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Part 1

An overview of the diseases of concern in each place


How you will try to minimise your risk of infection from each
disease justifying your choice
Ensure you identify (classify) and include a disease from
each of the following categories, viral, bacterial, protozoan,
macro parasite
Diseases in Papua New Guinea
o Hepatitis A- Hepatitis A is a VIRAL disease of the liver.
Hepatitis A can be transmitted through eating contaminated
food or drinking contaminated water.
I will prevention myself from Hepatitis A by maintaining good
hygiene. For example, I will wash my hands thoroughly when
handling food, drink bottled water, and be vaccinated.
Protection against Hepatitis A beings 2-3 weeks after the
vaccination and then can last for up to 10 years.
Therefore, I will be getting my vaccination 2 weeks before I
leave, which will be the 8th July 2016.
o Hepatitis B- Hepatitis B is a VIRAL disease of the liver.
Hepatitis B can be transmitted through blood, blood products
or body fluids.
I will protect and prevention myself against Hepatitis B by
being vaccinated. I will need to get this vaccination 3 times
over 6 months and therefore I have injection in January 2016,
March 2016 and May 2016. These three infection will provide
me with a lifetime protection against Hepatitis B.
o Typhoid- Typhoid Fever is a BACTERIAL disease. It is caused by
a bacteria found in contaminated food and water. Poor
sanitation and personal hygiene also causes typhoid fever.
I will limit the chances of catching typhoid fever
through maintaining good sanitation while in
areas of poor sanitation. I can do this through
washing my hands, brushing teeth, and also
by drinking safe water i.e. bottled water and
eating foods that are completely cooked. I will
be getting a vaccination against typhoid fever,
however there is an alternative option of daily
tablets. I will need to get my vaccination at least 2 weeks
before I leave and therefore on the 8th of July 2016.
o Tetanus Pertussis and Diphtheria- Tetanus is caused by a toxin
released by a dust or soil bacteria that enters the body
through a cut/wound.
Pertussis (or Whooping cough) is a respiratory infection.

Diphtheria is a bacterial infection of the throat and skin. It is


transmitted through coughing and sneezing.
I will prevent infection of these diseases by getting the Tdap
vaccine which will protect me from all three, tetanus Pertussis
and Diphtheria. I received this vaccine when it is usually
given, at the age of 12 so therefore I do not need vaccination
before I go on my trip.
o Measles, Mumps and Rubella- Measles are a VIRAL illness that
creates rashes, fevers and coughs. It also creates many
complications including pregnancy problems, pneumonia.
Mumps are VIRAL disease that creates a fever and swollen
glands and in worst case Scenario swelling of the brain or
heart muscle.
Rubella is a VIRAL disease that creates skin rashes and joint
pains.
The most efficient way to protect myself from these three viral
diseases is given through the MMR vaccine. I will get my MMR
vaccine 4 weeks before departing, therefore on the 23rd of
June I will be vaccinated for Measles, Mumps and Rubella.
o Influenza- Influenza is a contagious VIRAL infection. Influenza
can be very severe and life threatening.
A vaccination will be how I protect myself from catching
influenza. I will need to get the vaccine 2 weeks before I go, so
I will get my influenza vaccination on the 8th of July 2016.
Getting a recent influenza shot is recommended as the flu
viruses are always changing and new vaccines need to be
used.
o Chickenpox- Chickenpox is a very contagious VIRAL disease.
Chickenpox causes a blister like rash.
I have already had chicken pox in my lifetime, so it will be very
unlikely that I will get them again. However, to prevent it I will
get a vaccination. I will be getting my vaccination on the 12th
of July 2016 To extended prevention of catching chicken pox I
will avoid contact with anyone who is contaminated with the
disease.
o Malaria- Malaria is a PROTOZOAN that is transmitted by a
night biting mosquito.
To protect myself from malaria it involves protecting myself
from mosquito bites. I can do this by staying inside when it is
dark as most mosquitos are around then, wearing long pants
and long shirt which will cover as much skin as possible,
wearing light neutral colours as mosquitos are attracted to
dark colours, purchasing and wearing clothing specially made
to have DEET in them making me mosquito repellent, using
insect repellents and using nets/gauze when camping and on

