the Stuartshelf-Adelaide
geosynclineregionfromthe middleProterozoic
to the earlyPaleozoic.
Hydrothermal,
unconformity-related,
andbeddeddeposits
havebeendistinguished
andthesearediscussed
in the
lightof the geologicevolutionof the province.
The basementrocksbeneaththe Stuartshelfwere metamorphosed
and deformedduring
theKimbanorogeny,
commencing
about1.82b.y.ago.Betweenapproximately
1.63and1.51

b.y.agotherewasmajorbimodalalkali-rich
igneous
activity,accumulation
of volcano-sedimentarygrabensequences,
andhydrothermal
activity.Duringthisperiodthelargestcopper
(gold,uranium)depositin the region,OlympicDam,formedfromhydrothermal
fluidsin a
grabensequence
andotherimportant
middleProterozoic
hydrothermal
copper(gold)mineralizationformedin fracturezonesin feldsparporphyryandschists
at MoontaandWallaroo.

In thelateProterozoic
(Adelaidean),
the Stuartshelfwasa stableplatformonwhichonlya
few hundredmetersof sedimentary
coveraccumulated.
Copper(lead,zinc)mineralization
formedin permeable
zonesandis associated
withthe unconformity
at the baseof the late
Proterozoic
sequence
at MountGunson
andelsewhere,
wheremetalliferous
fluidsfrommiddle
Proterozoicred bedsandigneousrocksencountered
biogenicH2Sandpyrite.
To the east,late Proterozoicsequences
locallymorethan 10 km thick accumulated
on

crystalline
basement
in theAdelaide
geosyncline,
whichwasa rift in the earlystages
of its
evolution.
Low-temperature,
beddedanddisseminated
mineralization
formedin thesestrata
wherecupriferous
fluidsreactedwith biogenicsulfide,but suchcoppermineralization
is not
of economic
importance.
The maincopperdepositsin the Adelaidegeosyncline
sequence
wereat Kanmantoo
andBurra,bothof whichareconsidered
to haveformedfromhydrothermal
fluidsduringthe earlyPaleozoic.
Uranium(copper)mineralization
in breccias
in the Mount
Painterinlieralsoappears
tohaveformedprimarilyasa resultofhydrothermal
activityduring
or afterthe earlyPaleozoicDelamerianorogeny.
The largestof the copperdeposits
in thisregion,regardless
of type or age,fall on two

alignments
subparallel
to themajorfaultzoneseparating
theStuartshelffromthevariably
metamorphosed
anddeformed
sequence
of theAdelaidegeosyncline.
Thisimpliesa general
regionaltectoniccontrolon ore formation.

(e.g.,Rowlands
et al., 1978),noneof whichhasbeen

Introduction

COPPER
miningin Australiacommencedin the Adelaidegeosyncline
in 1842, followingthe discovery
of
secondaryore in late Proterozoicrnetasediments
at
Kapunda(Fig. 1). Numerous
otherdeposits
werediscoveredin the Adelaidegeosyncline
andStuartshelf
regionsin the remainderof the nineteenthcentury
(Dickinson,1953a; Thomson,1965; Johns,1975).
Most of these were small,but there was protracted
mining at Kapunda, Burra, Blinman, Kanmantoo,
Moonta-Wallaroo,andMount Gunson(Fig. 1 andTable 1).
After a long period of little explorationthe late
1960ssawan upsurgeof interestin the potentialfor
buriedsediment-hosted
deposits
in thisregion,largely
becauseof increasing
recognitionof ageandlithological similaritieswith the Zambiancopperbelt (e.g.,
Rowlands,1974). The 1970s saw the discoveryof
Zambian-style primary mineralization at several
stratigraphic
levelswithin the late Proterozoicstrata
0361-0128/87/638/108-16$
2.50

mined. Of greater economicimportancewere the

discoverieson the Stuartshelf(Fig. 1) of the unconformity-relatedCattle Grid deposit(Gerstelingand
Heape,1975) andthe hugehydrothermal
Olympic
Dam deposit(RobertsandHudson,1983).
The purposeof thispaperis to reviewsalientfeaturesof the regionalgeologyandthe variousstyles
of coppermineralization
in the Stuartshelf-Adelaide

geosyncline
provinceandto integratethesefeatures
into a metallogenicmodel.
RegionalGeology

In the Stuart shelf and Adelaide geosynclinere-

gions,late Proterozoic(Adelaidean)to Cambrian

strata accumulated on middle Proterozoic and older

rocks (Thomsonet al., 1975; Rutland et al., 1980;

Parker,1983). Figuresi and2 summarizethe broad

geologicframeworkandFigure 3 showsthe general
stratigraphyand ages.

10 8

STUART SHELF-ADELAIDE

GEOSYNCLINE Cu PROVINCE

138

...I",,x

Middle Proterozoicunmetamorphosed
sequences

-...

-..,/..'..':;;
''

l ate f-:.:-:-:-:.:-:-:.:.
:-:-:-:

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E....
01
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b---i-

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' ''"
In

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l.:.?Frome.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.:.:.'.'.'.'.

"

,,z".
'-':"t-'T''*-'-'-C
]':':';':':':':':':':':431
I':-.":';'.'-;-:-:':-:-:':';';-;-:':':-;-:-:':l

Gunson
%'

STUART
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:.:

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GEOSYNCLINE

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................:..
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-:

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RadiumHdl'U,,

I"'.;,-*,
;.:'-.-','/.!
;X'/

The widespread
GawlerRangeVolcanics
andpostorogenic
granites
oftheGawlercraton(Fig.2) formed
around1.63 and 1.51 b.y. ago,respectively(Cooper
et al., 1985;Fanninget al., 1986).The volcanics
are
predominantly
daciticto rhyodacitic,
butbasaltic
units
are also found in someareas.Penecontemporaneous

or youngervolcano-sedimentary
graben sequences
cropoutlocallyandhavebeenencountered
in drilling
throughcoverrocksatOlympicDamandin theMount

Gunson area. Over most of the Stuart shelf area the

/%?'"
:!!i:i:i:i:
'..:.:.:.:.:.:.:.]
earliestpostorogenic
strataare unconformably
over-

: i.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.

'2.',

109

Burra

'-.'.-:-:.

'--.-' .'>:-:-..

'" .......... .'.'.'.'.....

lainby the PandurraFormation,a fluvialred-bedsequence which accumulatedin northwest-northnorthwest-elongated

grabens.
The maximumage,and
possiblythe depositionalage, of the PandurraFormationis ca. 1.42 b.y. ago(Fanninget al., 1983).

Late Proterozoicsequences

.:-:-:-:-:.:.:-:-:-:-:.:.:-:-:-:.:.:.:.:-:-;

Duringthe late Proterozoic,the Stuartshelfwasa

I''Zg'W,
IIa,oo 1,
,%
'.'.'.-.-.-.-.'.-.-.'.'.'.'.-.-.-.'.-.'.'.'
block-faulted
stableplatformonwhichtherewaslimMoontaL'd:'.
//, Kapunda
V'
"'
''"'"'"'"
'"'
'
..'.'.'-]iii

b".".'.'.'.'.".'.'-'.'-'.'.'-'-'-'-'.'.".".',

........
I

(/L--/.J

-' ....

e>Kanmantoo'-'.-'-'....:-'..:-:-:.'.-:-:-

/ ':'."'...'-'..'::::::
5
-' '"'"'"

h
"'"'""'"'
':"':''': :':
::..
::.
16/SA/22

::ZYounger
cover
- Late
Proterozoic
to
Metamorphic
basement

Cambrian

strata

ited sedimentaccumulation.The preservedAdelaideancoversequencevariesin thicknessup to a maximumof about800 m. In contrast,the Adelaidegeosynclinewasthe siteof a majorrift duringthisperiod
(Rutlandet al., 1980; von der Borch, 1980) and sequencesat least 10 km thick accumulatedin the
deeplysubsiding
basin.The Torrenshingezone(Figs.
1, 2) separates
the shelfandgeosyncline.
Featuresof
the lateProterozoicstrataof the Adelaidegeosyncline
andStuartshelfare the paucityof deep-watersedimentaryfacies,relativelyminorvolcanism,two major
tillites, and the occurrenceof strata-boundcopper
mineralization

at various levels.

