Marine Policy 38 (2013) 476482

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Marine Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol

Adaptation of sheries and mariculture management to extreme oceanic

environmental changes and climate variability in Taiwan
Yi Chang a,n, Ming-An Lee b, Kuo-Tien Lee b, Kwang-Tsao Shao c
a

Institute of Ocean Technology and Marine Affairs, National Cheng Kung University, 1-University Road, Tainan City 701, Taiwan
Department of Environmental Biology and Fisheries Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, 2 Pei-Ning Road, Keelung 20224, Taiwan
c
Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taiwan
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 18 June 2012
Received in revised form
3 August 2012
Accepted 3 August 2012
Available online 7 September 2012

This study presents the response of sheries management to the extreme climatic events that affect
marine capture sheries and mariculture in Taiwan. Two regional approaches that can be applied
universally to help capture sheries and mariculture adapt to extreme weather events are also
proposed. In the winter of 2008, an anomalously strong and continuous northeasterly wind caused
a event drove the cold China Coastal Current southward to penetrate the southern Taiwan
by a La Nin
Strait, and a portion of this current intruded eastward to the southern Penghu Archipelago. The cold
current intrusion appreciably damaged marine aquaculture and the wild sh population, causing the
death of more than 73 t of wild sh and 80% of cage aquaculture sh at the Penghu Islands. This
extremely cold seawater event occurred between late January and the beginning of February 2008. To
recover shery resources around the waters of Penghu, shery-related agencies adapted recovery
measures over 3 years starting in April 2008 that included hatchery juvenile release, environmental
monitoring, shery subsidies, and ecological eld investigations. This study suggests that responding to
extreme climatic inuences on sheries and mariculture should include (1) establishing an early
warning system by connecting sheries agencies and marine research institutions to assist decision
makers in performing time-adaptive measures, (2) temporarily suspending shing activities after the
occurrence of a natural disaster to help recover shery resources and ecosystems, (3) altering the
governance of farming shing right so that sh farmers can temporarily transfer their aquaculture
cages from high-risk areas to waters outside the inuence of extreme weather events, and (4) continually ling surveys to understand the recovery status of marine ecosystems.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Extreme climatic events
Taiwan
Adaptation
Fisheries
Marine ecosystem
Cage aquaculture

1. Introduction
The effects of climate change on global marine ecosystems and
sheries are difcult to predict. However, regional research
indicates that climate variability and change damaged some sh
stocks. Changes in the marine environment in upwelling zones
can result in not only a decrease, but also a shift in the population
of lower trophic species [1]. Extreme rainfall can affect ocean
circulation and alter marine life habitats. Increasing seawater
temperatures limit primary production, increase the rate of coral
bleaching, and decrease the biodiversity of some ecosystems.
Research on climate change or climate variability and sheries
has focused mainly on documenting trends and uctuations in
sh abundance, distributions in oceanic regime changes, and the
population of major pelagic shes with high commercial value [2].

Corresponding author. Tel.: 886 6 2757575x31148; fax: 886 6 2753364.

E-mail address: yichang@mail.ncku.edu.tw (Y. Chang).

0308-597X/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2012.08.002

Some studies have examined extreme oceanic changes and their

inuence on coastal sheries and ecosystems. In recent years,
several local studies have examined how climate variability and
change affect marine organisms [3,4]. However, an analysis of the
vulnerability and adaptability of sheries and sheries management communities is still lacking.
Climate change can cause rapid changes in marine environments and in marine organism dynamics. It can increase seawater
temperature, change hydrologic patterns, cause rare and extreme
oceanic events to occur, and decrease the population of marine
sh [57]. Previous studies focused mainly on pelagic waters;
however, increasingly more research is focusing on the relationship between climate change and variations in sh abundance in
regional waters. Extreme global weather events related to climate
change have increased since the 1990s, and they have inuenced
capture sheries and maricultures signicantly. In the Asia Pacic
region, climate change has induced extremely high and low water
temperature anomalies, which can change the sh spawning
season and feeding grounds, and decrease the hatching rate and