my face. While making a lot of behavioural changes to avoid


catching malaria I also have the option of talking anti-malarial
tablets. The doctor will prescribe me a type of table which I
will then take one week departing in the 22nd of July 2016, and
the daily while on the trip and for 4 weeks after returning
home from the trip.
o Dengue fever- Dengue Fever is a VIRAL disease that is
transmitted by mosquitos. Dengue fever has similar
symptoms to a flu, including high temperatures, headaches
and joint aches and pains.
There is no vaccination that protects me from dengue fever.
However, to avoid catching dengue fever I will be avoiding
mosquito bites by staying inside when dark as this is prime
mosquito time, wearing long pants and long shirt which will
cover as much skin as possible, wearing light neutral colours
as mosquitos are attracted to dark colours, purchasing and
wearing clothing specially made to have DEET in them,
making me mosquito repellent, using insect repellents and
using nets/gauze when camping and on my face.
o Japanese Encephalitis (JE)- this is a mosquito born VIRAL
disease transmitted through mosquito bites and is mainly
evident in rural areas.
I will prevent Japanese Encephalitis through getting a
vaccination on the 24th June 2016 so it has 4 weeks to work. I
will also be extending my prevention by avoiding mosquito
bites, especially in the rural areas I visit. I will avoid mosquito
bites by staying inside when dark as this is prime mosquito
time, wearing long pants and long shirt which will cover as
much skin as possible, wearing light neutral colours as
mosquitos are attracted to dark colours, purchasing and
wearing clothing specially made to have DEET in them,
making me mosquito repellent, using insect repellents and
using nets/gauze when camping and on my face.
o Travelers diarrhoea- Most causes of travellers diarrhoea are
BACTERIAL. It is commonly caused by eating or drinking
contaminated food or water.
I will limit the chances of catching travellers diarrhoea
through maintaining good personal hygiene, for example I will
regularly wash my hands and only eat foot the is completely
cooked and served hot along with only drinking bottled water
as this will limit the likelihood that the bacteria will be found in
my food or water.

Diseases in South Africa


o Malaria- (Same as above)
o Tuberculosis- Tuberculosis is a BACTERIAL disease that affects
the lungs. Tuberculosis is spread when someone with
tuberculosis coughs, sneezes or talks, however it is not easy
to catch.
I will protect myself from tuberculosis through getting the BCG
Vaccination. I need to have the vaccination 4 weeks prior to
going so I will get the shot on the 24th June 2016.
However, I will also be avoiding tuberculosis by isolating
myself from crowded areas where coughing and sneezing is
unavoidable as this is how the disease is transmitted.
Maintaining my personal hygiene and making sure I eat
properly cooked food and bottled or bottled water only will
help me to limit the chances of being infected with
tuberculosis.
o Hepatitis A- (Same as above)
o Typhoid Fever- (Same as above)
o Meningitis- Meningitis can be both BATCERIA and VIRAL, and
life threatening in both cases. Bacterial Meningitis is
transmitted from person to person through coughing,
sneezing, kissing, saliva and spit. Viral meningitis is
transmitted through close person to person contact, however
it is unlikely that most people will develop viral meningitis
from contact. It can also be transmitted through other virus
such as mumps virus and measles virus, which then can go on
to cause meningitis.
I will prevention myself from meningitis by maintaining good

hygiene, for example washing hands regularly. I will not share


food or drinks and I will have a good diet with plenty of rest. I
will also be getting vaccinated against bacterial meningitis.
However, I have already been vaccinated for meningitis when
I was a baby so I do not require another vaccination before I
go on my trip.
o Rabies- Rabies is an infectious VIRUS disease that is spread
from vectors such as dogs and cats through scratches and
bites containing saliva. Symptoms of rabies include fever and
tingling sensations.
To protect myself from rabies I will be getting the rabies
booster shot as I had my initial rabies shot in January 2015. I
will get my booster shot in January 2016. However, to
guarantee protection from the disease I will stay clear of
wildlife, especially dogs in poorer and developing countries
will help to prevent the chances of developing rabies.
o Cholera- Cholera is a BACTERIAL disease causing diarrhea,
vomiting and fever. Cholera is caused by poor sanitation and
contaminated food and water.
To prevent myself from cholera I will get vaccinated. I need to
give the vaccination which consists of 2 rounds. The first
round on the 15th June 2016 and the second on the 22nd June
2016. This will give me three months protection. However, the
vaccination alone does not protect me from cholera, so
therefore to be more certain of my prevention of the disease I
will avoid undercooked food and only eat completely cooked
food. I will only drink bottled water and keep up my personal
hygiene through washing my hands and showering regularly.
o Schistosomiasis- Schistosomiasis is caused by a MACRO
PARASITE disease caused by a worm.
Schistosomiasis is transmitted when people
who already have Schistosomiasis
contaminate freshwater sources with
their urine which allows parasite eggs
to hatch and contaminate the water.
Then when other people are in
contaminated water when larval
forms of the parasite penetrate into the skin. Inside the body
the larvae develop into adult Schistosoma. Common
symptoms for Schistosomiasis include abdominal pain and
diarrhea.
I will be avoiding becoming infected with Schistosomiasis very
thoroughly. This means I will not be swimming or entering
freshwater bodies of water in areas which are affected by the
disease i.e. South Africa. I will only drink bottled water and
when bathing I will roll boil the water first. However, if I do