Four majorlate Proterozoiclithostratigraphic

units
have been recognizedin the Adelaidegeosyncline
(Fig. 3). The first of these,the CallannaGroup, acFIG. 1. Geologicsketchmapof the Stuartshelf-Adelaide
geo- cumulatedin grabenenvironmentsin the northern
synclineregionshowinglocationsof copperdepositsdiscussed
in Adelaidegeosyncline.
It comprisesquartz-richartext, and other significantdeposits.
enites,siltstones,
carbonates
containingstromatolites
and evaporitepseudomorphs,
andvolcanics.Coarseandmedium-grained
terrestrialclasticsat the southMetamorphicbasement
eastextremityof the Stuartshelfareintercalatedwith
The oldestrocksin the Gawlercraton(Fig. 2) are and overlainby basaltsof the BedaVolcanics,which
sedimentaryandvolcanicstratawhichwere strongly have been correlated with altered basalts in the Calmetamorphosed,
deformed,and intrudedby grani- lanna Group (Fig. 3). Webb and Coats (1980) con-

toidsduringtheearlyProterozoic.
Laterin the early

cluded that the Beda Volcanics formed around 1.08

Proterozoic,a predominantlysedimentarysequence
containing
iron-formations
wasdeposited,
andthiswas
metamorphosed
andintrudedby granitoids
duringthe
Kimbanorogeny,commencingabout 1.82 b.y. ago
(Webb et al., 1982). To the east,the Willyamainlier
(Fig.2) wasmetamorphosed
at ca.1.65 b.y. ago(Gulson, 1984).

b.y. ago,but Pageet al. (1984) reinterpretedthe RbSr data for the leastaltered samplesto indicatean
ageof around1.2 b.y. Over large areasof the Stuart
shelf,the PandurraFormationis cut by a swarmof
northwest-trendingdikes which probably formed
contemporaneously
with the BedaVolcanicsduring
crustal extension.

110

LAMBERT,KNUTSON,DONNELLY, AND ETMINAN

138

......

Mt......... Painter Inlier:::::::

i-i.'-i-;-''-'-i-''"''-'-''''i

31

STUART

SHELF

/-/
ADELAIDE

Ill GEOSYNCLIN
I

1O0 km

16/SA/23

Younger
cover

Late
Proterozoic
toCambrian
strata
Mid
Proterozoic
Gawler
Range
Volcanics
Metamorphic
basement

Early
Palaeozoic
underformed
graniteiris
Mid
Proterozoic
uncleformed
graniteiris
Carbonatebreccia("diapirs'
Major faults

FIG. 2. Generalizedgeologicmapof the Stuartshelf-Adelaidegeosyncline

region,basedlargely
on the TectonicMap of SouthAustralia1:2,000,000 scale(Flint andParker,1982).

acterizedby fluvialanddeltaicclasticsandstones,
and
interspersedstromatoliticdolomitesandsedimentary
magnesiteare interpretedas havingformedin carbonate pansin pluvial environments(e.g., von der
sedimentation on the Stuart shelf or no strata of this Borch, 1976; Uppill, 1983).
In the Adelaide geosyncline,the Umberatana
cyclehavebeenpreserved.The BurraGroupis char-

The secondunit, the Burra Group, in part disconformablyoverliesCallannaGroupvolcanics.During

deposition
of theBurraGroup,theTorrenshingezone
was a zone of normalfaulting;either there was no

STUART SHELF-ADELAIDE

GEOSYNCLINE Cu PROVINCE

111

SOUTHERNSTUARTSHELFNORTHERN
STUARTSHELF

(MOUNT
GUNSON) ADELAIDE
GEOSYNCLINE

zo

.....

./-

// / / 11

// // // o

EDIACARA
FAUNA-****
/

z
0

...................... . ..
'*'MARINOANGCIALS

.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'

.....

'. ,'. atVER

WEIED'.SUSGROUP','.

:o.7

'','

._, '?'',',''-''
{

...

i'i'..,..
.....-

r U':'-?(. ,

GAWLE GEVOLC
15 b )-

'

. ,. ,,c.,'. :..... z..:- ;.';",':

- ,.-'",z,,

SEDIMERRABEN

. .z..4.

J..4

. .

,,...".,:':L..'

16/SA/24

FIG. 3. Stratigraphicsectionsand ages,Stuart shelf and Adelaide geosyncline;thicknessof units

not to scale.Modifiedafter Rutlandet al. (1980). Stratigraphicpositionsof mineraldepositsand hydrothermally
alteredrocksdiscussed
in textareindicatedby numbers:
I = MoontaandWallaroo(early
andmiddleProterozoic
hostrocks),2 = OlympicDam,3 = MountGunsonalteredvolcano-sedimentary
sequence,4 = Mount Gunson,Cattle Grid (middle andlate Proterozoichostrocks),5 = Mount Gunson,

TapIcyHill Formationdeposits,6 = Myall Creek, 7 = MountPainter(earlyto middleProterozoicand

earlyPaleozoic
hostrocks),8 = Blinman,9 = CopperClaim,10 = Burra,11 = Kapunda,12 = Kanmantoo.

clasticsand
Group(thirdunit)isseparated
fromtheBurraGroup Group, comprisesquartzo-feldspathic
by a disconformity
or angularunconformity,
andit minor carbonatesdepositedunder shallow-waterto
hasglacialsequences
top andbottom.The ca. 0.75- emergentconditions.
Intrusive breccias are common in the Adelaide
b.y.-old(Webbet al., 1983) interglacial
TapleyHill
Formation is the first Adelaidean unit found exten- geosyncline
(Preiss,1985;Fig. 2). Manyof thesehave
sivelyon the Stuartshelf.It accumulated
in a variety been interpretedas havingformedby diapiric emofenvironments,
fromemergent
tobelow-wave
base. placementof evaporite-richCallannaGroup strata;
Betweenthe Tapley Hill Formationand the upper deformationof CallannaGroupandoverlyingstrata
glaciogenicstrata, mudstones,sandstones,
and car- in decollementprocesses
and sedimentationaround
tectonically
activebasement
highshavebeeninvolved

bonates accumulated under terrestrial to subwave

base conditions.The youngestunit, the Wilpena

in some cases.

112

LAMBERT,KNUTSON,DONNELLY,AND ETMINAN

in rocksvaryingin agefromearlyProterozoicto early

Paleozoic
(Fig. 3) andthey canbe dividedinto three
Lower Cambrian carbonates and clastic units acbroad
categories;
hydrothermal,unconformityrecumulatedin supratidal,marineshelf,andothershelf
or basinalmarineenvironmentsin the Adelaidegeo- lated, andbedded.Importantdepositsin hydrothersyncline(yonder Borch,1980), whereasshallow-wa- mally alteredrocksoccurin both the west and the
eastof the province.The mainunconformity-related
ter carbonates formed on the Stuart shelf. There was
depositsformed in the central Stuart shelf. Bedded
minor Lower Cambrian volcanism in the south of the
Adelaidegeosyncline
wherea thicksequenceof Mid- and associatedveinlet mineralization is widespread
dle Cambrianfeldspathic
arenitesandsiltstones,
with at variousstratigraphiclevels in the Adelaidegeoandmanyofthe small,high-grade
secondary
minorpyriticblackshalesandlimestones,
built up in syncline,
ores
which
have
been
mined
in
this
region
(Johns,
the Kanmantootroughin the southeast(Figs.2 and
1975)
probably
formed
by
surficial
enrichment
of
3). The Late Cambrian-Ordovician
Delamerianorog- such mineralization.
eny causedvariabledeformationandmetamorphism
The largestcopperdepositson the Stuart shelf,
in the Adelaide geosyncline(Fleming and White,
regardless
of form or age, are alignedsubparallelto
1984); the Stuartshelf sequenceescapedmetamorthe
Torrens
hinge zone and the sameis the casefor
phismand was only slightlydeformedduring this
the
largest
of
the depositsof the deformedAdelaide
event.
geosyncline(Fig. 1).
Cambriansequences

CopperMineralization

Hydrothermaldeposits

This sectionoutlinesthe geologicfeaturesof the

The generalfeaturesandsizesof the largestcopper
depositsin the Stuart shelf-Adelaidegeosyncline copperdepositsin hydrothermallyaltered rocks.It
provinceare summarizedin Table 1. The depositsare also discusses
the poorly mineralizedvolcano-sediTABLE1. LargestCopperDepositsof the StuartShelf-Adelaide
Geosyncline
Province(listedin orderof decreasing
size)
Deposit
Olympic Dam

Size
Estimated ore: 450 million metric tons,

2.5% Cu, 0.08% U3Os(+ Au, Ag,

REE); total size in excessof 2,000
million

Moonta and Wallaroo

metric tons

Mined: 6.4 million metric tons, 5.3%

Status

Closed 1923

Hydrothermal structurallycontrolleddeposits
in deformed early to middle Proterozoic
porphyry and schist

Almostmined
out

Unconformity-relatedmineralizationinfilling
brecciazone alongunconformitybetween

Cu (+ Au)
Cattle Grid

(Mt. Gunson)

Mined: 6 million metric tons, 1.9% Cu

(subeconomic
Pb, Zn)

