Appendix D Review of Mechanics of Materials

Beginning undergraduate studies of the mechanics of deformable solids is normally taught in

a course called mechanics of materials or strength of materials. Based on very restrictive
assumptions, this study develops stress, strain, and displacement eld solutions for a very limited
class of elastic solids with simple geometry. Strength of materials theory commonly makes use
of assumptions on the geometry of the deformation (e.g., plane sections remain plane) and thus
assumes the distribution of displacements and strains. Further simplication is also sometimes
made on the stress eld. Because of the level of approximation, strength of materials is often
referred to as the elementary theory when compared to the more exact elasticity model.
Nevertheless, decades of application have shown that mechanics of materials provides reasonable estimates for many practical stress analysis problems. Furthermore, strength of materials
solutions have provided guidance for the development of particular elasticity solutions.
We now pursue a brief review of the basic strength of materials solutions of extension, torsion,
and bending/shear of elastic rods and beams as shown in Figure D-1. Rod and beam structures are
normally dened as prismatic solids with a length dimension much larger than the other two
dimensions located within the cross-section. General loadings to such structures commonly

y
M
T
z
P

Cross-Section Properties: A, J, I

FIGURE D-1

518

Extension, torsion, and bending/shear deformation of beam-type structures.

include an axial force P, a shear force V, a torque T, and a bending moment M. Mechanics of
materials theory develops an approximate solution for each of these four loading types.
Commonly these solutions will be restricted to cases with particular cross-sectional shapes
that are related to section properties of A area, J polar moment of inertia, and I
rectangular moment of inertia. Because these solutions are useful to compare with related
elasticity models, we now briey review their development. In addition to these problems, we
review curved beams and cylindrical pressure vessels.

D.1

Extensional Deformation of Rods and Beams

We begin with the simplest case concerning the extensional deformation of an elastic rod or
beam under purely axial loading P, as shown in Figure D-2. For this case the cross-section can
be of general shape, but the resultant loading must pass through the sections centroid so as not
to produce bending effects. The fundamental deformation assumption is that all points in the
cross-section displace uniformly in the axial direction (x-direction), thus making the problem
one-dimensional.
Under this assumption, the only nonzero stress component considered is the normal component
s sx and it is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the section, as shown in Figure D-2.
A simple force balance will give P sA, where A is the cross-sectional area. This result then
generates the simple stress relation:
s

P
A

(D:1)

Because the problem is one-dimensional, Hookes law reduces to s Ee and the single strain
du
component is given by e . Combining these results with relation (D.1) produces the simple
dx
displacement or deformation relation:

P
dx
AE
PL
(constant loading)

AE

(D:2)

y
z

L
P
sP/A
x

FIGURE D-2 Extensional deformation problem.

Review of Mechanics of Materials 519

D.2 Torsion of Circular Rods

The next loading case concerns the torsional loading and deformation of rods as shown in
Figure D-3. For this case, the cross-section must be circular or hollow circular, thereby
simplifying the section deformation. The deformation assumption for this problem is that
points within the cross-section displace only tangentially and in proportion to the distance from
the sections center. Thus, cross-sections perpendicular to the rods axis remain plane during
the deformation and no section warping will occur.
y

dx
tmax

r
gmax

c
A

dj

FIGURE D-3

Torsional deformation problem.

Under such deformation, the section shear strain g gry will vary linearly from the center.
Typical of the elementary theory, only one nonzero stress component will be considered; this is the
shear stress, t try , lying in the cross-sectional plane. Because the strain component varies
linearly, the section shear stress also behaves in the same manner as shown in Figure D-3. Applying
equilibrium between the applied loading T and the assumed shear stress distribution gives


tmax 
tmax
tmax
r rdA
J
r 2 dA
T
c
c A
c
A

where J A r2 dA is known as the polar moment of inertia of the cross-section and for a solid
pc4
. Rearranging the previous expression gives the standard
circular section of radius c, J
2
stress relationship for the torsion problem:
Tc
tmax
(D:3)
J
and, of course, relation (D.3) can be used to calculate the shear stress at any radial distance.
To determine the angle of twist j, consider a rod element of length dx as shown in Figure
D-3. Under small torsional deformation, the outer ber arc AB can be expressed in two ways,
thus giving the relation gmax dx djc. This result then implies
dj gmax
T

c
dx
Jm
where m is the shear modulus. Integrating this result gives the familiar relation