happen to very briefly tough freshwater that may be


contaminated I will very vigorously use a towel to dry my skin.
This will get rid of any worms if they have latched onto my
skin.
o Japanese B Encephalitis- (Same as above)
o Polio- Polio is a very serious disease caused by a VIRUS. Polio
is spread through contact with food, water or hands that are
contaminated with the faeces or saliva of an infected person.
Symptoms for polio are flu-like symptoms, and in some cases
paralysis.
I will prevent polio using the immunization which I have
already received in my childhood round of vaccinations.
However, I can further my protection by behaviors which will
decrease the chances of catching polio. These include drinking
bottled water which will ensure it is not contaminated, eating
fresh non-contaminated food and staying away from those
who have polio by avoiding crowed areas.
o Yellow fever- Yellow Fever is a VIRUAL mosquito transmitted
disease. Symptoms include fever, chills, headaches, body
aches and vomiting, but this can develop into a more serious
form resulting in high fever, bleeding and jaundice.
To prevention yellow fever I will get the vaccination on the 8th
July 2016 and I will also avoid all mosquito bites. To avoid
mosquito bites I will stay inside when it is dark as most
mosquitos are around then, wear long pants and long shirt
which will cover as much skin as possible, wear light neutral
colours as mosquitos are attracted to dark colours, purchase
and wear clothing specially made to have DEET in them
making me mosquito repellent, using insect repellents and
using nets/gauze when camping in my tent and on my face.
Diseases in Brazil and The Amazon Rainforest:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Malaria- (Same as above)


Yellow Fever- (Same as above)
Cholera- (Same as Above)
Dengue fever- (Same as above)
Typhoid fever- (Same as above)
Hepatitis A- (Same as above)
Hepatitis B- (Same as above)
Rabies- (Same as above)
Schistosomiasis- (Same as above)

o Leishmaniasis- There are three types of Leishmaniasis, which


are caused by a PROTOZOA, these include Visceral
Leishmaniasis which has fever and weight loss symptoms.
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis causes skin lesions like ulcers.

Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis result in the destruction of


nose, mouth and throat membranes. Leishmaniasis are
transmitted through the bites of infected female sand-flies.
To prevent me from catching Leishmaniasis I will be avoiding
all insect bites. This can be done by staying inside when it is
dark wearing long pants and long shirt which will cover as
much skin as possible, purchasing and wearing clothing
specially made to have insect repellent in them, using insect
repellents and using nets/gauze when camping and on my
face. These strategies will help to limit the chance of a sandfly bite.
o Brucellosis- Brucellosis is a BACTERIAL disease that is spread
from animals to humans. You are able to get it if you eat or
drink unpasteurized dairy products and if you travel to highrisk regions. Symptoms for brucellosis include headaches,
night sweats, abdominal pain, coughing.
To protect myself form Brucellosis I will avoid unpasteurized
dairy products and avoid all infected animals.

Main diseases:
VIRAL- Yellow Fever
Cause: Yellow fever is caused by the flavivirus which
is put into the bloodstream through the bite of a
Aedes or Haemagogus species of mosquito. Once in
the blood stream flavivirus invades and infects
monocyte cells which are in the immune system.
From here the virus is transported to the lymph
nodes and targets organs within the body, which as
a result causes different symptoms. Yellow fever is caused because the
flavivirus targets the liver.
Transmission: Yellow Fever is transmitted in the form of the flavivirus
through mosquitoes. When a mosquito bites an infected person for a
blood meal some of the flavivirus gets transported into the mosquito and
stays in its saliva. Then when the mosquito bites another human for its