Nature of mineralization

Preparationsfor Hydrothermalstrata-boundand transgressive

mining
mineralizationin middle Proterozoicgraben sequencedominatedby polymict and
graniticbreccias

middle Proterozoic red bed and late Proterozoic sandstone

Burra

Mined: 2.4 X 105 metric tons,22% Cu

Closed 1982

+ 3.3 million metric tons, 1.56% Cu

Hydrothermal mineralizationin brecciated

late Proterozoic dolomite; associatedminor

igneousrockspossiblyformed during Delamerian orogeny;secondaryenrichment

Kanmantoo

Mined: 4 million metric tons, 1% Cu

Closed1976

Hydrothermalore lensesparallel to schistosity

in Cambrian metasediments

Blinman

Mined: 2 X 105 metric tons, 5% Cu

Closed 1918

Bedded ore in late Proterozoic

dolomitic

blocksin "diapir"; possibleremobilization/

addition of Cu related to dolerite intrusion;
secondaryenrichment

Kapunda

Mined: 6.6 104 metric tons, 20% Cu

Closed 1912

Bedded depositin late Proterozoic dolosiltstone;sulfideveinlets common;secondary

enrichment

Tapley Hill Formation SubeconomicCu (Pb, Zn)

(Myall Creek and
Mt. Gunson)

Bedded sulfides concentrated

near uncon-

formity at base(and top) of late Proterozoic

dolosiltstone; some thin veinlet sulfides;

peripheralPb, Zn
Copper Claim

SubeconomicCu

Bedded depositin late Proterozoicdolosiltstone;carbonate-sulfideveinlets abundant

STUART SHELF-ADELAIDE

GEOSYNCLINE Cu PROVINCE

mentary sequencebeneaththe Mount Gunsonarea

andthe MountPainterinlier, sincetheseprovidefurther insightsintothe hydrothermalprocesses
thatoccurred in the province.Isotopicand fluid inclusion
dataare presentedwhere available.
OlympicDam: This depositis by far the largest
copperresourcein the region(Robertsand Hudson,
1983; Roberts,1987).
In the OlympicDam area, postorogenic
potassic
granite unconformablyunderlies about 350 m of
Adelaidean cover rocks; the Pandurra Formation is

113

(110-225C, avg 162C) and transgressive

(185265C, avg 237C) ores.Freezing point depressions

indicatewiderangesof salinities
(from0.5-14.3 equiv
wt % NaC1,avg 7.5%) in both typesof ore. In view
of the hydrothermalalterationunderreasonablyoxidizingconditions,
the preliminarysulfurisotopedata
are consistent
with a magmaticsulfurcomponentin

theOlympicDammineralization.
The34Svfthle$
for
sulfidesfromboth ore typesconcentratein a narrow

negativerange(-5 to -11%0)andbariteiS4S
ValUeS
are positive(4.6-13%0).

absent.Mineralization
occursin a northwest-trending Moonta-Wallaroo:Poor outcropand complicated
grabenwhich containsthick middleProterozoicse- Proterozoicgeology have resulted in uncertainties
quencesof coarseclasticunitsand lessabundantal- aboutstratigraphic
correlations
andore genesis
in this
tered felsic volcanics and iron-formations. The coarse old miningarea (Dickinson,1953b; Johnson,1965),
clasticsrangefrom matrix-richpolymictbrecciasto the largestproducerof copperin the provinceto date.
brecciasdominatedby alkali feldspargranitefrag- The mainrock typesbeneaththe thin coverof Cainments;the uppermost
unitcontains
recycledbreccias. ozoicand Cambrianstrataare schists,amphibolites,
In structuralzonesthereare massivecrosscutting
he- and iron-formations
of early Proterozoicage, which
matite-richbodies,intrusivepolymictbreccias,anda havebeenintrudedby feldsparporphyriesandpostvariety of igneousdikes.Thesediscordantunitsex- orogenicgranitesand pegmatites.Most porphyries
hibit evidencefor multiplehydrothermal
eventsand arefoliatedandclearlywere emplacedbeforeor durhydraulicbrecciation.
Thereiswidespread
hematite, ing the Kimbanorogeny.
chlorite,sericite,andsilicaalterationofthe sequence The Moontaore shootswere largelyundeformed
andlocalpotashfeldsparandcarbonatealteration.
tabularto pipelikebodies.Theyformedmainlywithin
The coppermineralizationoccursas strata-bound arcuatefracturezonesin reddish(finely hematitic)
and transgressive
types,both of whichcontainrare feldsparporphyry.Theycomprised
chalcopyrite
and

earth minerals,uranium,fluorite,barite,and gold. bornitcin a coarse-grained

gangueof quartz,microcline, and biotite, with minorhematite,pyrite, and
hematiticmatrix-richbrecciaswhichhavecomplex tourmalineand accessory
molybdenite,fiuorapatite,
morphologiesand distributions.It exhibits a broad fluorite,and uraninite.There wasbleachingof the
zonationfrompyrite rich at the base,throughchal- porphyryfor approximately10 cm from the lodes.
copyrite,up to bornite-(chalcocite);
there is a pyritic Somelodestraversedschistor schistose
porphyry,
siderite-richbreccia zone along the northeastern andin thesecasesthe sulfides
wererelativelydissemmargin.The strata-bound
sulfidesare mainlyfinely inated and alteration more extensive.
The extensive strata-bound mineralization occurs in

disseminated
throughthe brecciamatrix, and clasts
of sulfidesup to severalcentimeters
across
alsooccur.
Texturesindicatea complexparagenesis
of sulfides
andhematite;replacement
andmicrocavity
fillingare
common,as are rock clastscontainingdisseminated
sulfides and sulfide rims. The strata-bound ore is

commonlyupgradedwhereit is cutby the discordant

hematiticunit nearthe centerof the deposit.
The transgressive
chalcocite-bornite
(chalcopyritepyrite)mineralization
generallyoccursat higherlev-

elsthanthestrata-bound
ore.It comprises
high-grade
zonesassociated
with irregulardiscordanthematite
and polymictbrecciabodies,and lower grademineralizationin relativelythin, discontinuous
veins.
Reconnaissance
fluid inclusionand sulfurisotope
studieshavebeenundertakenon OlympicDam mineralization(Robertsand Hudson,1984; D. Roberts,
oralcommun.,1984).Thefluidinclusion
datasuggest
involvement of fluids of different salinities and tem-

The nearby,lessnumerousbut more continuous

Wallarooorebodiesoccurredin schists.They contained veins,pods,laminae,and disseminations
of
chalcopyrite,pyrite, and pyrrhotite and were generally subparallelto schistosity.
The main gangue
mineralswerequartzandcarbonates
(calcite,siderite,
dolomite,and rhodocrosite);microclineand biotite
were lessabundant;tourmaline,apatite,andfluorite
were widespreadasaccessory
minerals;andthere are
reportsof tracesof thucolite-typeradioactivematerial. Althoughsomeminorcopperandlead-zincmineralizationin the schists
probablyformedduringaccumulation
ofthe hostsequence,
theWallaroocopper
orebodies and associatedalteration zones formed after

the majorregionalmetamorphism.
Mount Gunson area: In the Mount Gunson area,
the ca. 500-m-thick Pandurra Formation is underlain

unconformably
by some500 m of a hydrothermally
alteredsequenceof tuffs,siltstones,potassium-rich
mafic,intermediate,and felsicvolcanics-high-level

peraturesandpossible
boiling.Homogenization
temperaturesfor inclusions
in fluoriteand quartzasso- intrusions,and"calc-silicates"
(Knutsonet al., 1983a,
ciated with sulfides are variable in both strata-bound
and in prep.; Donnellyet al., 1983). At the baseof

114

LAMBERT,KNUTSON,DONNELLY, AND ETMINAN

thisalteredsequenceis a brecciatedandmylonitized by the presenceof someclastsof Paleozoicgranites

