The Art of Modeling in Hydrometallurgy

XII MOLYCOP MINERAL PROCESSING SYMPOSIUM

Termas de Chilln, Chile, November 28 December 2, 2012
Jorge M. Menacho
General Manager
De Re Metallica Company (DRM)
Av. Del Valle 601, Office 31 Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile
drm@drm.cl
ABSTRACT
Hydrometallurgy is the preferred route to process oxide and low-grade sulphide
ores. Main hydro unit processes are blasting; crushing and screening;
agglomeration; stacking; leaching; solvent extraction and electrowinning. Each of
these units can be disaggregated into minor units with particular features relevant
to modeling.
Large time-constant, multicomponent system, highly non-linear behavior with
diversity of interacting phenomena, batch character of the leach stage, hard and
slow experimentation and often plants with limited monitoring and control systems
are among features defining phenomenology and technology in hydrometallurgy.
Within the above-mentioned framework DRM has developed different type of
models along the last twenty years for design, optimization and control of several
industrial operations.
Selected applications of the DRM models are presented in this paper covering the
whole production chain. Statistical quality of fit and predictability are discussed as
well as the impact in the business result and technology development.
Future trends in the hydrometallurgy modeling field are briefly discussed.

INTRODUCTION
Modeling is a fundamental and quantitative way to understand complex systems
and phenomena; simulation is complementary, as the experiment to theory.
Together they make an approach that can deal with a wide range of physical
problems and at same time exploit the power of large scale computing. All
successful models unashamedly distort the inessentials in order to capture the
features that really matter. At worst, a model is a concise body of data. At best, it
captures the essential physics of the problem and it predicts behavior under
conditions which have not yet been studied (1).
Within the above principles De Re Metallica Company (DRM) has been developing
and applying mathematical model tools to solve many industrial problems, specific
engineering tasks as well as to develop new solutions to modern hydrometallurgy
along the last twenty years. This paper should not be intended neither as a review
on modeling methods nor as a review on hydrometallurgy modeling but as some
relevant contribution to the state-of-the-art in the hydrometallurgy modeling field.
APPROACH BASED ON EXPERIENCE
Why the models are necessary and how to build them? The modeling process
starts with a motivation or requirement within a given scope and boundary
conditions, often of physical and/or economical nature. Fundamental question on
the essential features must be set up at this level. Accordingly, specific
experimentation is planned and performed, usually at small scale level to save
time. Experimental results are then analyzed always keeping in mind a physical
picture of the phenomena and the essential variables with regards to the model
objectives. For instance, if we are dealing with a particulate system changing
someway within a reactor and the objective is to find out optimal conditions for a
standard optimization task, then probably the best approach is the population
balance description provided with appropriate constitutive equations and boundary
conditions. But if we are interested in changing the design of the reactor, then
extended DEM modeling is the best choice. This overall modeling approach is
illustrated in Figure 1.
First proof to our emerging model is to reproduce same data used for modeling.
Lack of flexibility to follow relevant tendencies or biased results should be avoided.
Linear and non-linear behavior should be early identified in order to assure
predictability.

Next step is the scale up of results from the experimental level to the industrial
level of interest. Physical similitude rules must be identified and consequently
tested. The overall scale up procedure should be fully validated often using scale
down strategies. A robust scale up procedure determines robust predictability.
Once the above-mentioned steps have been overcome, we are in conditions to
simulate. Most of the simulations are directed toward: (i) Development of new
process or equipment; (ii) Solution to mass and energy balances for engineering
applications and (iii) Process optimization and automatic control.

Figure 1. General DRM approach to modeling in mining and metallurgical

processes.
HYDRO PROCESS-CHAIN
Hydrometallurgy (for copper) is intended as the process route followed by the oxide
and low-grade sulphide ores in order to dissolve and recover the copper-bearing
specimens. Main options are heap leaching and dump leaching as it is illustrated in
Figures 2 - 4.
Blasting; Crushing and Screening; Curing and Agglomeration; Stacking; Leaching;
Solvent Extraction and Electrowinning are the relevant unit processes for modeling
copper hydrometallurgy.

Figure 2. Typical hydro copper flowsheets.