Y. Chang et al. / Marine Policy 38 (2013) 476482

population of captured shes [8,9]. Extreme weather can also

affect aquaculture because high water temperatures reduce the
growth rate and the stock of fry, thereby impacting the economy
and society [1012]. Hsieh et al. [13] and Chang et al. [4] reported
the occurrence of an extreme low water temperature event in
February 2008 that resulted in the death of wild sh surrounding
the coasts of the Penghu Archipelago (PHA) in the southern
Taiwan Strait (TS). The cold water event wreaked havoc on marine
resources and on the coral reef ecosystem, and consequently,
many coastal sheries declined sharply over the following years.
The death of most cage-culture sh around the PHA from the
2008 cold water event also caused an economic loss of more than
US$10 million. The relationship between shery catches and
extreme changes in the marine environment is not yet clearly
understood.
Although extreme weather events produced by climate change
are not predictable, sheries policymakers and managers can take
precautions against such events and establish a decision-making
framework that can help shers collectively adapt to the extreme
weather events and the economic risks of climate change. Fisheries
agencies are usually managed through policies; however, scientic
investigations and statistical analyses are the primary reference
points for decision makers. This study, therefore, includes scientic
analyses of information gathered from shing recorders and
environmental monitoring data to investigate the inuence of
specic climate forces on coastal sheries and cage farming in
the southern TS. Furthermore, this study offers a guide for policymakers and sheries managers to adapt marine capture sheries
and cage aquacultures in Taiwan to extreme climatic changes.

2. Effect of extreme temperature events on marine and cage

culture sheries in Taiwan
The specic effects of climate change on capture and aquaculture sheries in Taiwan are difcult to predict and quantify.
However, recent studies indicate that extreme weather and
marine environmental changes induced by climate change harms
the marine sh population and aquaculture. Satellite-derived seasurface temperature images show that the distribution of winter
oceanic currents in the Taiwan Strait is dominated mainly by the
cold China Coastal Current in the west and the warm Kuroshio
Branch Current in the east (Fig. 1a). In winter, the cold current in

477

the western TS moves mainly southward along the Chinese coast,

and a portion of the current is blocked around the northern PHA
and returns northward. Simultaneously, the warm current from
southern Taiwan is blocked by a portion of the cold current.
Previous studies [14,15] on water temperature patterns in the
strait indicated that the dominant spatial variance in water
temperature in winter was consistent with a quasi-permanent
front at the northern PHA. Based on most previous studies, the
cold current was generally thought to be blocked north of the PHA
in winter, whereas areas around the PHA were surrounded by
warm, highly saline water (Fig. 1a). However, in the winter of
2008, the cold China Coastal Current moved southward to
penetrate the southern Taiwan Strait, and a portion of this current
with temperatures lower than 18 1C intruded eastward to the
southern PHA (black arrow in Fig. 1b).
Water temperatures in the PHA are affected by seasonal current
circulation patterns and occasionally by extreme climate changes,
o events, characterized by increasing
which occurred during El Nin
a events, characterized by abnorwater temperatures, and La Nin
mal temperature drops [14]. Water temperature in the southern TS
is generally above 20 1C in winter, but it dropped to 13 1C between
the end of January and the middle of February 2008. This extreme
thermal anomaly had a signicant impact on marine ecology and
sheries. In January and February 2008, many resident sh were
found dead on the PHA beaches, with more than 183 species in 58
families recorded dead, including large numbers of highly priced
species such as the grouper, parrotsh, and wrasse. Regions of
bleached coral have also been found [13]. The low water temperature event thus signicantly damaged marine aquaculture and wild
shes, and caused the death of more than 73 t of wild sh and
1500 t of cage aquaculture shes in PHA. Fig. 1(d) and (e) shows
dead sh washed on the coast. This ecological disaster was thought
to have been caused by the exceptional intrusion of cold current
produced by climate change [4,13].
A similar cold water event occurred again in the winter of
2011. As shown in Fig. 1(c), sea surface temperature surrounding
the PHA dropped below 18 1C, and the isotherm of 20 1C (black
contour) retreated to the southern PHA. More than 70% of cobia
(Rachycentron canadum), a major species of cage culture, died at
the end of January, and more than 500 t of caged sh were
cleaned in 1 week by sh farmers (Fig. 1f). Although changes in
a caused more intense hydrowater temperature during La Nin
graphic variations and damage to sheries and aquaculture than

Fig. 1. SST images of winter periods in the Taiwan Strait over a long-term average (a), February 2008 (b), and January 2011 (c). CCC, KBC, and KC represent the China
Coastal Current, Kuroshio Branch Current, and Kuroshio Current, respectively, and PHA represent the Peng-Hu archipelago. Dead sh washed onto the beach in the
Peng-Hu archipelago in February 2008 after a cold water event (d, e); and dead cobias in cages, 2011 (f).