granitewhich containsundeformed,coarse-grained in the brecciasandby localintrusionof a hematitic
segregationsof K-feldspar, tourmaline, fluorite, brecciainto an undeformedpegmatitedike considquartz, calcite, and anhydrite.Immediately above ered to be of Paleozoicage.
the granite is a carbonatelithology with textures
Lambertet al., (1982) explainedthe rangesof carsuggestive
of a calcreteregolith.Therefore,it appears bonateisotopecompositions
by mixingof meteoric
ICthatthe graniteis olderthanthe overlyingstrataand waterswith anatecticfluidswhichincorporated
the alteration and hydraulicfracturing of this se- enriched CO from carbonaceousbasement strata;
quencewere generatedby the volcanicand subvol- calcitefromthebrecciashasa widerangeof negative
canic activity. The main secondarymineralsin the C values(-22.3 to -4.2%0)whichvaryinversely
volcano-sedimentary
sequenceare calcite, quartz, with $1sOvalues(23.1 to -4.0%0). They alsoconchlorite,potashfeldspar,hematite,actinolite,tour- eludedthatthe$a4S
valuesforpyritefromthebreccias
maline,fluorite,epidote,andpyrite.Spheneandrutile andbrecciatedgranites,whichconcentratein a narareminoralterationmineralsandchalcopyriteoccurs row range aroundzero per mil, reflect primary or
sporadically.
leachedsulfideof magmaticderivation.
The volcanicandsubvolcanic
rockshavehighiron
The mainprocesses
causingbrecciationand assoand potassiumcontents.Alteration has causedcon- ciated metasomatism in the southern Mount Painter
siderableredistribution of these elements, with en- inlier were evidentlyhydraulicfracturingandhydrorichmentsup to 19 percentFeO and 11 percentK20. thermalactivityresultingfrom ascentof basementCopper contentsin the igneousrocksare depleted derivedgraniticmagmasto shallowcrustallevelsin
exceptwhere sulfidesare present.Isotopicandfluid zones of structural weakness. There are local eloninclusiondata imply the presenceof fluids from at gated, narrow zonesof fault brecciation,and rare
leasttwo sources,
with a magmaticcomponentdom- sedimentaryfeaturesin the breccias.
inantin the volcanicto subvolcanic
sequence;
boilKanmantoo:
The Kanmantoo
troughformedduring
ing mayhaveoccurred.Calcitefrom a rangeof igne- the Early and Middle Cambrian,and the thick seousrocktypeshasnarrow$13C(-5.0 to 0.0%0),and quence of mainly deep-water sedimentswhich ac$1SOsMow
valueranges(10.5 to 14.3%0).Pyrite$34S cumulatedin it was subjectedto medium-to highvaluesare concentratedbetween0 and 2.1 per mil grademetamorphism
duringthe Delamerianorogeny
(totalrange-8.1 to 11.7%0).Fluidinclusions
in calcite (Thomson,1975).
The main Kanmantooorebodies(Verwoerd and
and quartz in theserocks(P. Eadington,writ. commun., 1985) havevariablehomogenization
temper- Cleghorn, 1975) were in schistsformed from inatures(110-380C) andfreezingpointdepressions terbeddedargillaceous
to arenaceous
strata;no volwhich indicate the presenceof Ca-rich fluids and canicor pyroelasticunitshavebeen recognized.The
NaC1-CO2-richbrines.
lodeswere lensesof predominantlyveinlet mineralMount Painter inlier: The Mount Painter inlier is izationflattenedparallelto the axialplaneschistosity.
composedof early to middle Proterozoicmetasedi- Compared with the host strata, the lodes had low
ments,metavolcanics,
and granites,locallyintruded whitemicaandandalusite
contentsandhighstaurolite
by earlyPaleozoic
alkali-richgranitesandpegmatites and garnet contents.The main mineralsin the ore
(Coatsand Blissett,1971). In the south-centralpart were chalcopyrite,pyrrhotite, and magnetite;bismineral,
of the inlier, there are enigmaticgranitic,hematitic, muthinitewasthe mostabundantaccessory
and chloritic breccias (Coats and Blissett, 1971; and gold and silverwere presentin low concentraDrexel, 1980; Lambertet al., 1982). Someof the lay- tions.
erlike and funnel-shapedhematitic and chloritic
Isotopicanalysesof sulfidesby P. Seecombe(writ.
brecciashavebeenminedfor uranium(radium);they commun.,
1984) showeda rangeof 34Svaluesfrom
alsocontainminorpyrite, coppersulfides,molybde- 8 to 12 per mil in the main orebodyand a slightly
nite, monazite, and fluorite. The breccias consist wider range for the whole deposit (3-12%0). Seemainly of autochthonousclastsup to pebble size, combehasinterpretedtheseresultsasindicatingsulwhich are commonlyreplaced or veined to varying fide generationby reductionof heatedCambrianseadegreesby hematite,(martitc)chlorite,K-feldspar, watersulfatecirculatingdeepin the troughsequence,
by leachingof sedimentarysulfides
and quartz, which are also major matrix minerals. supplemented
There are gradationalcontactswith brecciatedand (whichhavebeenshownto be aSrich in the caseof
metasomatizedhostrocks, and brecciation extendsto the nearbyNairnepyritedeposit,JensenandWhittle,
depthsexceeding400 m. Someof the pyrite in the 1969).
brecciashas a elasticappearance,but microscopic Burra:Thisdepositoccurredin altered,breeeiated,
studiesindicatethatthisformedby replacementdur- variablyfiaggy,andshalySkillogalee
Dolomiteof the
Burra Group. It was adjacentto a silieifiedand reing hydrothermalalteration.
Constraints
on the timingof eventsare provided crystallizeddiapir characterizedby intensekaolin-

STUART SHELF-ADELAIDE GEOSYNCLINE Cu PROVINCE

115

ization(talc, chlorite,and mica at depth), moderate zone and decreases downward as the brecciation dies
faultsand
abundances
of feldspars,tourmalineandpyrite, and out. Prominentnorth-northwest-trending
minor chalcopyriteandbornitc (Wright, 1975). The jointsare mineralizedmoreintenselyandto greater
ore wassecondary,occurringmainlyin two irregular depthsthanadjacent
rocks.Sulfidemineralsalsoparenrichedzonesin a blockboundedby north-north- tially replacematrix claysand quartz and feldspar
west to northwest-trendingfaults.The main copper grainsin the brecciaclasts.
mineralsmined were malachite,cuprite, and chalMostof the copperminedfromthe unconformity
cociteandthe ganguemineralswere calcite,asbestos, has come from the Cattle Grid deposit(Gersteling
talc, andquartz.A smallquartzfeldsparintrusionand and Heape, 1975; Creelman1983; Knutsonet al.,
analteredrockresemblinganagglomeratehavebeen 1983b),a tabulardepositaveraging4.5 m thick.The
documentedfrom the vicinity of the mineralization. principalsulfidesin the Cattle Grid ore are minerals
The mineralizationhasbeenregardedassyngenetic- of the chalcocite-digenite-djurleite
series,bornitc,
remobilized (Thomson,1963; Johnson,1965) and chalcopyrite,and pyrite. Sphalerite,galena,marcaepigeneticrelatedto igneousactivity(Wright, 1975; site, covellite, bravoitc, and carrolite are minor comJ. Drexel, oral commun.1984).
ponents.
Thereistexturalevidencefor somereplacementof ironandcopper-ironsulfides
by progressively
Unconformity-related
deposits
morecopper-richphases(andsphalerite).Sequential
PandurraFormation-WhyallaSandstone:
Copper precipitationof the sulfidemineralsoccurredin fracmineralizationoccursin the uppermostPandurra turesandvugs,with the mostcopper-richminerals
FormationandbasalWhyaliaSandstone
in the Mount (andsphalerite-galena)
forminglate in the paragenGunson-Pernatty
lagoonareaof the Stuartshelf.Here esis.The mineraltexturesimplythattherewasa comnorth-northwest-trending
blocksof upfaultedPan- plex historyof deposition,dissolution,
redeposition,
durra Formation, in excessof 500 m thick, formed a andreplacement.
Smallquartzcrystalscoatedby suldepositional
highduringthe Adelaidean,the so-called fidesin the Cattle Grid deposithavebeen reported
Pernattyculmination(Figs.3 and4). The TapleyHill to containCaC12-richfluid inclusionswith homogeFormationislocallyabsentoverthisstructure,sothat nization temperaturesaround 120C (Busbridge,
Whyalia Sandstonedirectly overlies the Pandurra 1981). However, it is uncertainwhether suchfluids
Formation.Brecciation,silicification,and Liesegang were involvedin generationof part of the mineralbandingoccurto varyingdegreesin the uppermost ization;theymayhaveformedearlierduringintrusion
PandurraFormation of the culmination,reflecting of the regionaldolerite dike swarm.
prolongedexposurebeforedepositionof the Whyalia
Knutsonet al. (1983b)showed$34Svaluesfor the
Sandstone.Structuresindicativeof periglacialcon- Cattle Grid and other depositsalongthe Pandurra
ditions have been recognizedalong the Pandurra Formation-WhyallaSandstoneunconformityin this
Formation-Whyalla
Sandstone
unconformityby Wil- areato be predominantlynegative(-18 to 5%0;Fig.
liamsandTonkin (1985).
5), with no lateral or vertical isotopictrendsand no
A numberof depositshavebeen mined alongthis isotopic equilibrium between adjacent mineral
unconformity.The coppermineralizationmainlyfills phases.In the absenceof evidencefor high-temperin fracturesandvugsin the permeableunconformity aturemineralizingfluids,theseisotopecompositions
arebestinterpretedin termsof influxof groundwaters
carryingH2Sgeneratedby bacterialreductionof sulSW

CattleGrid

N_

Breccia

Pernatty

Lagoon

.,.....: ,... , . ,.,.::.

?ff'. ft;".'.";;:' ):? .;"::'--z .',, ;' t-'.. :'?.,

-.'
:';:,':.'.=,*.
,.,
:":.-,
.-..'-'..',-.'.,
--'.'.:.:
,.::';
v,

different old continental sources.