MAIN DRM-DEVELOPED HYDROMODELS

Some of the models developed by DRM along the last twenty years are briefly
presented below.
Blasting Model: DRM.Blast
The most popular blasting model is the Kuz-Ram (2) which is an empirical equation
based on the Kuznetsov-Rammler distribution function. DRM applies the
population balance approach with two simultaneous fragmentation phenomena
within a batch frame. Model parameters are linked to rock mechanic
characteristics, blast design and operation conditions. A particular approach to
predict the fines based on reverse-simulation was developed. ROM size
distribution and energy consumption are well predicted. The DRM.Blast code is
currently set in the Vulcan platform at Minera Spence and Minera Gaby.
Crushing Plant Model DRM.Crush
DRM.Crush model is based on fracture kinetic approach plus mass transport for
crushing. Tromp curve and mass transport for screening and mass transport for
conveyor belts are also considered. Again, model-parameter are linked to ore
characteristics, design and operation conditions. Mass balance per size and
energy balance are well predicted within the real capacity constraint. This model is
available in a code working in tandem with the blasting simulator and large periods
can be simulated. It has been used in most of the Chilean hydro plants.
Agglomeration Model DRM.Drum
DRM.Drum is based on population balances with a specific agglomeration kinetics;
two-phase transport approach within the rotary drum is considered. Model
parameters are related to drum design and operation conditions. Agglomerate size
distribution and drum capacity are well predicted. The model is complemented with
a hydrodynamic characterization of the resulting agglomerates leading to identify
permitted irrigation rates in the leaching stage. It can also be used for drum sizing
and automatic control applications. It has also been extensively used in most of the
Chilean hydro plants.
Permeability Model DRM.Flux
DRM.Flux is a model based on hydrodynamics theory through porous media of
variable saturation (3). It includes geotechnical constraints which allow realistic
design of the initial pad soaking. Parameters are linked to soil-mechanics
properties. It provides the calendar to practice optimum wetting ramps as well as to

forecast the industrial irrigation response. It has been extensively validated in most
of the leaching plants in Chile.
Acid Leach Model DRM.AcidLeach
AcidLeach model is based on liquid transport in porous media of variable
saturation, with a particular solution to the Richards/van Genuchten equations (4).
Copper and acid transport, are modeled using dispersion-advection equations.
Different circuit arrangement run in closed circuit with SX-EW plant model can be
simulated. Effluent rate, inventory, solution composition and copper production are
daily predicted in a dynamic way. This is the most used DRM model, either for
engineering problems as well as for optimization and control in existing plants.
Bioleach Model DRM.BioLeach
BioLeach model is based on liquid transport in porous media of variable saturation;
Copper, ferrous/ferric iron and acid reactive transport are fully described by
dispersion/advection equations. Pneumatic air transport with oxygen and carbon
dioxide exchange with the liquid phase are also included; heat transport includes
losses and generation by the leaching of sulphides; strain colony growth with birth
and dead constant rates depending on the changing dynamic conditions are
included. BioLeach has been used at Minera Escondida since the start up in 2006
up to now. There are few similar-level bioleach models worldwide (5).
Chloride Leach Model DRM.ChloroLeach
ChloroLeach model is based on liquid transport in porous media of variable
saturation. Reactive transport of cuprous/cupric copper and acid are modeled by
dispersion/convection equations; again, pneumatic air transport with oxygen
exchange with the liquid phase is included as well as heat transport including heat
generation by oxidative dissolution of sulphides. Stability of cuprous ion in highchloride brines makes possible the chemical oxidation of sulphides. It has been
successfully used at column and industrial heap level at Minera Spence.
Salt Heap Leach Model DRM.CalicheLeach
CalicheLeach model is based on liquid transport in porous media of variable
saturation (Richards equation); thermodynamic and kinetic approach are employed
to predict iodine, nitrate and potassium dissolution rates. Model parameters are
related to pad design and operation conditions. Prediction is excellent as shown in
Pampa Blanca and Nueva Victoria SQM heap leach operations.