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Y. Chang et al. / Marine Policy 38 (2013) 476482

o, the
those caused by water temperature changes during El Nin
a winters on marine ecosystems and sheries in
impact of La Nin
regional waters is not fully understood.

3. Data and methods

To allow policies and sheries managers to adapt effectively to
extreme environmental changes, sheries agencies need extensive
research information and reliable results from eld observations.
Since the cold water event in 2008, the Fisheries Agency of Taiwan
has supported several research projects to monitor changes in the
ecosystems around the PHA [16]. To evaluate the inuence of this
exceptional cold water intrusion, we archived the investigative
results from these projects and analyzed the environmental factors.
Long-term variations in environmental factors were derived
from satellite sea-surface temperatures (SSTs), and measured by
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) sensors during the 15-year period of 19962011. The data were collected from
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Satellite Active Archive (www.class.ngdc.noaa.gov), and from a
regional AVHRR data library at the National Taiwan Ocean University [15]. Wind data recorded by a gauge station in the PHA were
also archived in this study. Wind speed was compared with daily
mean SST changes in the strait.
According to Chang et al. [4], the cold water intrusion was
caused by a strong brewing northeasterly wind, which drove cold
water into the waters around the PHA. Therefore, we measured
the evolution of the thermal front bounded between the cold and
warm currents. The distance of 20 1C isotherm referred to central
PHA (23.511E, 119.521N) was measured in the NWSE direction;
we suggested that the value would be positive/negative while the
20 1C isotherm locates at northwestern/southeastern PHA. The
distance of the 20 1C isotherm can be a simple indicator of the
intensity of the water front; a positive distance shows an intense
warm current, whereas a negative value indicates an intrusion of
cold water from the south into the PHA.

Fig. 2. Variations in the number of sh species observed at nine xed stations

around the PHA after the cold water event, from 2008 to 2010. (a) Parrotsh
(scaridae), (b) buttery sh (chaetodontidae) and (c) dameselsh (pomacentridae).

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Inuence of cold water on marine ecology and mariculture
After the cold water event of February 2008, several research
projects, supported by the Fisheries Agency of Taiwan from April
2008 to December 2010, investigated the biodiversity of sh and
invertebrates. One of the research projects [16] monitored 9 stations around the coasts of PHA. Recording the number of species
by scuba diving, we noted a signicant reduction in the number of
species after the 2008 cold water event (Fig. 2). Less than 4 species
in each family of parrotsh (2a), buttery sh (2b), and damsel
sh (2c) were recorded at most of the stations. These results arise
mainly from changes in capture shery, in which production
declined by approximately 60% in major coastal sheries in the
PHA [16]. Mora and Ospina [17] indicated that cold water events
a year reduced the
in the eastern Pacic Ocean during La Nin
composition and the abundance of marine organisms, particularly
on some reef sh because the water temperature fell below their
critical thermal minimum (16.3 1C). Yoshitaka et al. [18] observed
the rhythm of diurnal feeding activities of the Japanese spiny
lobster (Panulirus japonicus) at a water temperature of 22 1C and
found a negative correlation between water temperature and
feeding activity, especially when the water temperature fell
gradually from 23.3 1C to 7.9 1C. Similar results were reported
by Hill [19] and Wolkenhauer [20], who observed few differences
in the feeding, duration of emergence, and movement of the mud

Fig. 3. Coral reef bleaching observed in April 2008 (a) and newly born branches
observed in April 2010 (b).

crab Scylla serrata between 20 1C and 25 1C; however, the rates of

these activities declined at 16 1C. Wolkenhauer [20] also indicated
that feeding activity was positively correlated with temperature.
These observations, therefore, suggest that the exceptional cold
water event in February 2008 and 2011 might have caused the
death of warm-water and resident sh around the PHA, from
diminished feeding activities, body temperature loss, and lack of
energy. The number of sh species, however, has increased
gradually since 2009 and reached a peak in 2010 with more than
8 species at most of the stations (Fig. 2).
Further evidence of the impact of the cold-water event was
found in the coral reefs along the coasts of the PHA. As
Fig. 3(a) shows, the water temperature dropped to an unusual
low of 13 1C in late January 2008, followed by widespread bleaching
of the coral reefs (Acropora formosa) near the coast, which was
observed in May 2008. However, newborn juvenile corals were
found at the same surveyed station (Fig. 3b) in May 2010.
Extremely high water temperatures are usually identied as the
major factor in coral bleaching, but cold water inuxes have also
been observed to cause bleaching in coral reefs [21,22]. Although