next meal the flavivirus that was in its saliva is transported into the
human, resulting the that person now being infected with the virus which
causes yellow fever.
Major symptoms: Symptoms for yellow fever come in three stages,
Infection, Remission, Intoxication. Infection has symptoms including:
Headaches
Muscle and joint pain
Fever
Flushing
Loss of appetites
Vomiting
However, these symptoms will go away in 3-4 days.
The second stage of remission is where symptoms go away, and generally
most people will recover, but for some, they get worse within the next
day.
Stage three is where problems with organs occur, often the liver.
Symptoms for this stage include:
Bleeding disorders
Seizures
Coma
Delirium
Treatment: There is no specific medical treatments for yellow fever. Some
common treatment for the more severe cases of yellow fever include:
Blood products to treat sever bleeding
Dialysis for kidney failure
Providing fluids and oxygen
Prevention of the diseases: To prevent yellow fever on my trip I will
prevent the chances of being bitten by mosquitos. This will involve using
nets to separate me and the mosquitos when bushwalking and when
camping, wearing appropriate clothing- I will be wearing long pants and
long shirts that have DEET manufactured into them, however to better
protect myself I will again spray myself with insect repellent each day. I
will also have had the yellow fever vaccination.
BACTERIAL- Typhoid Fever
Cause: Typhoid fever is caused by the Salmonella
typhi (S. typhi) bacteria. This type of bacteria is
extremely poisonous.
Transmission: Typhoid fever is transmitted through
the form of the Salmonella typhi bacteria. It is
transmitted by eating or drinking the bacteria in
contaminated food or water. People who are either
carriers or infected by the bacteria can pass on the
disease by handling food and water therefore contaminating it and then
someone else handles/uses the food or water and they get infected, or by

touching someone with unwashed hands or by drinking water that is


contaminated by sewage containing the bacteria.
Major symptoms: the severity of typhoid fever vary and depend on age,
health and weather you have been vaccinated. The time period before
symptoms are seen is very varied and may be suddenly or very gradually
over numerous weeks. However, symptoms include:
fever (can reach 40C)
feeling achy, tired, or weak
constipation
diarrhea
headache
stomach pain and loss of appetite
sore throat
If typhoid fever is not treated symptoms will worsen and could include:
Weight loss
Swollen or bloated belly
Red spotted rash
However, in most cases all symptoms should begin to go away in the 3 rd
and 4th weeks.
Treatment: Typhoid fever is treated with antibiotics. The antibiotics
prescribes will kill the Salmonella typhi bacteria and the antibiotics will
start to show signs that it is working within a few days.
People who have the severe case of typhoid fever may be treated in
hospital with antibiotic injections along with fluids and nutrients.
Prevention of the diseases: I will be vaccinated against typhoid fever in
the weeks leading up to my trip therefore I am preventing the disease that
way. However I will also be limiting the chances of catching the disease
through maintaining good personal hygiene by washing my hands
regularly in hot soapy water, I will also not drink from potentially
contaminated water and only drink from bottled water (This will include
not having ice as I do not know if contaminated water was frozen), I will
only eat foods that have been thoroughly cooked (ensuring the bacteria is
dead) and is served hot from reliable shops and when/if I eat vegetables I
will only eat raw vegetables if the can be peeled.

PRONZOAN- Leishmaniasis
Cause: Leishmaniasis is caused by protozoan parasites from the
Leishmania parasite species. The Leishmania parasites are single-celled
organisms that cannot be seen with the naked eye. There are numerous
types of leishmania, Visceral Leishmaniasis, Cutaneous Leishmaniasis and
Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis. The Leishmania parasites live inside an
infected phlebotomine female sand-fly. The sand fly gets the Leishmania
parasites by sucking blood from an infected person. The parasite then