T
dx
j
Jm
TL
(constant loading)

Jm

520

APPENDIX D

(D:4)

D.3

Bending Deformation of Beams under

Moments and Shear Forces
The application of transverse external loadings will introduce internal bending moments M and
shear forces V in beam type structures as shown in Figure D-4. Each of these internal forces
will generate stresses within the structure, and mechanics of materials theory has developed
approximate relations to calculate them. Beam deection relations have also been formulated
to determine the resulting deformation of the beams centroidal axis (x-axis).

6TCPUXGTUG.QCFKPI

y
M
z
V
x

FIGURE D-4 Bending and shear loadings on beam structures.

Before heading into these stress and deection analysis relations, we rst explore the
standard methods of determining bending moment and shear force distributions in beams.
These distributions will be needed for stress and deection calculations. Typically this procedure involves a static equilibrium analysis of the beam, taking into account the particular support
conditions and the nature of the applied loadings. Although other, more complicated conditions
can be modeled, most beam problems involve three types of idealized supports: pinned, roller,
and xed as shown in Figure D-5. Such support conditions involve particular constraints on the
deformation and these can be translated into particular support reaction forces.
We will now explore the typical procedures to determine the internal bending moment and
shear force distribution for a particular beam problem, with the understanding that other
problems with different loadings and support conditions can be handled in the same fundamental manner. Consider the problem of a simply supported beam (pinned and roller supports)
carrying a single concentrated loading of P, as shown in Figure D-6.
We wish to determine the moment and shear distribution as a function of coordinate x. This
is easily done by constructing one or more sections through the beam in locations where the
distributions are continuous, and is given by a single unique relation. For the problem under
study, there exist two such regions: 0  x  a and a  x  L. After making the appropriate
sections, a free-body diagram of each portion of the beam can then be constructed, as shown in
Figure D-7. Note that the vertical reaction R from the left support has been calculated from

Review of Mechanics of Materials 521

Pinned Support:
No Horizontal or
Vertical Movement
Resulting Reactions:
Horizontal and Vertical
Forces

FIGURE D-5

Roller Support:
No Vertical Movement
Resulting Reactions:
Vertical Force and
Zero Moment

Fixed Support:
No Horizontal or
Vertical Movement
and No Rotation
Resulting Reactions:
Horizontal and Vertical
Forces and Moment

Common supports for beam problems.

L=a+b

FIGURE D-6

Simply supported beam example.

overall equilibrium analysis of the entire beam, and the shear force V and bending moment M
have been included at the cut location x. Normal positive sign conventions for the shear and
moment are drawn in the gure.
P

V
R = Pb/L
(0 < x < a)

FIGURE D-7

x
R = Pb/L
(a < x < L)

Free-body diagrams of sectioned beam segments.

Applying equilibrium analysis (balance of vertical forces and moments) yields the
following results for the shear force and bending moment in each portion of the beam.

Pb=L, 0  x  a
V(x)
Pa=L, a  x  L
(D:5)

Pbx=L, 0  x  a
M(x)
Pa(L  x)=L, a  x  L
These results are plotted in Figure D-8, and the maximum values can then be easily determined; for example, Mmax Mjxa Pba=L. Note that a general relation between the moment
dM
and shear, V
, can be developed by an equilibrium analysis of a differential beam
dx
element. Solutions to other problems follow using the same basic procedures.

522

APPENDIX D

V
Pb/L

Pa/L
M

Pa(Lx)/L

Pbx/L

FIGURE D-8 Shear and bending moment diagrams of the beam problem in Figure D-6.

Beam Axes

r
q

Undeformed Beam

Deformed Beam

FIGURE D-9 Assumed deformation within beams.

