discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5577061
CITATIONS
READS
35
145
4 authors, including:
Marek Sikora
Neela Badrie
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE
Stanisaw Kowalski
University of Agriculture in Krakow
32 PUBLICATIONS 314 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
This comprehensive review of sauces and salad dressings covers the literature over the last decade with respect to physical
and chemical properties and the applications of these products. As such, texturizing and structural systems (especially
hydrocolloids) are described in detail and the application of polysaccharide thickeners as texture providers is described.
Microbiological aspects of sauces are covered with relevant sections discussing the factors affecting microbiological activity
and microbial spoilage and/or enhancement of a range of sauces. In addition, the use of carbohydrates and proteins as
emulsifiers in many sauces is described. Quality aspects are given prominence in this review with sections being devoted to
rheological and textural properties, chromatographic approaches and sensory aspects. Healthy sauces such as those having
low sodium, reduced fat and cholesterol or containing inulin or microcrystalline cellulose are reviewed. Finally, for various
sections the trends of the main findings as well as suggestions for future research are presented.
Keywords emulsifiers, health aspects, hydrocolloids, microbiological, properties, rheological, salad dressings, sauces,
sensory, texture
INTRODUCTION
50
divided into exudates, extracts, flours, fermentative or biosynthetic, and chemically modified (Glicksman, 1982, 1983).
Exudates
Hydrocolloid exudates come from various geographic areas,
and from different species of plants. They exude in the form
of teardrops or flakes and after harvesting they are dissolved in
water. After heat treatment followed by spray-drying they are
usually protected against any harmful microorganisms, which
allows them, after grinding to meet the food grade standards
(Glicksman, 1982). To the most popular exudates belong: gum
arabic (acacia), ghatti, karaya, and tragacanth.
Extracts
Seaweeds and/or algae are obtained by water extraction, then
purified, dried, and ground to powder form. This form (powder)
is the most convenient in food production. Seaweed extracts are
represented by differentiated forms of agar, carrageenans, furcellaran (red algae extracts), and alginates (brown algae extracts).
In similar fashion (aqueous extraction), the other polysaccharide hydrocolloids are separated, e.g.pectin from citrus peel
(Glicksman, 1983).
Flours
Some gums, e.g. starches of different origin, guar, and locust
bean gum are separated from tubers, cereals or plant seeds. This
separation involves mechanical removal of hull, grinding to a
fine powder, purification and clarification, followed by filtration
and drying (Glicksman, 1982).
Fermentative or Biosynthetic Hydrocolloids
As a result of secretion of some bacteria form gummy, slimy
polymers. For commercial applications many types of pure polymers are produced by controlling the biotechnological parameters. The most important food-grade gum include xanthan gum,
which finds a variety of applications in food product development. Many other gums obtained in biotechnological way, useful
in industrial applications have also been developed, e.g. dextran,
gellan, curdlan (Glicksman, 1982).
Hydrocolloids Obtained by Chemical Modifications
Natural gums have properties which do not always satisfy the
sophisticated needs of food producers and consumers. Thus, on
the basis of chemical modifications and derivatization of gums,
some very special functional properties can be achieved. There
are several natural polysaccharides modified by chemical reactions, which are allowed for use in food industry. To this group
belong: cellulose derivativescarboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, cellulose microcrystalline, some modified starches, pectins, alginate propylene-
51
52
M. SIKORA
Figure 1a Network formed by one polysaccharide alone with second polysaccharide entrapped inside (Morris, 1991).
Figure 1d
53
starch (Alloncle et al., 1989; Closs et al., 1999) and/or starch gels
(Morris, 1991) interact mutually (Figure 1c). So called coupled
gel networks form, when both polysaccharides chains connect
in any fashion (Figure 1d). In the literature this case is represented by the systems consisting of -carrageenan and starch
(Eidam et al., 1995) as well as by xanthan gum and locust bean
gum (Morris, 1991).