BasalTapleyHill Formation:Subeconomic
copper,
lead, andzinc sulfidesare concentratedin relatively
permeablelaminae in the basal few meters of the
Tapley Hill Formation at severallocalitieson the

' Altered
volcano

Copper
mineralization

Veicalexaggeration
ca 7 to I

'".

Lead isotopestudiesby Creelmanet al. (1983)

showed
CattleGridtocontainradiogenic
lead('apb/
4pbbetween20.5 and21.2; 7Pb/4pb
ca. 15.9)
whichplotsin themiddleof a colineararrayof isotopic
compositions
for rock lead from this area. They interpretedtheir datain termsof mixingof lead from

TentHillFm.

' Sandstone

Tapley
HillFm.

fate.

..:.

vv

. ......;

vvv

.,;

vv,

IO. . enerize crosssection,ount unson-erntty

}oon e, The unconormity-re}tecoer
concentrte in ermeb}e zonesn

Stuart shelf. In the most studied areas, around the

Pernatty culminationat Mount Gunson(Knutsonet

al., 1983b) and at Myall Creek (Fig. 1; Lambert et

al., 1985) copperconcentrations

up to 0.5 to 1.5 percent occurover areasof severalsquarekilometers,

116

LAMBERT, KNUTSON, DONNELLY, AND ETMINAN

PANDURRA

TAPLEY

(MT. GUNSON,

IMT GUNSON)

-3

-20

HILL

MYALL CREEK,

KAPUNDAetc.)

-10

10

20

6 34S(CDT)
%0

30

40

50

16/A/33

F]C. 5. Distributionsof a4Svaluesfor copperdepositsalong

the PandurraFormation-WhyallaSandstoneunconformity,and
for sulfidesin the Tapley Hill Formation.

The absenceof hydrothermalalteration,the presenceof carbonaceous

matter, and the sulfurisotope
compositions
imply closed-system
biologicalsulfate
reductionin the Tapley Hill Formation.Pyrite and
othersulfidesat bothMountGunsonandMyall Creek

haveis4S
valuesin a widerangefrom0 to 45 permil
(Fig. 5). There are no significanttrendsrelated to
mineralogy,location,or form of the sulfides.The
concentration of is4Svalues for veinlet minerals be-

tween 15 and25 per mil indicatesremobilizationof

bedded sulfides.

TheS7Sr/SSr
ratiosof dolomitefromunmineralized
TapleyHill Formationon the Stuartshelf(>0.710;

Veizer, 1971; Lambert et al., 1985) are higher than

and low-gradelead and zinc mineralizationoccurs for marine carbonatesof the sameage (ca. 0.7075;
Veizer et al., 1983) and are compatiblewith nonperipherally.
The main mineralizationin the Tapley Hill For- marinewatersin the Tapley Hill depositionalenvimation in the Mount Gunson area is in dolomitic siltronment,or postdepositional
alteration.
At MountGunsonandMyall Creek,dolomitefrom
stoneoverlyingcoarseclasticswhichinfilleddepressionson the Pernattyculmination.The main copper bothmineralizedandunmineralizedTapleyHill Formineralsare chalcopyrite,bornite, and chalcocite, mationhasi]sCvaluesclusteredaround-2.5 per mil
whichoccurasaggregates
alongbeddingplanes,dis- andisovaluesaround26 per mil, whicharewithin
seminatedgrains, and veinlets. The disseminated the rangefor unalteredProterozoic(marineand in(VeizerandHoefs,1976). Alcoppermineralscommonlyrim or replaceframboidal landbasin)carbonates
pyrite. The thin veinletsare discontinuous
and they terationof detritalfeldsparto claysismoreadvanced
strata,implyingthatrelativelylarge
commonlyfill dewateringstructuresanddesiccation in themineralized
cracksimplyingthat they formedduringearly dia- volumesof fluidspassedthroughthem.
genesis.As in the nearby mineralizationalongthe
Pandurra Formation-WhyallaSandstonecontact, Beddeddeposits
there are minor enrichments of cobalt, nickel, and
Occurrencesof primarycoppermineralizationdisarsenic.
seminatedalongbeddinghavebeenfoundbelowthe
In the Myall Creekarea,the TapleyHill Formation zoneof oxidationat widespreadlocalitiesthroughthe
wasnot depositedadjacentto a paleohighandit has Adelaide geosyncline.These bedded depositsare
a lower overall carbonate content than at Mount
dominatedby chalcopyriteand pyrite; pyrrhotiteis
abovelower greenGunson.The Myall Creekmineralizationis richerin presentin stratametamorphosed
arsenicand silverandhasa muchhigher proportion schistfacies.They occurin variablycarbonaceous,
of veinlet sulfides than the Mount Gunson mineral-

dolomitic strata of the Callanna, Burra, and Umber-

ization.The highestgradesof copper,arsenic,silver,

andzinc are in the basalsandysiltstonelenses.Here
zinc-bearingtennantiteoccursin the matrix, and it
rims and replacesdetrital grains;the tennantiteis
commonlycomplexly intergrown with chalcocite,
bornite,sphalerite,andgalena.In the overlyingstrata,
bornite and chalcopyriteare disseminated
through
carbonaceous
siltstonelaminae,commonlyrimming
or replacingpyrite; chalcopyriteveinletscut the do1omiticlaminae.The middlesectionof the TapleyHill

antanaGroups,they showno evidenceof hydrothermal alteration,and coppergradesin excessof I percent are very restrictedin occurrence.
Disseminatedcopper sulfides are particularly
commonin CallannaGroupstrata,whichare exposed
mainlyin the WillouranRangesandin the carbonate
breccias,or diapirs,scatteredthroughthe northern
half of the geosyncline(Fig. 2). However, as with
similarmineralizationin the youngerunits,noneof
the knownprimarydeposits
hasprovedto be of eco-

Formation is barren, but minor metal concentrations

nomic importance.

The Blinmanorebody(Fig. I andTable1;Johnson,

1965)wasthe largestof the surface-enriched
deposits
Organicmatter showsno evidenceof thermal al- minedfrom CallannaGroupstrata.It consistedof cuteration at the sitesof mineralizationin the Tapley prite and malachiteoverlyingsupergenesulfides.
Hill Formation on the Stuart shelf, and veinlet for- Theseore mineralsoccurredin veins,cavityfillings,
alongbedding.The primationat low temperaturesis impliedby the minute andascoarsedisseminations
to havebeenbeddedsulfides.
single-phaseaqueousinclusionsin quartz and car- maryoreisconsidered
bonate intergrownwith veinlet sulfidesat Myall However, within the Blinman dome and similar strucCreek.
tures,there are irregularmassesof doleritewhich

occurlocallyalongtheunconformity
at the topof the
unit.

STUARTSHELF-ADELAIDE
GEOSYNCLINE
CuPROVINCE

117

containsomecopperminerals;there may havebeen havecontactrelationsindicatingthat they formedbeenvironments

of
someremobilizationof bedded mineralizationand/ fore lithification.The depositional
unitsareinterpreted
asshallow
water
or introductionof copperasa resultof doleriteem- thecupriferous
to emergentandsabkhalike.
placement.
Biogenic
sulfideisagainsupported
bytherangeof
The most studied examplesof primary bedded
mineralizationin the Adelaide geosynclineare at 34Svalues(-1 to 46%0)whichis similarto that reportedforTapleyHill Formation
sulfides
ontheStuart
CopperClaim andKapunda.
nearthe middleof
CopperClaim:The geologyandstableisotopefea- shelf;veinletsulfidesconcentrate
sulfides.
The mineralized
turesof thisdeposithavebeendescribed
by Lambert the rangefor disseminated
et al. (1984). Beddedmineralizationoccursat two unitshavelowermean34Svalues(ca. 18%0)thanpylevels in a sequenceof dolomite,magnesite,chert, rite from adjacentunmineralizedstrata(ca. 28%o),
that the mineralizedunitsformedduring
and quartzofeldspathic
clasticswhich is interpreted suggesting
to have accumulatedin shallow-waterto emergent periodsof influxof sulfateinto the restricteddepoenvironments
in a tectonicallycontrolleddepression. sitional basin.
Carbonates from the unmineralized strata have
Thissequencehasbeencorrelatedwith the Callanna
Groupby Rowlandset al. (1978) andwith the Burra morerestricted3C values(-4.2 to 4.6%0)thanthe
mineralized
dolosiltstones
(-10.2 to 2.4%0forbedded
Groupby Binks(1971) andPreiss(1985).
Pyrite and chalcopyriteoccur as disseminations carbonateand -8.2 to -1.2%0 for the veinlets).Anwith the Adelaidean
deposits
alongbeddingplanes,and in conformablelenses, otherpointof contrast
veinlets,andintraclasts.The veinletsare mainlyless discussedabove is the difference in lso valuesbethan a centimeter in width and textural evidence im-

tween carbonates from unmineralized and mineral-

pliesthatsomeformedbeforecleavage
development ized units, both of which showwide spreads(13 to
whereas
othersformedduringthelow-grade
regional 23%0for the mineralized,and 10 to 21%ofor the unA positive
3C/blso correlation
exists
metamorphism.
Thedisseminated
sulfides
havea34S mineralized).
dolostones
only.Theseisotope
data
range(-17.3 to 15.8%0)
consistent
withclosed-systemin thecupriferous
bacterial reduction of sulfate;veinlet sulfideshave a indicatethat low-temperatureisotopictrendshave
beenpreservedandthat they are consistent
with innarrowerrange(-12.2 to 9.3%0).
The

mineralized

and unmineralized

carbonate

stratahave similar stableisotopecompositions.The

troduction of terrestrial, meteoric-derivedground

waters.