Copper Solvent Extraction Plant Model DRM.ChemSX

ChemSX model is based on McCabe Thiele and chemical kinetics approach.
Extraction and stripping isotherms are sensitive to plant design, solution
composition and operation conditions. Object modeling is used in this code to
facilitate circuit simulation. It has been widely used by many Chilean SX plants.
Entrainment and Contamination Model DRM.DropletSX
DRM.DropletSX is based on hydrodynamic approach; entrainment generation in
the mixer and transport through the SX plant; impurity exchange is driven by
thermodynamics. To our knowledge this is a single simulator worldwide. It has
been widely used in most of the SX Chilean plants.
Organic Composition Model in SX Plant DRM.OrganicSX
Based on thermodynamics, kinetics and organic chemistry; Dynamic balance for
oximes, aldehydes, ketones and other organic component are considered; Useful
when strong degradation or contamination phenomena occur at the SX plant;
options to face the problem can be dynamically simulated. It provides accurate
mass balance per component in the organic phase. It has been widely used at
Chuquicamata, Radomiro Tomic and other Chilean SX plants.
Electrowinning Plant Model DRM.EW
DRM.EW is based on electro-chemical kinetic for copper EW described by the
Butler-Volmer equation (6); cathode production, energy consumption and current
efficiency are predicted.
Chlorine Gasification Model DRM.Chlorine
DRM.Chlorine is also based on electro-chemical kinetic (Butler-Volmer equation) to
describe in this case the chloride concentration change in the electrolyte and the
rate of Cl2-gas evolution under different design and operational conditions. It is
useful to anticipate current density impact on chloride removal. It also can be used
to avoid environmental chlorine contamination. It has been extensively applied at
Minera Michilla, Chuquicamata, Radomiro Tomic, Minera Gaby and others.

SELECTED APPLICATIONS
Simultaneous Blasting and Crushing Optimization
Units in the orebody geometallurgical model are first re-classified according to
physical quality associations (ACF in Spanish term). Experimental size
distribution measurements are determined by image analysis techniques. It is well
known this technique cannot see the fine fraction intended as particles less than
1 or 2. This is a strong limitation in hydrometallurgy as this material determines
the physical response of the heap leaching. DRM determines granulometry from
direct blasting simulation and also by reverse simulation from the crushing plant
thus matching the right answer. Figure 5 illustrates this dual approach strategy.

Figure 5. Dual approach to ROM granulometry.

Figures 6 and 7 illustrate consistency between ROM granulometry estimated by
the blasting DRM model and that estimated from the crushing DRM plant model.

Figure 6. Real and simulated ROM granulometry ACF1.

Figure 7. Real and simulated crushed product granulometry ACF1.

Mine-to-Leach Approach
Blasting process is not only extended to the crushing process but also to leaching
process as shown in Figure 8 below. This example illustrates the power of the
integrated DRM approach, leading in this example to about 4 additional points in
higher copper extraction. Several Mine-to-Plant options have been developed by
DRM, including economical routine for business optimization.

Figure 8. Integrated Mine-to-Leach optimization strategy.

Agglomeration Model to Predict Heap Hydrodynamic Response
Agglomeration is the mirror of any fracture population balance model. Specific rate
of agglomeration and agglomeration functions are well-defined as illustrated in
Figures 9 and 10. According to DRM model, these parameters depend mainly on
the moisture saturation, index of plastic deformation and variance of the particle

size distribution. Agglomerate size distributions are well-predicted as shown in

Figure 11.
Transport in the DRM agglomeration model is described by a dual flow approach;
one free and agglomerating flow and the other, a non-agglomerating and sticking
flow moving very slowly compared to the main free flow (see Figure 9). Flow
pattern are well determined by means of tracer experiments.

Figure 9. Mass balance per agglomerate size and dual flow throughout the drum.

Figure 10. Specific rate of agglomeration as function of the liquid content.

Figure 11. Feed and agglomerate size distributions.

Dual Porous Media
Why do we agglomerate? What are the main characteristics of the agglomerate we
are interested in? How these characteristics are related to size distribution?
Agglomeration not only provides mixing of coarse and fine particles, but also it
promotes the fines are linked to coarse particles giving origin to agglomerates. All
this produces a dual porosity field, with large avenues produced by the inter
agglomerate porosity and narrow streets referred to intra agglomerate porosity
(Figure 12). This highly ordered configuration allows a uniform flow reaching most
of the bed porosity which means higher copper dissolution rate. Accordingly,
agglomeration should produce a relevant but moderate increase in permeability.