Emulsions and Foams Stabilization Ability
Hydrocolloid particles are involved in emulsion stabilization
ability, when they form thin film coatings, and/or stabilize air
bubbles, and water or oil globules. Hydrophilic parts of polymers are bound by water, and hydrophobicby air or oil. In the
case of foams this leads to easy formation of air bubbles dispersion in water, and in the case of emulsionsto aqueous or
oil globules. Hydrocolloid film surrounding bubbles or globules
protects them from re-aggregation, as all coated drops have the
same charge, causing repulsion. The formation of high viscosity
networks decrease mobility of dispersed particles, and protect
contact and aggregation of bubbles or globules, thus stabilizing
the whole system (Morris, Rees and Robinson, 1980; Robinson,
1991). Emulsions stabilization is important in the food industry, especially in artificial cream production. Water molecules
are bound by polysaccharide hydrocolloids, which leads to enhanced viscosity of aqueous phase both in cream and in foam,
and protects the whole system against syneresis. Clumping in
creams is prevented by polysaccharide stabilizers, which are
also recognized as sensory impressions enhancers (Swiderski
and Wasziewicz-Robak, 2001).
Interactions of Polysaccharide Hydrocolloids
Synergistic Interactions of Hydrocolloids in Aqueous Solutions
Many polymers admixed to another had better functional properties than the sum of them measured separately
(Glicksman, 1982; Whistler and BeMiller, 1977; Kulicke et al.,
1996). Synergistic interactions between different polysaccharide hydrocolloids find application in food industry. In this way
some expensive polymers can be replaced by cheaper ones. The
blends bring about new functional properties and/or alter rheology of food products. The use of polysaccharide blends leads to
the solutions of enhanced viscosity, or gels. Such properties are
not easy to achieve in the case of one particular polysaccharide
hydrocolloid (Glicksman, 1982; Whistler and BeMiller, 1997).
Type I
-carrageenan + locust bean gum
-carrageenan + tara gum
-carrageenan + gum konjac
furcellaran + locust bean gum
furcellaran + tara gum
furcellaran + gum konjac
Type II
xanthan gum + locust bean gum
xanthan gum + tara gum
xanthan gum + gum konjac
54
M. SIKORA
Depletion (osmotic) flocculation usually occurs in the systems of very high concentration of solid phase. High molecular
weight polymers are unable to fill the zone between solid particles (starch granules). As a result of differences in osmotic pressure between the zones, the migration of a solvent to the zones of
higher concentration bring about an approach of solid particles.
According to Abdulmola et al. (1996) flocculation mechanisms
can facilitate the formation of the connections between starch
granules.
Properties of Protein Hydrocolloids
The physical and chemical properties that govern protein
functionality include size, shape, amino acid composition and
sequence, net charge and distribution of charges, hydrophobicity/ hydrophilicity ratio, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
structures, molecular flexibility/rigidity, and the ability to interact/react with the other components (Damodaran, 1996). Many
functional properties of proteins such as dispersibility, wettability, swelling, solubility, thickening/viscosity, water-holding
capacity, emulsification and foaming depend on water-protein
interactions. Proteins similarly to polysaccharides play a key role
in the structure and stabilization of food systems through gelling,
thickening and surfacestabilizing properties (Tolstoguzov,
1991). According to Tolstoguzov (1997), the macromolecular
interactions responsible for complex formation may be divided
into three types: interactions between the charged macromolecules, interactions between oppositely charged (acidic and
basic) side groups, and between other available side groups of
polyions. These interactions can be classified as weak or strong,
specific or not, attractive, or repulsive.
Hydration Properties
Hydration properties of protein-polysaccharides are related
to the interactions between complexes and the solvent, usually
water. These properties are generally considered by their effect
on solubility and viscosity because of their industrial uses, especially in food formulation (Tolstoguzov, 1986; Ledward, 1979;
1994).