lives in and multiplies in the female sand fly until the


sand flies net blood meal, where some of the parasite is
injected into the human.
Transmission: Leishmania is transmitted through a
female phlebotomine sand fly. The sand fly picks up the
Leishmania parasites when it sucks blood from an infected
human. The sand fly then hosts the Leishmania parasite where it
multiplies. When the sand fly goes to a human for its next blood meal
some of the Leishmania parasites are injected into the human, causing the
human to now have the Leishmania parasites within them.
Major symptoms: Symptoms for Leishmaniasis differ depending on what
type of Leishmaniasis you have. Common symptoms for Cutaneous
Leishmaniasis are:
Painless skin ulcers
Common symptoms for Visceral Leishmaniasis include:
weight loss
weakness
cough
fever that lasts for weeks or months
enlarged spleen
enlarged liver
decreased production of red blood cells (RBCs)
bleeding
Symptoms for Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis do not appear until 1-5 years
after skin lesions disappear.
Treatment: Treatment of Leishmaniasis will depend on the type of
Leishmaniasis.
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis does not require any treatment as ulcer will heal
themselves.
Treatment for Visceral Leishmaniasis and Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis
require the use of prescribed medications.
Prevention of the diseases: I cannot protect myself from Leishmaniasis
through a vaccination, so to prevent the disease I will protect myself from
the bites of sand flies. I will do this by using and wearing nets to separate
me and the sand-flies when bushwalking and when camping. I will also
purchase and wear long pants and long sleeve shirts, and on my trip I will
be purchasing clothing manufactured to contain DEET or permethrin-an
insect repellent but to further my protection I will also spray myself with
insect repellent each day.
MACROPARASITE- Schistosomiasis

Cause: Schistosomiasis is also known as bilharzia and is an


infections caused by a parasitic worm called schistosomes.
These parasitic worms live in freshwater in subtropical and
tropical regions.
Transmission: Schistosomiasis is transmitted when infected
people contaminate freshwater sources with their excreta. In
their excreta are the parasite eggs which hatch in the water.
Then if freshwater snails are present within the water the now
hatched parasites make their way to the snail and develop and
multiply. Larvae eventually emerge from within the snail and
then look for a new host. The new host is humans who may be
drinking, bathing, swimming, fishing or even washing clothes
in the contaminated waters. The larvae then penetrate the
humans skin. Once the larvae are inside the skin they move
through your body to areas such as your liver and bowel while
developing into either male or female worms. The males and females pair
up and go and live together where the female lays. This can occur for
years if the host doesnt respond to symptoms and get treatment. The
worms can continue to lay eggs for many years. When eggs are laid some
of the egg remain in the body and develop into male and female worms
which the females then lay their own eggs, but some eggs exit the body
through excreta, such as urine and the cycle of transmission begins again.
Major symptoms: The first symptoms of Schistosomiasis may develop with
a couple of days, with the symptoms including:
Rash
Itchy skin
It isnt until 1-2 months after infection where major symptoms develop,
these including:
Fever
Chills
Cough
Muscle aches
Inflamed live/intestines
These symptoms that are experienced are not cause directly by the
worms, it is the body's response to the worms that causes the symptoms.
Treatment: You can be treated for Schistosomiasis with the use of
medication. The medication that is commonly used is called praziquantel.
Praziquantel is only capable of attacking and killing the mature worms,
and therefore doesnt kill the eggs. However, the drug works by rapidly
disintegrating the worms which allows the human immune system to
attack the parasite.
Prevention of the diseases: To prevent Schistosomiasis on my trip I will be
staying clear and avoiding swimming, wading, washing or drinking from all
freshwater bodies of water in the areas which are affected by the disease.
My tour of the Amazon involves the opportunity to swim with pink water

dolphins. However, I will not hope in the water as I want to prevent myself
from getting the disease. Also I will only be drinking bottles water and
when bathing I will roll boil the water first.
Summary
of how to
prevent
disease

Vaccinatio
n

Drink
Bottled
Water

Eat fully
cooked food
served at
room
temperature

Have Good
personal
Hygiene i.e.
wash hands
regularly

Isolation
from
contaminate
d humans

Disease
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Typhoid
Fever
Tetanus,
Pertussis,
Diphtheria
Measles,
mumps,
rubella
Influenza
Chicken pox
Malaria
Dengue
fever
Japanese
Encephalitis
Travelers
Diarrhea
Tuberculosis
Meningitis
Rabies
Cholera
Schistosomi
asis
Polio
Yellow Fever