Y. Chang et al. / Marine Policy 38 (2013) 476482

479

the impact of cold water on coral still appears to be limited,

extremely cold water is nevertheless a factor in the climate change
projections for coral reefs in some regions. The appearance of sh
species and juvenile coral since 2009 indicates a slight increase in
biodiversity after the natural disaster. The gradual recovery of
shery resources and ecosystems in the waters around the PHA is
expected to occur naturally, without the aid of articial measures.
Climate change alters not only the biophysical environment of
the ocean, but also the stability of maricultures. Extreme changes in
the farming ground affect the growth, activities, survival, and
production of cage-culture shes. For example, climate change
had a signicant impact on the availability of cobias to cage
aquaculture in Taiwan. Based on the records of the Fisheries Agency
of Taiwan, the annual production of cobia was approximately
3000 t, and more than 80% was contributed by cage farming in
the waters around Peng-Hu. More than 34 companies were engaged
in cobia farming; however, only 4 companies still exist after
suffering the 2 cold water events in 2008 and 2011. The government must therefore accommodate the increasing uncertainties
produced by extreme changes in the oceanic environment.
4.2. Changes in climate and marine environment
Climate change leads to a signicant increase in seawater
temperatures in major marine ecosystems. Rapid warming has
been observed in the semi-enclosed waters of the Eastern Pacic
and the Kuroshio Current over the past 2 decades [23]. Although
most oceans experienced high water temperatures under the
inuence of climate change, extreme cold weather events have
also been reported in recent years. Understanding the local effects
of climate change on marine ecosystems is crucial because
marine-based food suppliers require such information. Kuo and
Ho [14] indicated that the northeasterly wind in the East China
a event in the winter of
Sea was much stronger during La Nin
o event in the winter of 1997/1998. Chang
1998/1999 than El Nin
et al. [4] reported that wind speed in the Taiwan Strait increased
a event in the
sharply and lasted for a longer time during La Nin
winter of 2008. Continuous strong winds thus drove the cold
current southeast to southern Taiwan, and warm currents of
higher than 20 1C retreated to the South China Sea, which resulted
in a signicant drop in water temperature. Following Chang et al.
[4], this study considers the 20 1C isotherm as an indicator for
examining trends and variations in cold/warm currents during
winter (January and February). SST images with the 20 1C isotherm were compared to the duration of daily wind speeds
stronger than 6 m/s.
Atmospheric conditions can impact oceanic environments
through airsea interactions. Fig. 4 shows the statistical results
of the 20 1C isotherm distribution related to strong-wind ( 46 m/
s) periods for each winter (January and February) from 1996 to
2011. Periods of strong wind speeds ( 46 m/s) lasted 819 days
a (1996, 2000, 2008, and 2011), but
during winters with La Nin
o (1998, 2003, 2007, and
only 28 days during winters with El Nin
2010, in Fig. 4a). In 1996, 2000, and 2008, the 20 1C isotherm
retreated south to the PHA when strong winds lasted more than
20 days. However, the 20 1C isotherm intruded northward to the
northern Taiwan Strait when high winds lasted only 8 days or
o.
less. The cold SST event did not occur in winter during El Nin
Fig. 4(b) shows the average distribution of the 20 1C isotherm that
sorted by lasting period of strong wind. During periods of strong
winds that lasted less than 6 days, the 20 1C isotherm was located
in the northeastern PHA, with a mean distance of approximately
70 km from the central PHA. No signicant changes in the
distribution of the isotherm were observed when the period of
strong winds lasted up to 12 days; however, the boundary
signicantly intruded the southeastern PHA when strong winds

Fig. 4. Variations between lasting periods of strong winds (vertical lines) and the
distribution of 20 1C isotherm (grey bars) in reference to the central PHA. Positive
bars indicate a northward distribution of warm current from the PHA, and
negative bars show the retreat of warm current in the southern PHA.