Figure 12. Dual porosity arrangement of agglomerates.

According to DRM model, inner hydraulic conductivity function is determined by the
inner porosity and particle size distribution while inter agglomerate hydraulic
conductivity is determined by the external porosity and agglomerate size
distribution. A real example is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Dual hydraulic conductivity field.

According to hydrodynamics, liquid moves preferently by the inner porosity when
low irrigation rates are applied and the reverse occurs when high irrigation rates
are applied. This produces a relationship between hydraulic conductivity and liquid
content as shown in Figure 14. If a high irrigation rate is applied then a high liquid
content would be obtained and the liquid would move by the external porosity not
producing significant contact with the inner porosity containing the copper minerals.
On the reverse, if too low irrigation rate is used, then liquid would move right but
productivity would be too low.

Figure 14. Dual porosity arrangement of agglomerates.

A further complication is the meta stable condition of the agglomerates within the
heap. After irrigation, the heap suffers a plastic deformation which reduces porosity
and hence permeability. Mechanical or geotechnical stability of a particle bed

depends mainly on the initial liquid contents. Then the optimum moisture for a
given system can be identified as the lowest apparent density when moisture levels
are swept. Actual position of this optimum depends on particle size distribution and
plastic deformation. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 15.

Figure 15. Maximum hydraulic conductivity (maximum porosity) as function of the

liquid content.
New Approach to Leaching Scale Up
Scale up is always a relevant subject particularly in leaching as the process is
completely transient with regard to copper extraction and it is extremely slow,
which brings heavy experimentation challenges.
The standard approach is to run column tests in thin cylinders 6 to 10 in diameter
and 2 m to 10 m in height. Copper extraction kinetic curves and acid consumption
are thus determined. Then an empirical scale up factor is often applied (0.90 to
0.95) according to engineering criteria. DRM simulated the liquid flow throughout
the column and compares it to same irrigation condition in an industrial heap leach
operation. Solution to the Navier-Stokes Equations in a bidimensional field shows
clearly the flow deformation within the column, such that a flat front is soon formed
and irrigation pattern resembles to plug flow condition. On the other hand, the flow
is completely developed within a real heap leach operation with no wall constraints.
Based on the above findings DRM postulates that keeping same physico-chemical
environment, particles do not matter whether they are in a column or a heap. The
real difference is the flow pattern. This statement is mathematically represented by
a system of integral equations, from where the industrial kinetic curve is obtained.

It is interesting to note that the scale up factor is here a result instead of an input
to the calculation.
Very Interesting, But How Does It Work?
Some time ago experts from an international copper company came to Chile and
asked how reliable can be this scale up procedure applied from 1 m height and 1
ton cribs to industrial strips, 18 m height and 7 millions tons each. The experts
suggested to run a new validation proof consisting in reproducing all strips
containing more than 80% of a given ore along the whole life of the project, starting
from a small crib in which same ore was processed. More than 10 seven-millionsstrips were well predicted from the 1-ton crib as illustrated in Figures 16 and 17.

Figure 16. Full prediction of strip 7-3 from 1 m crib test.

Figure 17. Full prediction of strip 27-3 from 1 m crib test.

Modeling Ramp Up For New Leach Operations

Ramp up is a difficult stage in any new project as all is transient; dynamic DRM
models have been successfully used to assist this task. This is illustrated in
Figures 19 and 20, showing a Ripios Secondary Leach operation started up in
June 2012. Questions are: How the effluent rate is going to behave? How about Cu
levels? How much are we going to produce this year and next one? Predictions
from the model are quite similar to subsequent real response.

Figure 19. Real and estimated effluent industrial flow.