Veinlet calcitein the mineralizationcommonlyhas

3C valuesof the dolomiticand magnesiticstrata
(medianvalue of 3.5%0)are normalfor sabkhacar- lso valuesaround3 per mil lowerthanfor associated
bonates.
Therearenosignificant
aC differences
be- beddeddolomite,againin accordwith low-temperof
tween bedded and veinlet carbonates,but the median atureveinletformation.The isotopiccompositions
sO valuefor beddedcarbonates
(around23%0)is the carbonatesand sulfidesimply that the veinlets
of components
from the
some3 per mil higherthanthatfor veinletcarbonates, formedby remobilization
and magnesitetendsto have slightlyhigher values host strata. Fluid inclusions in veinlet carbonate are
thandolomite.Thesedataimplythatrecrystallization NaC1 rich and their elevated homogenizationtemduring the low-grademetamorphism
was far from peraturesindicatemetamorphicresetting.
complete,that there wasa generaltendencytoward
Conclusions
low-temperature
oxygenisotopeequilibrationduring
early diageneticcarbonatereactions,and that genIntegrationandinterpretation
of the information
erationof someveinletsfrom components
in the sed- presentedabovefor individualdeposits
leadsto the
imentsoccurredat temperaturesonly a few tensof metallogenic
modeldiscussed
belowandsummarized
degreeshigher.Small,mainlysecondary
fluid inclu- in Table 2.
sionsin the vein carbonatesare NaC1 rich, and their

homogenizationtemperaturesindicate some meta- Alignmentsof deposits

In theAdelaidegeosyncline
andin thesouthofthe
morphicresetting.
of the maindeposits
trend
Kapunda:The secondaryore mined at Kapunda Stuartshelfthe alignments
comprisedoxide,carbonate,and sulfidemineralsin slightlywestof north.Thisisthe trendof somemajor

faultsanduprightF3 foldsin basementrocksof the

southernGawler craton (Rutlandet al., 1980), of

steeplydippingquartzveins(Johnson,
1965). The
primary mineralizationin the underlyingvariably
carbonaceous
stratahasbeen describedby Lambert
et al. (1981). It occursnearthe top of the TapleyHill
Formationand has been metamorphosedto lowermiddle greenschistfacies.Chalcopyriteoccursas
millimeter-scale
grainsin two local albitic dolosilt-

faults in the PandurraFormationin the vicinity of

Mount Gunsonand of faults in the geosynclinesequences
in theKanmantoo
troughandthe Burraarea.
At latitudesof lessthanabout31S,the Torrenshinge

stones.There are alsosulfidicveinlets, someof which

northwest. Also, the buried graben sequenceat

zone follows the trend of Lake Torrens toward the

118

LAMBERT, KNUTSON, DONNELLY, AND ETMINAN

TABLE2.
Region
Stuart shelf

Adelaide
geosync-

line

Summaryof Main Featuresof Copper Metallogeny

Middle Proterozoic

Late Proterozoic

Importanttransgressive
and strataboundhydrothermalCu (Au, U)
depositsformedin middleProterozoicvolcano-sedimentary
sequencesand crystallinebasement rocks.Extensionalregime
after Kimbanorogeny;bimodal
alkali-richigneousactivity. Regionalstructuralcontrol on igneousactivity, sedimentation,
and migrationof ore fluids.
Metals and sulfidefrom magmas
and rock leaching

Low-temperaturebeddedand
breccia infill Cu (Pb, Zn) depositsformedalongpermeable unconformityzonesin
stableplatformenvironments.
Mafic igneousactivity pre-

Minor Cu (Au, U) depositsof uncertain agesin basementrocks

Low-temperature(subeconomic)
beddedCu depositsformedat
varioustimesduring deposition-diagenesis
of rift sequence;remobilization into

to east

ceded mineralization.

Early Paleozoic
Unmineralizedthin sedimentary
cover on stableplatform

Metals

leachedfrom underlyingred
bedsand igneousrocks. Biogenicsulfide,partly introducedin groundwaters.Regional structurecontrol

veinlets commenced before

lithification. Metals leached

from underlyingand adjacent

strata.Biogenicsulfide

Largely transgressive
hydrothermal
Cu(U) depositsformedin Cambrian trough strata,late Proterozoic rift sequencesand crystalline
basement rocks. Mineralization

probablyformedduring-afterDelamerianorogenywhich wasaccompaniedby near-surfaceemplacementof alkali-richgranitoids.Metals from rock leaching

(andmagmas?).
Hydrothermal
sulfide from various sources. Less

importantthan middleProterozoic hydrothermalmineralization

of Stuartshelf.Regionalstructure
control

OlympicDam is boundedby interpretednorthwest- Middle Proterozoichydrothermaldeposits

trending faults (Robertsand Hudson, 1983). Furthermore,this is the trend of majorfaultsin the WilThe oldestcopper(gold,uranium)mineralization
louranRangesat the northof the Adelaidegeosyncline of any significance
formedin the west of the region
and of dolerite dikes of the northern Stuart shelf.
asa resultof middleProterozoichydrothermalactivIt is envisaged
thatthe submeridional
to northwest- ity. The structurallycontrolleddepositsat Moontatrendingfaultswere formedand/orreactivatedduring Wallaroo;the replacement,void fill, andstructurally
periodsof extensionin the middle Proterozoic,late controlledmineralizationof Olympic Dam; and the
Proterozoic,andearly Paleozoicandthat thesefrac- hydrothermallyaltered volcano-sedimentary
strata
ture systemsexertedimportantcontrolson sedimen- beneaththe MountGunsonareaall mayhaveformed
tation,migrationof metalliferousfluids,andascentof penecontemporaneously.
They were generatedafter
magmas.The changeto the northwestfaultsin the the peak of the Kimbanorogeny(ca. 1.8-1.7 b.y.)
north can be explainedby a branchingrift system andbeforedeposition
of the PandurraFormation(ca.
controlledby a combination
of upwellingmantlecon- 1.4 b.y.). Thiswasa periodof extensioncharacterized
vectioncellsandthe structuralgrainof the basement by widespreadbimodal,largely subaerialvolcanicrocks.
subvolcanic
activity(GawlerRangeVolcanics),emIn his study of structuralcorridorsof southern placementof postorogenic
granitoidsandrapidsedAustralia, O'Driscoll (1983) emphasized a major imentationin tectonicallyactive grabenswhich connorth-northwestregionalgravitylineamentthrough tained local bodiesof water. It is probablethat exOlympic Dam (Fig. 6) and noted that en echelon tension and basaltic magmas were products of
structuralpatternswith submeridionaltrendsare as- upwellingmantle and that resultantheatingof the
sociatedwith it. He did not discussthe significance crustyieldedfelsicmagmas(e.g., Gileset al., 1979).
of thesefeatureswith referenceto genesisof the maThe association
of thesehydrothermaldepositson
jor copperdepositsof the StuartshelfandAdelaide the Stuart shelfwith potashfeldspar,hematite,cargeosyncline,but he suggestedthat the major gravity bonates,andfluorite,sometimes
accompanied
by rare
lineamentreflectsa major zone of differentialshear earthminerals,barite,tourmaline,anduraninitesupunderlyingthe Australiancontinent.
portsa geneticrelationshipwith fractionatingalkali-

STUART SHELF-ADELAIDE GEOSYNCLINE Cu PROVINCE

132

138

119

consideredto have been generatedduring an alkali

igneousevent broadly related to that in the Mount
Gunsonarea, the former appearsto have been accompanied
by greaterdegreesof hydraulicfracturing
andhydrothermalactivity,which probablyventedto
the surface at various times.

As in moderncontinentalrift systems,the hydrothermalfluidsare likely to havebeen dominatedby

watersof meteoricderivation.Magmaticfluidsmay
not havebeenvolumetricallysignificant
overall,but
sulfurisotopedata imply that they madeimportant
contributionsof sulfurto the hydrothermalsystems
at OlympicDam and Mount Gunson.Rockleaching
is likely to haveprovidedmetalsand supplementary

OE

MG

MC

contributions of sulfur and metals.