Referring to Figure D-9, the fundamental mechanics of materials assumption for beam theory is
that plane sections perpendicular to the beam axis before deformation remain plane after deformation. Recall that the beam axis is the line that goes through the centroid of each cross-sectional
area. This assumption leads to the result that the extensional strains due to bending vary linearly
from the beam axis. Neglecting all other normal strain and stress components, the bending stress,
s sx , also varies linearly, and thus s Ky, where K is some constant. Applying equilibrium
between the applied loading M and the assumed bending stress distribution gives

2
M  Ky dA K y2 dA KI

where I A y dA is the moment of inertia of section area A about the neutral axis (z-axis in
Figure D-4) that goes through the centroid of the cross-section. This result establishes the value
for the constant K, and thus the stress relation is now given by the familiar relation
2

Review of Mechanics of Materials 523

s

My
I

(D:6)

This simple linear relation predicts maximum stresses at either the top or the bottom of the
section depending on the location of the centroid; this is illustrated in Figure D-10 for the case
of a centrally located centroid. Note that the positive moment produces compression at the top
of the section and tension at the bottom.
y
s=

My
I

FIGURE D-10

Bending stress distribution in the beam section.

The fundamental hypothesis that plane sections remain plane during deformation provides
the basis to determine the theory for beam deection analysis. As shown in Figure D-9, the
beam axis is bent into a locally circular shape with a radius of curvature r. Denoting Dy as the
included angle between nearby sections, the longitudinal strain can be expressed as
e

(r  y)Dy  rDy
y

rDy
r

where y represents the coordinate measure as shown. Using Hookes law and relation (D.6), the
strain can also be written as
e

s
My

E
EI

Combining these two results gives the Euler-Bernoulli curvature-exure relation:

1 M

r EI

(D:7)

where 1/r is the curvature. From geometry, the curvature of any two-dimensional space curve
v(x) is given by
d2 v
1
d2 v
dx2
"
#3=2  2


r
dx
dv 2
1
dx
where we have assumed small deformations and small slopes. Now interpreting v(x) as the
vertical deection of the beam axis (positive upward), we can write the equation of the elastic
curve as

524

APPENDIX D

d2 v M

dx2 EI

(D:8)

Note that, for the case where deection is positive downward, the right-hand side of relation
(D.8) picks up a minus sign. Once the moment distribution M(x) has been determined, relation
(D.3.8) can then be integrated to determine the transverse beam deectionthat is, the elastic
deection curve v(x). This solution scheme requires the use of particular boundary conditions
to evaluate the arbitrary constants of integration that are generated during the integrations.
Consider the simple cantilever beam example shown in Figure D-11. The beam is xed at
x L and carries a single concentrated force at the free end, x 0. Taking a single section at
any location x, the shear and moment distributions are easily found to be V P and M Px.
Using equation (D.8) and integrating twice yields
d2 v
Px
dx2
dv
Px2
C1
EI 
2
dx
Px3
C1 x C2
EIv 
6

EI

Boundary conditions at x L require zero deection and zero slope, and thus lead to relations
dv(L)
PL2
C1 0

2
dx
3
PL
C1 L C2 0
EIv(L) 
6
which can be solved to determine the constants C1 PL2 =2 and C2 PL3 =3. Combining
these results gives the nal form for the beam deection relation:
EI

P
(  x3 3L2 x  2L3 )
6EI

From this relation the maximum deection is found at the free end,
vmax v(0) 

PL3
3EI

The results of another example beam deection problem are shown in Figure D-12.
The nal step in our review of beam problems concerns the effect of the shear force V.
Although not explicitly stated, the previous discussion of beam deection was concerned only
P
x
v(x)

FIGURE D-11

Elastic Curve

Cantilever beam example.