lasted more than 13 days. The warm water retreated south with a
mean distance of 10 km at the southern PHA. The southward
intrusion of cold current was more evident when strong winds
lasted more than 19 days. Such phenomena occurred only in 2008
and 2011.
Considering with ecosystem disaster, declining production,
income and food security, shers may seek alternative means of
livelihood, increasing shing pressure on other resources [24].
Extreme changes in the marine environment can thus have an
impact on ecosystems, coastal management, and socioeconomic
stability. Most studies have focused on the impact of climate
change on ocean productivity and sh distributions from a
scientic perspective [25], but some studies suggest that sheries
management should change to adapt to the impact of climate
change on capture sheries [2628]. However, a simple framework for providing adaptive measures to the local government
has not yet been considered, especially in relation to coastal
ecosystems where the inuence of climate change is indirect, and
higher resolution of forecasting model is required. It is therefore
difcult to enhance the efciency of the adaptive process in
sheries and aquaculture, in the event of extreme changes in
the coastal waters.
4.3. Management and measures taken
Two months after the rst extreme cold water intrusion in
February 2008, the government of Penghu County released 50,000
juvenile yellow n bream. The Fisheries Agency of Taiwan and
Penghu County then organized several research teams to analyze
possible mechanisms of such cold water events, and their inuence
on the ecosystem and on sheries resources around the PHA. The
research projects lasted 3 years, from 2008 to 2010. Detailed
information of the research conducted after the cold water event
is shown in Table 1. Most of the research projects were supported
by the Fisheries Agency of Taiwan, and their purpose was to
observe the impact of extreme oceanic changes on marine ecosystems, capture sheries resources, and shing ground conditions
around the PHA. The cold water event directly reduced sheries

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Y. Chang et al. / Marine Policy 38 (2013) 476482

Table 1
Measures taken by the local government and the Fishery Agency of Taiwan after the occurrence of the cold water event in 2008.
Date

Measures

Consignor client

2008/Apr.

Juvenile releasing of Yellow n bream with 50,000 individuals

Peng-Hu County

Entrustment company

Afliated Aquarium, Penghu Marine

Biology Research Center, FRI, COA
2008/Apr.2010/Dec. Investigation on marine ecosystem and sheries resources around Peng-Hu Fishery Agency, COA Afliated Aquarium, Penghu Marine
water after the cold water event
Biology Research Center, FRI, COA
2008/Apr.2010/Dec. Further investigations of shery resources and its precaution system
Fishery Agency, COA NTOU, Academia Sinica, NPUST
related to cold water intrusion in Peng-Hu waters
2009/May2010/Apr. Investigation on ecosystem and resources of shing ground in Penghu Bay Peng-Hu County.
Afliated Aquarium, Penghu Marine
Biology Research Center, FRI, COA

production after 2008, the only measure been taken for the capture
sheyes was released juveniles of shes, conch, and abalone from
April to August 2008. However, annual shery production in 2009
and 2010 remained lower than the long-term average (19932010).
The mass release of hatchery juveniles is thought to have
negative effects on marine ecosystems. Ecological interaction
with original species reduces the chances of survival of hatchery
sh and impacts the growth and population of other natural
organisms [29,30]. Most hatchery release programs usually ignore
ecological feedback mechanisms, which can reduce the survival
rate of both hatchery and wild sh. Levin and Williams [31] also
indicated that releasing hatchery sh can decrease other taxa that
are not targets of enhancement. For example, releasing large
numbers of hatchery sh annually from the same location can
cause predators to compensate for the increased number of
predictable prey, which is maintained at an inated abundance,
causing the predation impact to hatchery and wild sh [3234].
Although releasing large numbers of hatchery sh in the PHA
after a cold water event can increase the catch of target species
over the following years, the population increase of target species
can also reduce community diversity and productivity in the
regional waters. Nonetheless, the cold water events also changed
the species components in the natural environment. Therefore,
this study suggests that hatchery stocking can disturb the ecology
of the regional ecosystem around the PHA if measures to care for
the environment are not considered rst.
For mariculture, the impact of the extreme cold water event on
cage aquaculture resulted in an economic loss of approximately
$1 million for sh farmers at the PHA in the winter of 2008. The
annual production of cage culture at the PHA was 4600 t in 2007.
However, production declined to 1200 t after the cold water event
in 2008 that led to the death of more than 70% of cultured cobia
and groupers. Ninety percent of sh farmers abandoned their
culture cages, and those who remained suffered a similar cold
water event in the winter of 2011. Although sh farmers bore
signicant economic losses from these 2 cold water events, the
government provided aid by granting 20% of the total economic
loss for every farmer, according to the Regulations on Natural
Disaster Aid for Agriculture. The limited amount of economic aid
suggests bleak prospects for the reconstruction of cage aquaculture after a natural disaster.
The effects of global climate change on mariculture include an
increase in sh diseases and deaths in ponds and cages, and a
lower survival rate for hatchery sh during extremely warm
months in tropical waters [33,35]. However, frequent occurrences
of extreme weather events also threaten mariculture. Heavy rains
ood sh farms and cages, and cold temperature anomalies
increase the length of the growing season of sh [1]. An extreme
cold water event in the East China Sea produced consistently low
water temperatures from November 2009 to April 2010, resulting
in the death of numerous cultured shellsh and abalone in
shallow waters [5,36]. The magnitude of the negative impact on
cultured organisms in coastal waters is evidence that such