400 km

16/SA/25

Knowledgeof the ore-formingprocesses

at Moonta
and Wallaroo is limited becauseof the complicated
geologyandthe absenceof isotopicandfluidinclusion
data. Despite differencesin the formsand mineralogiesof the orebodies
at thesetwo localities,theycould
havebeen generatedduringthe sameperiod of hydrothermalactivity. Relatively extensivereactions
with ferrousiron and/orcarbonin hydraulicallyfractured schistscouldhave resultedin more reducing
conditions
in theWallaroofluidsthanin thosepassing
throughfissuresin the Moontaporphyry.

FIG. 6. Gravity and geologiclineaments,Stuart shelf-Adelaide

geosynclineand adjacent regions(basedon O'Driscoll, 1983).
Late Proterozoicunconformity-related
deposits
Main copperdeposits.OD = OlympicDam, MG = MountGunson,
MC -- Myall Creek, WM -- WallarooandMoonta,BL = Blinman,
The unconformity-relateddepositsof the Stuart
BR -- Burra,KP = Kapunda,KM = Kanmantoo).Note alignments. shelfformedby reactionbetweenmoderatelylowThesealignmentsare subparallelin the Torrenshingezone (see temperaturecupriferousbrinesand biogenicpyrite
Figs. 1 and 2). O'Driscoll noted that en echelon submeridional
trends are commonly associatedwith north-northwest-trending or H2S. During the late Proterozoic,the Stuart shelf
lineaments.Other deposits:BV = Beverly U, H = Honeymoon wasa stableplatform.Depositionof the widespread
U, RH -- RadiumHill U, BH = BrokenHill Pb-Zn-Ag.
Tapley Hill Formationwas precededby prolonged

exposureand erosionof the PandurraFormation and

the early Adelaidean clasticsand volcanics.Block-

faultingformedthe Pernattyculmination
in the Mount
rich magmas.The altered,predominantlymaficvol- Gunsonarea and there wasextensionto the east,with
canits and intrusions studied in drill core from baseactivefaultingalongthe Torrenshingezoneandin
mentrocksin the MountGunsonareaprovideinsights the Adelaidegeosyncline.
into someof the generalprocesses
which are envisThe mineralizationalongthe PandurraFormationaged to have led to mineralizationand alteration at Whyalia Sandstoneunconformityon the Pernatty
OlympicDam and Moonta-Wallaroo.
Theseigneous culminationis considered
to havebeengeneratedin
rocksappearto havehad high primarycontentsof a numberof stages,noneof whichcanbe relatedto
iron and potassium,and hydrothermalactivity re- igneousactivity. Anoxic waters entering the upper
suitedin migrationof theseelements.Pyrite in this PandurraFormationduringdeposition
of the organicMount Gunsonbasementsequenceat least partly rich mudsof the Tapley Hill Formationwould have
preceded,andwasreplacedby,hematite.The paucity dissolved iron from the red beds. As these waters miof copperin thesealteredrockscouldbe a function gratedto the permeabilitywindowof the culmination,
of low levelsof copperprecipitationfromthe hydro- oxidationwouldhavecauseda build-upof ironoxides,
thermalfluidsbecauseof unfavorablephysicochem- in analogous
fashionto the generationof iron enrichical conditions(for example,low sulfurfugacity)in ments at zonesof emergenceof groundwaters in
the areassampled.Alternatively,there could have modern peritidal environments(Fergusonet al.,
been extensivesubsequent
leachingof copperfrom 1983). Sulfides along the Pandurra Formationthe sequence
to formthe mineralization
in younger WhyaliaSandstone
contact(mainlynegative6$4S
valstrata in this area.
ues)did not formby processes
relatedto pyrite forAlthoughthe mineralizationat OlympicDam is mationin the laterallyadjacentTapleyHill Formation

120

LAMBERT, KNUTSON, DONNELLY, AND ETMINAN

(rangeof positive34Svalues).The sandysediments strataimply that the metalliferousfluidswere domiwhich accumulatedabovethe Tapley Hill Formation
are consideredto have channelledreducingground
waterscontainingbiogenicH2S to the culmination,
wheretherewaspartialconversion
of the iron oxides
to iron

sulfides.

Metal-enriched

fluids

ascended

throughthe PandurraFormationto the Pernattyculmination,possiblylargely via faults,and copperwas

concentratedalong the unconformityover a protractedperiod by reactionwith earlier formediron
sulfidesandwith sulfurousgroundwaters.
There is evidence for redistribution

and enrich-

ment of copperin the PandurraFormation-Whyalla

Sandstone
unconformitydeposits.Cupriferousground
waters and sulfate-reducingbacteria are presentin
the area, and coppermineralizationin a local basin
structureunder the Pernattylagoonis consideredto
have formedbiogenicallyin the recent weathering
regime as coppermigrateddowndipfrom oxidizing
mineralizationalongthe PandurraFormation-Whyalla
Sandstone
unconformity(Lambertet al., 1971).
Formationof the Tapley Hill mineralizationat
Mount Gunson from similar metalliferous fluids to the

Pandurra Formation-WhyallaSandstonedepositsis
suggestedby spatial associations
and similar minor
metalcontents.The metalswere fixedin the Tapley
Hill Formationby reactionwith pyrite andH2Sgeneratedby bacterialsulfatereductionwithin thisunit.
The copper mineralsand pyrite in the Tapley Hill

Formationare unusually34Senrichedin all of the

natedby water fromthe TapleyHill depositional

basin.It is envisaged
that thiswaterevolvedto, or mixed
with, relatively metal-enrichedchloride-sulfatewaters in the underlyingPandurraFormationwhich
probablycontainedsomeevaporiticstrata.The metals
have been leached from the Pandurra Formation red

bedsandthe underlyingmiddleProterozoicvolcanosedimentary
strata.The presenceof earlyAdelaidean
dolerite dikesraisestwo possibilitiesfor generation
of metal-enriched

waters in the Pandurra Formation

well before the unconformity-related

mineralization
formed.First, heatingof formationwatersby the dolerites would have enhancedleaching. Second,the
widespread
dikesmayhavefed extensive
basaltflows,
weatheringanderosionof whichcouldhaveresulted
in metal-enrichedwaters permeatingdown into the
underlyingred-bedstrata.This conceptof the formationof the unconformity-related
depositsof the
Stuartshelfis a variationonthe generalbasinalbrine
modelwhichhasbeenproposedfor manystratiform
copperand lead-zincdepositsin sedimentarystrata
(GustafsonandWilliams, 1981).
Late Proterozoicbedded deposits

Beddedmineralizationin the Adelaidegeosyncline

isnot concentrated
alongunconformitysurfaces.
The
copperin the depositsthathavebeenstudiedin detail
wasfixedby biogenicsulfidein near-shoresediments.
The tectonicandstratigraphic
similarities
between
the Adelaidegeosyncline
andmanypost-Permian
rifts
havebeenemphasized
by vonder Borch(1980), and
the late ProterozoicZambiancopperbelt sequences
have alsobeen interpreted ashavingaccumulatedin
rift environments
(e.g.,BowenandGunatilaka,1976).
In contrastwith the importantZambiancopperbelt
deposits,the knownAdelaidegeosynclinemineralizationlackscontinuityof high metalgradesandcontainsrelativelylittle chalcociteandbornite.
At CopperClaim,the isotopiccompositions
of the

areasanalyzed,both on the Stuartshelf and in the

Adelaidegeosyncline.Sulfatereductionmust have
been more importantoverallthan sulfateinflux,and
the startingsulfateislikelyto havebeenresidualfrom
an earlier episode(s)of reduction.The availableisotopic data for the Tapley Hill Formation are most
readilyreconciledwith depositionin nonmarineenvironments,althoughthey do not rule out restricted
marine environmentsas suggestedby Sumartojo
(1975) on the basisof chemicalcompositions.
Copper sulfideformationcommencedduring ac- mineralized and unmineralized carbonate strata are
cumulationof the Tapley Hill Formation,but there indistinguishable,again implying that the metalis evidencefor prolongedinflux of metalsinto per- bearingfluidswere dominatedby watersfrom the
meable beds and structures. The thin veinlet sulfides depositionalbasin.In contrast,the distinct isotope
andmineralogies
of the mineralizedand
within the basalstrataformed in part contempora- compositions
neouslywith the disseminated
sulfidesandin part by barrenunitsat Kapundaindicatethat mineralizing
low-temperatureremobilizationof the latter. Zona- fluidswere derivedfrom outsidethe depositionalbation from Cu to Pb-Zn mineralization reflects differsin. Influx of mildly oxidizing,magnesian
brinesof
encesin solubilitiesand zone refining during pro- terrestrialoriginintopermeablenear-shoresediments
tracted periodsof migrationof metalliferousfluids causedoxidationof organicmatter accompaniedby
fixationof copperanddolomitization.
Thisisbasically
throughthe sulfidicsediments.
At Mount Gunsonand Myall Creek, the metal- the laterallyflowing,terrestrialground-watermodel
bearing fluids entering the Tapley Hill Formation proposedfor introductionof copperinto sabkhaenmusthavehad near-neutralpH becausethey did not vironmentsby Renfro (1974). Despite the fact that
causeextensivesolutionof carbonate,but they did chemical,stableisotope,andhydrologicalstudiesof
alterfeldspars.
The similarstableisotopecompositions modern evaporativemarginal marine environments
of the mineralized and unmineralizedsedimentary supportthe feasibilityof the Renfromodel(e.g.,Fer-