55
56
M. SIKORA
The other study of Sikora et al. (2003b) concerned starchxanthan gum thickening blends and their influence on sensory,
textural and rheological properties of cocoa syrups. Three commercially available cocoa syrups were compared to the syrups
formulated in laboratory, thickened by potato or corn starch
blended with 0.020, 0.025 and/or 0.030% xanthan gum. Results of rheological measurements were presented in the form
of flow curves and in the form of viscosity/time and viscosity/temperature relationships. Ostwald-de-Waele and Casson
models fitted to flow curves enabled the syrups to be characterized as non-Newtonian, pseudoplastic and thixotropic fluids.
Decreasing pseudoplasticity and hardness were observed parallely with increasing xanthan gum addition (Sikora et al., 2003b).
In the study of Sikora et al. (2004a,b), sweet and sour sauces
(S&S sauces) with and without vegetables, thickened by modified starches such, as acetylated distarch adipate (ADA) and
acetylated starch (AS) as well as by combinations of potato
starch (PS), oxidized starch (OS), acetylated distarch adipate
and acetylated starch with xanthan gum (XG) had differentiated sensory, textural and rheological properties, both direct and
after-six-months of storage. It was underlined, that sauces thickened by ADA and combination of ADA and XG had the strongest
thixotropy structures.
Also influence of a type and concentration of oat starch
and various thickening combinations (oat starchxanthan gum,
oat starchoat hydrolysate, oat hydrolysatexanthan gum and
potato starchxanthan gum) upon rheological, textural, and
sensory properties of sweet and sour sauces were studied by
Gibinski et al. (2006). Every tested thickener offered statistically equally good penetration force, and sensory properties of
sweet and sour sauces. In sauces thickened with potato starch
xanthan gum blends, penetration force, adhesiveness, and
stringiness increased, and the same trends could be observed in
sauces thickened with blends of oat starch with oat hydrolysates.
In sauces containing either the blends of oat starch with xanthan gum or three component blend of oat starch with oat hydrolysate and xanthan gum these textural parameters decreased
on storage, although in the latter blends changes in stringiness
were negligible. Changes in rheological parameters followed the
same direction as textural ones under the influence of particular
thickeners.
Modified starches, such as acetylated distarch adipate and
oxidized starch were the other hydrocolloids tried as thickeners of cocoa syrups. The textural and rheological properties of
syrups obtained in laboratory conditions were compared to the
properties of their commercially produced counterparts. The textural and rheological properties of syrups were affected by the
quantity of modified starch added. All analyzed syrups showed
non-Newtonian, pseudoplastic flow and thixotropy properties.
Values of yield stresses, viscosities of Casson, as well as consistency coefficient of syrups prepared in laboratory conditions
increased with an increase of the addition of modified starches
(Sikora et al., 2004).
Maiolino (Maiolino, 2002) investigated starches of special properties in order to improve mouthfeel of sauces and
beverages. The author considered the importance of selecting the correct starch product for specific food applications.
Thus, functional properties of available on the market starches,
e.g., functionality of tapioca starches for beverages production,
modified cook-up starches of low viscosity, useful for sauces
and marinades, instant and non-instant cold-water swelling
starches for dry mixes and beverages, as well as further food
and beverage applications of starches of special types were
discussed.
Salad dressings thickened by Amaranthus paniculatas or corn
starches were compared. The preparation of dressings also included salad oil, fluid egg yolks, salt, sugar, mustard flour, vinegar, white pepper and water. Storage in glass containers was
conducted at 1214 C. Rheological measurements carried out
by the use of Brookfield viscometer showed, that dressings prepared with corn starch broke down much earlier, than those prepared with A. paniculatas starch, used as a thickener (Singhal
and Kulkarni, 1990).