extreme events must be distinguished from gradual trends. This

study suggests that adaptive measures specic to aquacultures
should consider options such as changes of cultured species to
reduce the sensitivity to extreme events, as well as a shift toward
climate-proof technologies, such as closed recirculating systems
[37,38]. However these measures are difcult to implement for
cage aquaculture and shallow-water farming in the sea. As a
consequence of disasters arising from climate change, adaptive
measures specic to mariculture should be formulated to achieve
effective management. The following section offers suggestions
for an adaptive approach to assist capture sheries and mariculture to adapt to extreme cold water events in the Taiwan Strait.

5. Adaptation of shery and mariculture management

Adapting management policies to respond effectively to
climate change and extreme weather events involves an approach
that is based on scientic studies. Decision making for the capture
sheries and mariculture sectors requires scientic information to
understand the forecasting issues related to specic regional/
coastal areas, and to manage socio-scientic issues in responding
to social and environmental pressures facing shing communities. According to the historical records of Penghu County, an
extreme cold water event rst occurred in the winter of 1934, and
it was observed again in 1945, 1976, 2008, and 2011. Such cold
water events occur with uncertain frequency. However, responses
to climate change vary across regional, national, and global levels
because the effects of climate change threaten regional ecosystems in different ways [3941]. Therefore, adaptive management
must be built rst on the regional level.
Studies indicate that adaptive measures proposed to captive
shers are based on livelihood and environmental change. For
example, it has been suggested that shery resources should use
ecosystem-based management, or they should enhance the resilience of biophysical and socioeconomic systems by increasing
conservation measures and limiting annual harvesting and shing
activities [28]. As a plan for capture sheries in the Taiwan Strait
to adapt to extreme changes in the oceanic environment such as
those presented in this study, 2 steps are proposed: (1) minimize
the hatchery release of shes and shellshes, and (2) moderate
the suspension of shing activities.
Hatchery release has many potential ecological, genetic, and
economic benets; however, care for the regional environment
should be investigated and considered before it is broadly applied.
Nonetheless, mass hatchery releases of some species might
change the biodiversity of an already frail ecosystem after a
signicant climatic event. According to led monitoring results
conducted by academic institutions and governments over several years after the cold water event, the biodiversity of sh of
high economic value gradually increased, and most of the
bleached corals were found within newly born branches 2 years
after the cold water event. It appears that the marine ecosystem

Y. Chang et al. / Marine Policy 38 (2013) 476482

has the capacity to gradually renew itself after an extreme

climatic event. Consequently, the suspension of shing activities
involving highly destructive gear, such as trawl nets and purse
seines, for several months can benet the process of ecosystem
recovery. However, this adaptive policy must be strengthened by
popularizing the concept of ecosystem conservation among shers and appropriating government grants during periods of shing activity suspension after natural disaster events.
Regarding mariculture management for adapting to extreme
climatic events, multiple indicators from scientic information,
the attitude and adaptive capacity of shers, and recognition by
the government should be integrated to construct an effective
framework for the decision-making process. Most important,
because mathematical forecasting models cannot be constructed
easily in the management agencies of regional governments,
simplifying the procedure can help implement a timely adaptation framework. Although it is difcult to create a forecasting
model for cold water events, scientic monitoring and studies by
Chang et al. [4] and Section 4.2 of statistic results provide reliable
indicators of cold water intrusion through statistical analyses.
This study, therefore, proposes an adaptation management plan
using scientic information to mitigate the impact of extreme
cold water events that is specic to both capture sheries and
cage culture. A simple and scientically based decision-making
process for adaptation is provided in Fig. 5. It consists of 3 integral
steps: (1) monitor data collection of weather and oceanic environments, (2) identify potential climatic anomalies based on
scientic information, (3) make adaptive decisions at the level
of central and local governments, and (4) announce warnings of
cold water events to sheries so that they can take measures to
respond to the impact of extreme natural events.
As the scientically based framework of decision-making
shows, near real-time monitoring of wind speed data, in situ sea
water temperatures, and satellite-derived SST images are critical
for constructing the warning process. An environmental monitoring center should then identify whether a cold water event is
approaching by analyzing water temperature patterns and the
duration of strong winds ( 46 m/s). Because it is likely that during
a cold water event water temperatures will drop below 20 1C and
strong winds will last longer than 13 days, the Fisheries Agency
should cooperate with the local government and communicate
with shery communities, and suggest to sh farmers to move
their cages from the original cultured area to the south, which is
protected from cold water intrusions by the warm Kuroshio
Branch Current.
In 2011, a sh farmer who became aware of the change in sea
water temperature moved his cage by tugboat to the southern
PHA. Most of the cultured sh survived, whereas most of the sh