Figure 20. Real and estimated copper concentration in effluent industrial flow.
Drm.Flux: Predictor For Soaking & Irrigation Calendar
Modern leaching practice recognizes the initial soaking as a key step to reach
optimum copper extraction results. DRM.Flux model provides an anticipated

calendar to apply not only the initial soaking ramp, but also the application rates
possible to apply within the geotechnical constraints intended as avoiding strong
ponding events as well as any mechanical failure (7). Excessive and optimum
soaking rates drive to worse and optimum copper recovery as shown in Figures 21
and 22.

Figure 21. Excessive soaking rate driving to modest copper recovery.

Figure 22. Correct soaking rate driving to optimum copper recovery.

Full Bioleach Modeling For Design And Optimization Tasks
DRM.BioLeach is based on liquid transport in a variable saturation porous bed and
it is modeled by the Richards differential equation. Boundary conditions are related
to (i) known initial conditions in the pad, for the solid, liquid and gas phases, (ii)
known irrigation, aeration and environment temperature conditions along the time

and (iii) physical boundary constraints related to pad geometry and dimensions.
This is illustrated in Figure 23.

Figure 23. General component of DRM.BioLeach model.

Solute transport in the liquid phase is represented by dispersion-advection
equations and it involves copper, acid and ferrous and ferric iron. The model also
includes forced air transport and subsequent oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange
with further consumption by the dominant colony strains. Heat transport is also
coupled to liquid and air flowrates as well as to all dynamic exothermic oxidation of
sulphides and losses through the pad boundaries. Strain type and number are also
estimated from a growth model assuming a Michaellis Menten kinetics (8). The
model also includes dynamic description of tridimensional-layer arrangement with
solutions flowing down the whole dump volume.
Nowadays some similar level models to describe the bioleaching step can be found
in the market (5) (9), but to our knowledge, no one is coupled in closed circuit to an
SX-EW plant-model like DRM.BioLeach. Some selected results are shown in
Figure 24. DRM.BioLeach has also been used to explore new bio technologies (10),
also to project results from bench scale to industrial level, to design new bioleach
operations, to anticipate or to hold future production plans and mainly, for multiple
optimization tasks leading to increase in copper production (11).

DRM.BioLeach model is a robust predictor because it contains parameters for

each geometallurgical unit existing in the orebody and it is able to correctly predict
the response of any blend going to the plant.

Figure 24. Selected results from simulation of industrial dump bioleaching.

Modeling Drop Entrainment and Electrolyte Contamination

One recursive problem in SX-EW plants is the droplet carryover of aqueous
contaminants which end up in the EW electrolyte, like chloride, manganese and
iron. A new dynamic model has been developed by DRM describing the aqueous
drop size distribution inside the mixer and the subsequent trajectories of assumed
spherical different size drops subjected to vertical Stokes settling and a horizontal
slipping displacement with the liquid phase moving to the discharge weir.
Coalescence occurs a time after the drop reaches the interphase; otherwise it
reports as entrainment. Aqueous entrainment from the E1 stage is actually leach
solution which is finally transferred to the electrolyte (13). Integration per class size
drives to estimate the entrainment carryover.
To make the model operative, it was necessary to develop an experimental method
to measure drop size distribution (Figure 25) and also an experimental method to
measure 3D velocity profiles throughout the settler (Figure 26).

Figure 25. Experimental drop size distribution exiting the mixer in a VSF and a
conventional mixer.

Figure 26. Experimental 3D velocity profile in the industrial settler.

Figures 27 and 28 compare real and calculated data for aqueous entrainment
exiting the E1 stage and the chloride level in the spent electrolyte.

Figure 27. Experimental and simulated A/O entrainment in the E1 exit.

Figure 28. Experimental and simulated Chloride level in the electrolyte.

Leach Model-Based Automatic Control System
DRM and Mining Systems have developed, implemented and tested at Minera
Escondida a new intelligent monitoring and control system for heap leaching (13).
Decisions are taken on the basis of a dynamic heap leach model. Two additional
points in higher copper recovery were obtained after a careful industrial evaluation.
A simplified view of the system is shown in Figure 29.

Figure 29. Monitoring and model-based automatic control system.

Figure 30 clearly illustrates that higher soluble copper grade and coarse
granulometry were effectively more irrigated as established by theory.

Figure 30. Monitoring and model-based automatic control system.