Iso
con
ani

Leishmanias
is
Brucellosis

In this case I
will avoid all
unpasteurized
dairy products

Part 2:
For malaria include a detailed description of the:
Cause
Transmission
Host response
Major symptoms
Treatment
Prevention and control of the diseases
Malaria
Cause: Malaria is caused by a single celled parasite called Plasmodium.
Plasmodium is a genus/type of protozoa (A protozoa
being a single celled organisms) and a genus/type of
the Apicomplexan parasite. The life cycle of
plasmodium includes a human who acts as a host and a
mosquito which acts as the vector. Plasmodiums have
three life stages, gametocytes, sporozites and
merozoites. Gametocytes within a mosquito develop
into sporozites. Then the sporozites are transmitted
through the saliva of a mosquito and into the humans
bloodstream when a mosquito feeds on the humans
blood. First the plasmodium, in the form of sporozites,
enters and lives in the liver where it grows and
duplicates forming merozoites. These merozoites enter
the blood stream and invade Red Blood Cells feeding on
the haemoglobin. Again they replicate and when enough have replicated
they burst the red blood cell and enter the blood stream invading other
cells. This replication of merozoites continues for 1-3 days and will result
in the person getting symptoms for malaria.
Transmission: Malaria is transmitted through mosquitos. However not all
types of mosquitos are able to transmit malaria. Only the female
Anopheles mosquitos are able to transmit malaria providing the have
picked up the infection from a blood meal from an infected human.
When a mosquito bites an infected human for a blood meal, the
small amounts of blood taken will contain malaria parasites.
The mosquito holds onto this blood meal for about one
week. Then one week later when the mosquito takes its
next
blood meal the malaria parasites mix with the saliva and
are
injected into the body. The parasites then continue their
lifecycle
of replicating and feeding on haemoglobin in the form of
merozoites, and therefore giving the person who was bitten malaria and
its symptoms.
Host response: The human body is malarias host. The human bodys
immune system fights the plasmodium, however only when its out of the
red blood cells (the immune system cannot fight it if its in the blood cells.
Therefore, when the red blood cell bursts and the plasmodium/merozoites
are in the blood the immune system comes into action by the platelets

producing a molecule, called Platelet Factor 4 (PF4). This PF4 binds with
another molecule found in the human body, called Duffy to attack the
plasmodium, but not all plasmodium is killed as it hides in another red
blood cell. the Red Blood Cells to kill the Plasmodium strain of malaria.
Major symptoms: Symptoms of malaria will develop within 10-28 days
following being infected by the mosquito bite. Common symptoms that
will be experienced by someone who has been infected include
shaking chills that can range from moderate to severe
high fever
profuse sweating
headache
nausea
vomiting
anemia
muscle pain
convulsions
coma
However, some forms of malaria are life threatening and the symptoms
are more complicated and can result in death if not treated quickly. Some
of the possible, more serious symptoms include:
swelling of the blood vessels of the brain, or cerebral malaria
an accumulation of fluid in the lungs that causes breathing
problems, or pulmonary edema
organ failure of the kidneys, liver, or spleen
anemia due to the destruction of red blood cells

low blood sugar


Treatment: Malaria is able to be treated and completely cured. The aim of
treatments is to completely eliminate all the plasmodium parasite in the
body as that will stop the progression of malaria and will eliminate risk of
being severely diseased or killed by malaria. Treatment is also aims to
reduce the risk of others being infected by reducing the number of
parasite sources available.
To treat malaria medication called anti-malarial medication are given as
soon as someone is diagnosed. Some examples of anti-malaria
medications used to treat malaria include
Atovaquone plus proguanil

Doxycycline (also known as Vibramycin-D)


Mefloquine (also known as Lariam)
Chloroquine and proguanil (this table is no longer effective in the
protection against plasmodium falciparum)
However, the treatment that you receive will be based on numerous
factors, including
Type of infecting parasite
Pregnancy
Medicine allergies

Wellness of patient

Prevention and control of the diseases:


You are able to prevent Malaria in a number of ways, including through
individual behaviours, medicines and vaccinations.
Behavioural choices which will limit the chances of catching malaria
include:
What clothing you wear- dont wear skin tight
clothing as mosquitos may be able to bite
through thin tight clothes.
Mosquitos are attracted to dark colours that
mimic the colours in nature, therefore wearing
light and neutral colours will keep mosquitos
from being attracted to you.
Wear long pants and shirts when possible, as
this will make it hard for mosquitos to get to
the skin and therefore the blood.
Wear clothing that is specially made to repel
insects as it has been treated with repellents
(DEET) or poisons (permethrin).
You are able to soak your clothing in permethrin
for yourself prior to needing the clothing
Use nettings- A netting acts as a barrier
between you and the mosquito. You can put in
nettings in your own home, however when
travelling you are able to purchase face nets,
that will keep the uncovered skin of your face
and neck out of reach from the mosquitos.
Mosquito repellents- Repellents such as DEET are very effective
when sprayed on your clothing as they will keep mosquitos away
from you.
Dont use perfumes and fragrances- mosquitos are attracted to
certain smells, including floral scented fragrances so avoiding all
fragrances will minimise risk of attracting and being bitten by a
mosquito.
Medications which help prevent malaria include both tablets or a
vaccination:
Vaccination- The recently approved vaccination malaria is called
the RTS, S/ Mosquirix vaccination. This vaccination protects an
individual from the plasmodium falciparum malaria- which is the
most dangerous and prevalent type of malaria
Antimalarial tablets- What dosage and what type of table a
doctor recommend to you is based off factors including; where
you are going, medical history and whether you are pregnant for
female. Antimalarial tablets are commonly taken daily in the