Review of Mechanics of Materials 525

x
L
v=

5wL4
wx
(L3 2Lx 2 + x3), v max = v(L/2) =
384EI
24EI

FIGURE D-12 Uniformly loaded beam deflection problem.

s = My/I

s + ds = (M + dM)y/I

x
M

M + dM
dx
Beam Element

FIGURE D-13

Sectioned Element

Loadings on a beam element.

with the bending moment loading. It has been shown that shear effects on beam deections are
only important for very short beams whose length to section dimension ratio is less than 10.
Generally, then, mechanics of materials theory neglects shear force effects when calculating
beam deections. However, in regard to beam stresses, the internal shear force must give rise
to a resulting shear stress distribution over the cross-section. For this case, no simple assumption exists for the deformation or strain distribution, and thus we must make some modication
from our previous stress analysis developments.
Figure D-13 illustrates a typical beam element for the general case where the moment will
be changing with location x. Thus, the resulting bending stress distribution on the left-hand
side of the element will not be identical to the stress on the right-hand side. This fact will create
an imbalance of forces and will generate a shear stress t on a horizontal plane, as shown in the
sectioned element in Figure D-13. Note that the identical shear stress will also exist on the
vertical plane at the same location y0 . Assuming that this shear stress is uniformly distributed
over the differential beam element length dx, we apply a simple equilibrium force balance in
the x-direction to get

A0


 
 
M dM
M
dM 1
ydA
ydA 
ydA  t(tdx) 0 ) t
I
I
dx It A0
A0

where t is the thickness of the section at y y0 , and A0 is the partial section area above

dM
the level y y0 Now, as previously mentioned,
V, and if we let Q A 0 ydA, our force
dx
balance reduces to

526

APPENDIX D

VQ
It

(D:9)

This is the mechanics of materials formula for the shear stress distribution in beam-bending
problems. It should be observed that Q is the rst area moment of section A0 about the neutral
axis, and it varies as a function of the vertical coordinate measure y0 , vanishing when y0
corresponds to the top or bottom of the section. This parameter can also be expressed by

0
ydA y A 0 ,
Q
A0

where y is the vertical distance to the centroid of the partial area A0 .

To explore shear stress variation across an example beam section, consider the rectangular
section shown in Figure D-14. Recall that for a cross-section of rectangular shape of height h
1
and width b, the moment of inertia is given by the relation I bh3 . Taking y y0 , the
12
relation for Q can be written as






1 h
h
1 h2
2
y b
Q y A y
y
y b
2 2
2
2 4
0

(D:10)

Using these results in the shear stress formula (D.9) gives

t



VQ 6V h2
 y2
3
It
bh 4

(D:11)

which predicts a parabolic shear stress distribution over the section (see Figure D-14) that
3V
at the neutral axis (y 0).
vanishes at the top and bottom and takes on maximum tmax
2A
This concludes our brief review of the standard four stress and deection analyses for
extension, torsion, and bending and shear of beams.

t=

6V h 2
y2
bh3 4

y
h

Neutral Axis

FIGURE D-14 Rectangular section shear stress distribution analysis.

Review of Mechanics of Materials 527

D.4 Curved Beams

We now discuss the mechanics of materials analysis of curved beams. This topic is often
omitted in the rst undergraduate course and is sometimes covered in later courses on
advanced mechanics of materials, machine design, or structures. The analysis is concerned
with the bending deformation of a prismatic beam (constant cross-section) that is in a circular
shape, as shown in Figure D-15. These structures commonly occur in various machine parts
such as hooks and links. Clearly this structure is not modeled well using straight beam theory,
and thus strength of materials must be used to develop a suitable curved beam analysis.
It has been shown that for curved beams the normal strain no longer varies linearly from the
neutral axis. We again consider only cross-sections that have an axis of symmetry perpendicular to the moment axis, as shown in Figure D-16. Consistent with mechanics of materials
theory, we assume again that cross-sections remain plane after the deformation. Using the
isolated beam segment illustrated in Figure D-16, this assumption allows simple calculation of
the strain distribution.

FIGURE D-15

Curved beam geometry.

r

Deformed Sections

dy
2

A
Neutral Axis
R

FIGURE D-16

Elongated Fiber

dq

Curved beam section and strain analysis.