481

farms lost their sh that winter. However, cage aquaculture in

Taiwan is managed by the demarcated shery right under the
Fishery Act. The demarcated shery right designates a specic
water area, which is granted by the local government, for aquaculture [42]. Cages in a specic area approved by the government
cannot be moved to another location because it might affect
navigation safety. Therefore, the sh farmer who moved his cage
to the southern waters of the PHA was ned for not applying for
permission to the local government to move his cage.
This study suggests that the local government of Penghu
County should consider providing another area in the southern
PHA for cage farmers. Fishers should be permitted to move their
cages temporarily into a specied area during cold water intrusions in winter. Although the Cage Aquaculture Association has
addressed sh farmer0 s request for allocating an area for wintertime since 2011, the government must improve the shery law by
communicating with shery associations and oceanographers. To
implement adaptive measures for cage culture sheries, the
Fishery Agency and local government of Penghu County must
improve the contents of the demarcated shery right and manage
the area affected by extreme weather events based on scientic
investigations of oceanic environments and marine ecosystems.

6. Conclusion
Climate change impacts marine ecosystems, sheries, socioeconomic development, and food security, as a result of oceanic
environmental changes produced by extreme weather events. The
cold water events that occurred in the Taiwan Strait damaged
marine life and cage aquaculture signicantly, causing the death
of resident and coral reef sh, and those with low swimming
capability. The strong and continuous northeasterly winds caused
a in the winter of 2008 probably drove the cold CCC
by La Nin
farther south to penetrate the southern TS and reach the region
around the PHA. The duration of strong winds ( 46 m/s) during La
a event in winter affects cold SST intrusions into the TS.
Nin
However, the relationship between cold-water intrusions and
a event is not precisely understood.
wind speeds during La Nin
This study suggests that applying data related to the duration of
strong winds and satellite-derived SST images to hydrologic
models can provide useful information for understanding the
a
mechanism of cold-water intrusions that occur during La Nin
events in winter. To meet this challenge, in situ and satellite data
should be analyzed, and model simulations should be developed
to improve our understanding of the causes and precursors of
extreme weather events in the Taiwan Strait.
It is highly desirable to create a forecasting system that can warn
people when ecological disasters are about to occur. However,
creating a forecasting model for extreme climatic events occurring
in regional areas is challenging because the number of past events is
limited and a model simulation would be complex for decision
makers in the government to implement. This study nevertheless
provides simple and reliable adaptation management suggestions to
enable capture sheries and mariculture to respond to extreme
weather events. It can also be used as a reference for enhancing
management in coastal areas to mitigate the impact of expected
environmental changes and help stakeholders reduce economic
losses and recover from extreme weather events as they occur.

Acknowledgments
Fig. 5. Flowchart of the decision-making process for cage aquaculture adaptation.
This gure gives an example of an adaptation approach on a regional scale through
(1) environmental monitoring data collection, (2) judgment of potential impact of
extreme cold water events, (3) government decision-making, and (4) adaptive
measures taken by sh farmers.

This study was supported by a research Grant awarded by the

Center for Marine Bioenvironment and Biotechnology, NTOU, and
two other Grants provided by the National Science Council

482

Y. Chang et al. / Marine Policy 38 (2013) 476482

(NSC100-2621-M-019-001) and the Council of Agriculture (98AS8.5.2-FA-F1), Taiwan. The authors would like to express their
appreciation to Prof. Chang-tai Shih of NTOU for his helpful advice
on this manuscript.
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