weeks leading up to the trip which will expose you to malaria


prone areas and then daily while on the trip.
To control malaria, you are able to spray poisons and insecticides in order
to limit the population of mosquitos. The control of mosquitos is done in
two sections, controlling the larval and controlling adult mosquitos. The
controlling of the larval is most efficient if you are able to eliminate the
Lavals habitat. This involves clearing debris, regularly changing water
that sits sill, such as the water in bird baths, however it is even better to
eliminate all standing water. To control the adults, you cause mosquito
traps, space sprays, and vegetation management (this involves limiting
the number of weeds and other vegetation that mosquitos can hide in).
Part 3:
A way of testing if Zika virus is the cause of microcephaly and
justify the appropriateness of the planned procedure and possible
future research.
Microcephaly- abnormal smallness of the head, a
congenital condition associated with incomplete
brain development.
(See effect on a babies head in the picture)
Zika Virus- is caused by a virus transmitted
primarily by Aedes mosquitoes.
Experiment to test if Zika Virus is the cause of microcephaly
To test if Zika Virus is the cause of microcephaly there are a few possible
options, however some are more available and more ethical than others.
The two experiments that have the ability to create beneficial results are:
o using brain cells that are injected with the various viruses
suspected to cause microcephaly
o Injecting the different viruses into different pregnant women to
see the impact the virus has on the fetus.
The first option is more ethical than the second and therefore is more
available. The results obtained from this experiment are not as accurate
are it is only using a sample of brain cells- the reaction of the whole brain
isnt seen.
The second option is very unethical and therefore would be hard to get
pregnant women to volunteers, making it less assessable. However, the
results you could obtain from this experiment would be very accurate and
beneficial.
For my experiment I chose to conduct the 1st experiment as it is more
ethical and therefore more available. I am going to test if Zika virus is the
cause of microcephaly is by using samples of brain cells of fetus from the
three different trimesters and infecting these cells with the viruses that
originally were believed to be the cause of microcephaly, rubella and
cytomegalovirus, along with the Zika virus as it is now the virus under
investigation as it is believed that it is responsible for microcephaly.

Background information:
Zika Virus was identified in Brazil early 2015 and has since then rapidly
expanded. During this outbreak of Zika Virus doctors also noticed a much
higher rate of babies born with microcephaly. However, no one has
confirmed if Zika Virus is the cause of Microcephaly and therefore it is not
yet confirmed that if a pregnant woman becomes infected with Zika virus
the fetus will definitely have microcephaly. Microcephaly is an abnormal
smallness of the head, a condition where the brain is incomplete.
Some women that have been pregnant and infected with the disease have
given birth to a healthy child who isnt affected by microcephaly, so this
poses the question that perhaps Zika virus can only attack a younger
brain that is less developed whereas more developed brains are not
affected.
A way of testing if Zika virus is the cause of microcephaly
Aim: To test if Zika Virus is the cause of microcephaly, and if so what
trimester of pregnancy is most vulnerable to developing Microcephaly.
Equipment:
o 16x Brain cells of fetus from the 3 different trimesters (total of 9
brain cell samples)
o 3x parasite of Zika Virus
o 3x parasite of Rubella
o 3x Parasite of Cytomegalovirus
o Lab equipment required for the growth of brain cells
16x Petit dish
Incubator(s) for the brain cells and virus to develop in
Method:
1. Get one brain sample from the 1st trimester
2. Let one brain cell not be infected with any virus (Acting as the
control)
3. Infect the brain cells of the 1st trimester with rubella
4. Infect the brain cells of the 1st trimester with Cytomegalovirus
5. Infect the brain cells of the 1st trimester with Zika Virus
6. Place in incubator at womb temperature (37 degrees Celsius) for 1-2
weeks
7. Over the next 1-2 weeks observe how the brain cells react to the
viruses
8. Record any observations such as, how much of cell sample is
infected and how quickly, and any other abnormalities the cells
develop.
9. Remove the rubella, Cytomegalovirus and Zika viruses from the
brain cells and place the viruses in the incubator for 1-2 weeks (The

same time that the brain cells and viruses were in incubator for) to
see if they can return to their original virus.
10.
Repeat steps 1-9 for all three trimesters brain cells
11.
Repeat steps 1-10 again 3 times to ensure results are
consistent.