Photographs are presented in Figure 31 showing the clear difference between the
controlled and the non-controlled strips.

Figure 31. Standard irrigation (left); Model-based controlled irrigation (right).

WHATS NEXT?
Todays industrial problems are complex and strongly non-linear and they involve
phenomena on multiple length and time scales. The interaction of objects obeying
simple rules can produce remarkable complex behavior. Some of these behaviors
and their relation to the underlying microscopic laws are now understood, but many
of the most interesting and important cases remain mysteries. Learning how to

understand and control these emergent behavior patterns will provide the
foundation upon which to build complex systems tomorrow (14).
Continuum mechanics and discrete element modeling applications will continue
growing; the first one focused in the design, optimization and control of existing
industrial processes and DEM or XDEM oriented in the short-term toward research
and innovation in process and equipment. Within the next decade social-like
communication networks will be strongly spreaded into the mining industry and
cloud computing solutions WEB-supported will be standard practice as illustrated in
Figure 32. DRM and WiseConn companies are currently starting up a new
business oriented toward supplying WEB monitoring and automatic control
solutions to the overall mining industry.

Figure 32. Possible next scenario for the modeling activity.

FINAL REMARK

Companies may get large profit by using appropriate modeling tools,

particularly true in the hydrometallurgy business, either to study high impact
problems, to design sustainable solution, to optimize and control industrial
operations, as well as to assist in developing better technology and of

course, to manage the business: Modeling offers business a valuable

formula for success.

We are currently moving through a technology inflexion point; mathematical

concepts and models together with the increasing database capacity are
playing a growing role in all technologies. An avalanche of data to be
transformed into information has launched a real technological revolution.
The mining industry will be soon reached.

REFERENCES
(1)

Mathematics in Industry, Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development Global Science Forum, Heidelberg, Germany, July 2008.

(2)

Cunningham, C.V.B., The Kuz-Ram Fragmentation Model 20 Years On,

Brighton Conference Proceedings 2005. European Federation of Explosives
Engineers, ISBN 0-9550290-0-7, pp 201-210.

(3)

Layton, W. et al., Coupling Fluid Flow with Porous Media Flow, SIAM J.
Numer. Anal. (2008), Vol. 40, N 6, pp 2195-2218.

(4)

van Genuchten, M.T., A Closed-Form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic

Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils, SSSAJ (1980), Vol. 44, N 5, pp 892-898.

(5)

Dixon, D.G., Heap Leach Modeling The Current State of the Art,
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Materials Soc., Warrendale, PA, pp 289-314.

(6)

Bockris, J. et al., Modern Electrochemistry, Vol. 1 Fundamental of

Electrodics, Second Ed., Kluwer, Academic Plenum Pub. (2001), pp 10832000.

(7)

Menacho, J.M., Troncoso, F. and Domnguez, C., Flux: Predictive Tool for
Optimal Irrigation in Heap Leaching Operations, presentation to
HydroCopper 2009, Hotel del Desierto Enjoy, Antofagasta - Chile, Mayo,
2009.

(8)

van Oudenaarden, J., MIT Report N 7.81/8.591/9.531, Systems Biology,

September 2004, pp 2-14.

(9)

Leahy, M.J. et al., 2007, A Model for Heap Bioleaching of Chalcocite with
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(10)

Metodologas de Calentamiento para las Pilas de Biolixiviacin de Sulphide

Leach, Proyecto Cluster BHP Billiton, Arcadis DRM, 2012.

(11)

Menacho, J.M. and Chvez, P., Design, Optimization and Control of

Industrial Bioleaching Operations, presentation to HydroCopper 2009, Hotel
del Desierto Enjoy, Antofagasta - Chile, Mayo, 2009.

(12)

J. Menacho, Y. Zivkovic y L. Gutirrez, A Dynamic Model for Chloride

Control in SX Plants, Hydrometallurgy of Copper, Copper 2003, November
29 - 30, 2003, Sheraton Hotel, Santiago - Chile.

(13)

Sistema de Riego Automtico Inteligente en Pilas de Lixiviacin, Proyecto

Cluster BHP Billiton, MiningSystem DRM, 2012.

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Office of Science Workshop, 1999.