Considering a beam ber located a distance r from the center of curvature, the original ber
length is rdy and the change in length is given by (R  r)dc, where each section rotates an
amount dc=2 because of the applied moment. Using classical denition, the ber strain is
given by

528

APPENDIX D

ey e

(R  r)dc
(R  r)
k
rdy
r

(D:12)

where k dc=dy is a constant parameter for a given element. It is observed that, unlike
straight beams, the strain varies in a nonlinear hyperbolic fashion. Under the usual assumption
that one component of stress and strain exists, Hookes law gives the bending stress
sy s Ee Ek

(R  r)
r

(D:13)

With the results just given, the location of the neutral axis and the stressmoment relation can
be determined. Similar to straight beam theory, the location of the neutral axis is found by
requiring that the resultant force normal to the cross-sectional area A must vanish, and thus

(R  r)
A
(D:14)
sdA Ek
dA 0 ) R
dA
r
A
A
r
A

The location dimension R is then a function only of section properties and does not correspond
to the section centroid as found in straight beam theory.
This location can be easily calculated for particular geometric shapes. For example, using
the inner and outer radial dimensions shown in Figure D-15, the location for a rectangular
section is R (b  a)/log(b/a). Note that this result indicates that, even for a rectangular
section with two axes of symmetry, the neutral axis is not located at the centroid (geometric
center).
The stressmoment relation is found by the usual equilibrium statement that balances the
applied section moment to the resulting stress eld:

(R  r)2
dA
M (R  r)dA Ek
r
A
A
0
1

(D:15)
dA
2
Ek@R
 2R dA rdAA
r
A

EkA(
r  R)
where r is the location of the section centroid measured from the center of curvature.
Combining this result with relation (D.13) gives the desired relation
s

M(R  r)
Ar(
r  R)

(D:16)

A specic comparative example is shown in Figure D-17 for a curved beam of rectangular
section of unit thickness with properties a 3, b 5, and M 1 (using suitable consistent
units). The results compare bending stresses predicted from both straight and curved beam
theory. The nonlinear distribution from curved beam theory is clearly evident; however, results
from straight beam theory compare reasonably well. For beams with a relatively large radius of
curvature, the two theories are in good agreement, while for cases with small values of r /(b  a),
the differences become signicant.

Review of Mechanics of Materials 529

5
Curved Beam Theory
Straight Beam Theory

4.8
4.6

Radial Distance, r

4.4

4.2
4
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
1.5

0.5

0.5

1.5

Bending Stress, s

FIGURE D-17

Comparison of curved and straight beam theory for rectangular section.

D.5 Thin-Walled Cylindrical Pressure Vessels

We conclude our review of mechanics of materials with a discussion of the analysis of thinwalled cylindrical pressure vessels. The elementary theory is concerned only with the uniform
stresses developed in the side walls away from any concentration effects at the ends. The only
loadings on the vessel are due to application of a uniform internal pressure p. It is further
assumed that the vessel thickness t is much smaller than the mean radius r of the side wall.
As shown in Figure D-18, under these conditions an axial stress sa and a hoop stress st are
generated at all points on the lateral sides of the cylinder. Because the vessel is assumed to
have thin walls, variation of the stress through the wall thickness can be neglected. The
resulting state of stress is then assumed to be biaxial, under the condition that the pressure
loading on the inside surface is normally much smaller than the axial and hoop stresses.
To determine these two side-wall stresses in terms of vessel geometry and pressure loading,
a simple equilibrium analysis is done. The cylindrical vessel is rst sectioned to isolate a
semicircular strip of width dx, as shown in Figure D-19. Then an equilibrium analysis in the
horizontal direction is conducted on the segment to give
2st (tdx)  p(2rdx) 0 )
pr
st
t

(D:17)

Note that, because the vessel is thin, our analysis makes no distinction between inner, outer,
and mean vessel radius.

530

APPENDIX D

Internal Pressure, p

st
sa

Axial Stress, s a

FIGURE D-18

Thin-walled cylindrical vessel under internal pressure.

st

st

FIGURE D-19

Cylindrical vessel section.

To determine the axial stress, we conduct an axial force balance of a sectioned half-vessel
(similar to Figure D-18 with a left end cap) to get
sa (2prt)  p(pr 2 ) 0 )
pr
sa
2t

(D:18)

Relations (D.17) and (D.18) provide the mechanics of materials predictions for the stresses in
the pressure vessel structure. Note that the hoop stress is twice the magnitude of the axial
stress. These forms indicate that for r/t >> 1 the two side-wall stresses are much larger than p.

Review of Mechanics of Materials 531