Justify the appropriateness of the planned procedure and possible


future research.
The procedure that I have planned aims to test if Zika Virus is the cause of
microcephaly and if so what trimester of pregnancy is most venerable to
developing Microcephaly.
The experiment/procedure I created follows the Kochs Postulate criteria
with aims to be able to identify the causative agent of a disease, and in
this case I am trying to find the causative agent of Microcephaly.
This procedure involves the use of brain cells obtained from a healthy
fetus during the different 3 trimesters of its development. The procedure
doesnt involve infecting humans with a disease and is therefore more
ethical and accepted in society.
However, this research experiment/procedure does have its flaws. The use
of brain tissues is a large statement and not specific as to which part of
the brain do you get the cells, but because microcephaly affects the whole
brain you would assume that no matter where the brain tissue was from
the you would still be able to to see results. An idea for possible research
would involve testing brain cells from the different parts of the brain. This
would then allow for comparisons and the researcher would be able to
conclude if the whole brain is affected equally or if some parts are
affected more than others.
Another flaw with the experiment I am relying on the brain cells to
represent the brain and its normal reaction to different viruses. There is no

way of knowing if taking brain cells out of a fetus will denature then and
make them respond differently to what they would normally if they were
still in the fetus. Therefore, research into the reaction of the brain to
different viruses when in the fetus could be conducted and compared to
the results of the brain cells reaction to the viruses. However, this is
unethical if you have to infect a fetus with the disease to obtain the
results.
Overall this experiment is appropriate in terms of ethics and availability.
The experiment is also appropriate as it is researching the impact on the
brain that a number of potential microcephaly causing viruses have,
however there is still a lot of future research needed, epically in the areas
that are explained above.
This experiment is also appropriate as it satisfies the criterions of Kochs
Postulates:
Postulate 1: The microorganism must be found in abundance in all
organisms suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy
organisms.
o

It has been investigated and known that the fetus brain during
the different trimesters can be more susceptible to Zika Virus or
more resistant. Specifically, younger fetus brains will be harmed
by the infection of the Zika virus and will therefore suffer
microcephaly, whereas older fetus brains that are exposed to to
the Zika virus will not be affected and the fetus will not have
microcephaly.
Therefore, while the Zika Virus was found to be present in all cases
where microcephaly was reported, Zika Virus can also be present
but the fetus didnt wasnt affected and therefore didnt develop
microcephaly, hence why to satisfy this criterion it needs to be
investigated weather age of fetus brain has any influence.

Postulate 2: The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased


organism and grown in pure culture.
o Dr. Karen Buttiigieg from NCPV said the Zika virus grows well in
Vero cells. We find that within two days of inoculation the cells
there is sufficient cytopathic effect to harvest and freeze stocks of
the Zika virus.
This therefore supports Kochs postulate number 2 that the
microorganism can be isolated from a diseases and grow (Dr.
Karen said that Zika Virus grows well in Vero).
Postulate 3: The cultured microorganism should cause disease when
introduced into a healthy organism.
o Studies have shown that when Zika is virus when put into a
healthy organism, such as a human it will affect the human and

cause a disease to form. For example, a study on pregnant


laboratory mice was conducted where Zika virus was injected into
the healthy mice and the impacts on the mice fetus was observed.
It was observed that the once healthy fetus saw the Zika virus
attack the placenta and therefore the baby mice had nutrients
deprived from it which as a result limited their development.
Postulate 4: The microorganism must be re-isolated from the inoculated,
diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original
specific causative agent.
o Part of my procedure will involve testing weather this criterion is
true for Zika virus- this will therefore help in concluding if Zika
Virus Causes Microcephaly.

Bibliography:

Part 1
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Part 2
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Part 3
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tulates.htm

http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/03/zika-virus-kills-developingbrain-cells
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Itinerary

http://www.kokodaspirit.com.au/tour/kokoda-to-owers-corner-30-2/
https://manausbooking.com
http://www.flightcentre.com.au/flights/international-flights

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