Trends in Application of Hydrocolloids for Thickening of
Sauces
Different hydrocolloids and their combinations were applied as thickeners and stabilizers of cocoa syrups and
sweet and sour sauces. Hydrocolloids such as: agar, carrageenans, carboxymethylcellulose and xanthan gum were used
as stabilizers, thickeners and consistency providers for cocoa
sauces. Potato and/or corn starchxanthan gum mixed systems were also used for thickening of cocoa syrups. Modified starches, such as acetylated distarch adipate and oxidized
starch were the other hydrocolloids tried as thickeners of cocoa
syrups.
Modified starches, such as acetylated distarch adipate, acetylated starch, and oxidized starch of different concentrations
were also applied as the thickeners of sweet and sour sauces.
Sweet and sour sauces with and without vegetables thickened
by acetylated distarch adipate and acetylated starch as well as
by combinations of potato starch, oxidized starch, acetylated
distarch adipate and acetylated starch with xanthan gum were
tested in regard to sensory, textural and rheological properties,
both direct and after-six-months of storage. Also an influence of
a type and concentration of oat starch and various thickening
combinations (oat starchxanthan gum, oat starchoat hydrolysate, oat hydrolysatexanthan gum and potato starch
xanthan gum) upon rheological, textural, and sensory properties
of sweet and sour sauces were the subject of another study.
Starches of special properties were also used in order to improve mouthfeel of sauces and beverages. Amaranthus paniculatas and corn starches were compared as thickeners of salad
dressings.
EMULSIONS STABILIZATION
This section describes the characteristics of emulsions,
the different physico-chemical mechanisms responsible for
57
alterations in emulsions, oxidative stability, and various emulsifying agents which are applied.
Emulsions
An emulsion consists of two immiscible liquids (usually oil
and water), with one of the liquids dispersed as small spherical droplets in the other. In a two-phase emulsion, one liquid
is dispersed in another in the form of large droplets (0.3 m)
(Friberg, Goubran and Kayali, 1990). A system which is comprised of oil droplets dispersed in aqueous phase is called oilin-water or o/w emulsion and waterin-oil (w/o) is in the opposite arrangement. Salad dressings cover a broad spectrum
of oil-in-water (o/w) composition and some products are defined on their basis of oil content. Most salad dressings are
non-standard of identity and comprise of 1045% oil (Hoefler,
2004).
Surface forces
Physical
Droplet
aggregation
Flocculation
Coalescence
Partial
coalescence
Oiling off
Phase
inversion
Ostwald
ripening
Gravitational
separation
Creaming
Sedimentation
An emulsion may become unstable due to a number of physical and chemical processes. Physical instability results in an
alteration in the chemical structure of the molecules, whereas
chemical instability results in an alteration of the molecules. Table 2 shows the most important physico-chemical mechanisms
which may be responsible for alterations in the properties of
emulsion. In practice, two or more of these mechanisms may
operate in parallel (McClements, 1999; Becher, 2001a,b). Fullfat dressings are considered as classic emulsions and their corresponding reduced-fat and fat-free counterparts are considered
non-classic emulsions (Ford et al., 2004).
Oxidative Stability
Static forces
Van der Waals
Electrostatic
doublelayer
forces
Destabilization of Emulsions
Type
Chemical
Biochemical
Lipid
oxidation
Enzymatic
Description
These forces are repulsive when the
dielectric function of the medium is in
between those of the particles.
A repulsive force is generated, which is
viewed at the midpoint between the
surfaces as an increased osmotic
pressure when two identically charged
surfaces in an electrolyte solution
from 30 to 40, and then to 50 C, the amount of dissolved O2 increased. As concentration of glucose oxidase increased from 0
to 0.5%, the amount of dissolved O2 decreased. There was no
difference in dissolved O2 reduction among the samples containing 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 or 2.0% glucose oxidase (Mistry and Min,
1992).