STUART SHELF-ADELAIDE GEOSYNCLINE Cu PROVINCE

121

gusonandBurne,1981), Kapundaisthe onlydeposit contactrelationsof thebreccias,andthe stableisotope

in the SouthAustraliancopperprovincewherethere data.The hydrothermalactivityappearsto have ocisevidencefor influxof cupriferous
meteoric-derived curredin terrestrialenvironmentsandthe minorpywaters in this manner.
rite in the brecciashas isotopiccompositionssupManyof the largersulfide-carbonate
veinletswhich portingthe absenceof seawaterin the hydrothermal
are features of the Adelaide geosynclinedeposits fluids.The sporadicsedimentary
featuresare of reformedat lowtemperatures
beforelithificationof the strictedextentandthesecanbe accountedfor by exstrata.They formedby lateral secretion,apparently plosiveventingof pressurizedfluidsto the surface.
with undeformedallargelyduringdewateringof the sequences,
aspore The generalspatialassociation
of earlyPaleozoicageandthe local
pressuresbuilt up by sedimentloading.There was kali-richgranitoids
somerecrystallization
of these,andformationof ad- evidence that such basement-derived intrusions were
ditionalveinlets,duringregionalmetamorphism.
The caughtup in the brecciationimply that the mainpepresenceof NaCl-rich fluids,as notedin fluid inclu- riod of hydrothermalactivityand fracturingin this
sionsin veincarbonates,
wasevidentlya majorfactor areawasin the waningstagesof the Delamerianorgeny.
in remobilizationof the iron andcoppersulfides.
Aspointedout by Youles(1978, 1984), there are
Early Paleozoichydrothermaldeposits
somesimilarities
betweenMountPainterandOlympic
The late Cambrian-Ordovician
Delamerianorog- Dam, particularlythe presenceof graniticbreccias,
eny resultedin deformationandmetamorphism
of the the uranium and rare earth element enrichments,and
Adelaidegeosyncline,
with intensitydecreasing
away the hematite, K-feldspar, and chlorite alterations.
fromthe Kanmantoo
trough,wherethereare anatec- However, there are significantdifferencesalso, as
by RobertsandHudson(1984). At Olympic
tic granitesanddolerites.At a late stageof thisorog- discussed
eny, alkali-richgranitoidswere emplacedalongthe Dam, polymict matrix-rich breccias are abundant,
easternmarginof the geosyncline
andin the Mount sedimentaryfeaturesare more evident,andthe minPainter inlier.
eralizationisordersof magnitudelargerandhasmuch
The Kanmantoo
depositisclearlyof hydrothermal higherCu, Au, and S grades.
The featuresof the Kanmantoo,Burra, and Mount
origin.The mineralization
couldhaveprecipitatedin
with the interpretation
submarinehydrothermalvent areasduringthe Cam- Painterdepositsare consistent
brian and been remobilizedduring the Delamerian that therewasa periodof earlyPaleozoichydrothermetamorphism.However, there is no firm evidence mal activitywhich continuedafter the multiphasedethat the mineralizationprecededdeformation,andit formationof the Delamerianorogeny.Thiswason a
is possiblethat it formedin favorablestructuraland smaller scale and was associated with lower levels of
lithologicalsites during the Delamerian orogeny igneousactivitythan the middleProterozoichydro(Parker,1984).The 34S-enriched
oreminerals
imply thermalactivityon the Stuartshelf.However,there
reductionof seawater-derived
sulfate;theore-forming is evidencethat supportsgenerallysimilartectonofluidscouldhavebeendominated
by seawateror they magmaticenvironmentsfor thesetwo periods.The
could have leached sulfides which formed earlier from
evidencefor very early metamorphism
andbimodal
seawater-dominated
hydrothermalfluids.
igneousactivityin the CambrianKanmantootrough
At Burra, the associationof brecciated Adelaidean (FlemingandWhite, 1984) is consistentwith extenstrata,porphyry,and agglomerateimpliesthat local sionassociated
with upwellinghot mantle.
igneousactivityplayed a role in generationof the
Potentialfor new discoveries
mineralization. Whether this event introduced much
of the copper or merely resultedin remobilization
Therearegoodprospects
for additional
hydroand concentration
of copperalreadypresentin the thermalcopper(gold)depositsin the middleProdolomitic strata is unclear. Because there is no eviterozoicvolcano-sedimentary
grabensequencesand
dencefor metamorphism
of the mineralization,the crystallinebasementrocksof the Stuartshelf.These
igneousactivityis consideredto haveoccurredmost appearto be the mostattractivetargetsin the provlikelyin thewaningstages
of theDelamerianorogeny. ince, in areaswithout a thick cover of Pandurra ForSubsequently,
there was metal enrichmentby pro- mationandyoungerstrata.
Also on the Stuart shelf, there could be undiscovlongedweatheringprocesses.
The MountPaintergraniticbrecciashavebeenin- ered copper (lead, zinc, cobalt) depositsalong the
terpretedaswater-laidtalusdepositsof Adelaidean unconformityat the top of the PandurraFormation,
age by Youles(1978), who suggestedthat the he- particularlyin the vicinityof the Pernattyculmination.
matitic and chloritic uraniferous breccias within them
In thiscontext,the considerableagedifferencesbeformedas syngenetichydrothermal-exhalative
min- tween probablesourcerocksfor the metals(early
eralization.However, thismodel cannotbe reconciled Adelaideanandolder)andthe mineralization(during
are noteworthy.
with the lackof sedimentary
features,the formsand andafterTapleyHill sedimentation)

122

LAMBERT,KNUTSON,DONNELLY,AND ETMINAN

The chances
for majormineralization
of thistypemust
decreasewith extensiveperiodsof exposureanderosion,during which there couldhave been considerable depletionof metalsfrom the sourcerocks.
Known bedded copper depositsin the Adelaide
geosynclineare of muchlower gradethan the main
Africancopperbelt deposits,whichoccurnear the
base of the late Proterozoicsequenceswhere evaporiticstrata,carbonaceous
shales,andsandstones
are
onlapsof basementhighs.Analogouspositivebasementstructures
havenotbeenprovenduringCallanna
Groupdeposition.The possibilitythat somebreccia
domesin the northernAdelaidegeosyncline
formed
as a result of sedimentationat structurallyactive
basementhighsdeservesdetailedassessment
because
such environments offer the best chance of bedded

ocenedolomitecarbonatedepositsof the Coorongarea,South

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mineralizationat mineabledepths.
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Acknowledgments

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BaasBeckingGeobiol.Lab. Ann.Rept., p. 7-8.
Drexel, J. F., 1980, Geologyof a portion of the southernMount
Painterinlier:SouthAustraliaDept. MinesEnergy,Rept.Book
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Geologistsfrom CSR, SeltrustMining, the Utah

DevelopmentCompany,and the South Australian Fanning, C. M., Flint, R. B., and Preiss,W. V., 1983, Geochronologyof thePandurra
Formation:
SouthAustralia
Geol.Survey
Department of Mines and Energy provided inforQuart. Geol. Notes, v. 88, p. 11-16.
mationand assistance
which greatly facilitatedour Fanning,C. M., Blissett,A. H., Flint, R. B., Ludwig, K. R., and
researchin the Adelaide geosyncline-Stuartshelf
Parker,A. J., 1986, A refinedgeological
historyfor the southern
Gawler cratonthroughUoPbzircon datingof acid volcanics,
province.We are gratefulto D. E. Robertsfor supplyingOlympicDam stableisotopeandfluidinclusion andcorrelationswith northernAustralia[abs.]:Geol. Soc.Australia Abstracts,v. 15, p. 67-68.
data. Constructivecommentswhich led to improve- Ferguson,
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redbed groundwatersand peritidal carbonates,SpencerGulf,
Drexel, A. J. Parker, D. J. Perkin, W. V. Preiss,M.
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ore genesis:BMR Jour. AustralianGeologyGeophysics,v. 6,

nomicGeologyreviewers.Thanksaredueto A. Juodvalkisfor technicalassistance

and to I. Zeilinger for
typingthismanuscript.
The BaasBeekingLaboratoryis sponsored
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p. 319-325.

Ferguson,J., Burne, R. V., and Chambers,L. A., 1983, Iron mineralisationof peritidal carbonatesedimentsby continental
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Bureau of Mineral Resources, the Commonwealth Flint, R. B., andParker,A. J., compilers,1982, Tectonicmapof

SouthAustralia:Adelaide,SouthAustraliaDept. MinesEnergy,
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