In another study, the effects of glucose oxidase-catalase on the
lipid oxidative stability and emulsion stability of a model emulsified salad dressing containing 1.0% glucose were determined by
58
M. SIKORA
Emulsifiers
The hydrophilic-lipophilic (HLB) numbers characterize the
balance between the hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of
the surfactant molecules. An emulsifier with a HLB value between 68 is optimal for water in oil emulsions, whereas emulsifiers with HLB value of 1016 are suitable for water emulsions
(Bergenstahl and Claesson, 1990).
Blending of lipophilic and hydrophilic emulsifying agents
produced synergistic effect on reduction of surface and interfacial tensions and in some cases resulted in more stable emulsions. Alkyl glycoside polyesters with hydrophilic emulsifiers
produced reduced calorie emulsifiers suitable for use in o/w
emulsions such as salad dressings (Akoh and Nwosu, 1992).
The effects of oil, emulsifier and starch concentrations on the
linear viscoelasticity of oil/water salad dressing emulsions with
oil concentrations of 3555 wt% were studied in emulsions prepared by the use of a mixture of egg-yolk, a highly hydrophilic
sucrose ester as emulsifier, and starch. An increase in oil concentration did not qualitatively modify the linear viscoelasticity
behaviour of such emulsions. The pseudothermal relaxation time
increased with egg yolk concentration and decreased with sucrose ester concentration. The results were related to the formation of an extensive structural network in the emulsions (Franco,
Bergano and Gallegos, 1997).
Emulsions Stabilizers
As emulsions stabilizers, carbohydrates, proteins such, as:
plant and animal (milk, whey, blood plasma) proteins, as well as
blends of different carbohydrates are described in the literature
as useful.
Carbohydrates
A number of hydrocolloids such as gum acacia, guar gum,
arabinogalactan, inulin, flaxseed gum and xanthan gum have
bee incorporated into salad dressings to enhance emulsion stability. Also a modified stabilizer, Freedom X-PGA (propylene
glycol alginate) stabilizer, which combined the creamy textural
characteristics of gum tragacanth with the superior stability of
a blend of guar and xanthan gums was shown to have longer
stability than the control PGA in salad dressings. The addition
of -cyclodextrin to egg white was shown to result in less liquid
separation and increased viscosity of salad dressing.
Hydrocolloids were modified by the incorporation of
lipophilic moieties by esterification, which enhanced emulsifying properties in addition to their inherent functionality. Several gum substrates were employed including non-emulsifying
gum acacia, guar gum, arabinogalactan and inulin. On testing
with salad dressings, results showed higher emulsion stability at
lower gum levels as compared to control samples (Stewart and
Mazza, 1997).
Also flaxseed gum was evaluated as a stabilizer for salad
dressings. For stabilization of emulsions, the concentration of
the gum had to be more than 0.45% (w/w), with pH above 2.8.
Lower values caused the polysaccharide to have compact configuration or caused cleavage of the polymer, increasing stability.
Larger mean droplet size and creaming were observed when pH
was too low or gum concentration was not sufficient for coverage
(Chiu et al., 1988).
The creaming behaviour of salad dressings was studied over
a wide range of xanthan gum (0.110 g/l) and oil phase (9, 18 or
36%) contents. Dressings were produced by mixing colloidally
stable emulsion with xanthan gum solutions. The model dressings were completely flocculated by depletion at xanthan gum
content higher than 0.1 g/L. Traditionally, stabilization of salad
dressing by xanthan gum has been explained by the yield stress
of its solutions. It was suggested, however, that the depletion
flocculation of the emulsion droplets, induced by addition of
xanthan gum, led to the formation of a particle network and that
it was the time-dependent yield stress of this network which
stabilized the dressing (Parker, Gunning and Robins, 1995).
Use of Freedom X-PGA (propylene glycol alginate) stabilizer
as a replacement for the more expensive PGA in salad dressings
was presented. This gum system combined the creamy texture
characteristics in gum tragacanth with the superior stability of
a blend of guar and xanthan gums. Shelf-life evaluation studies
showed that all samples were stable for over 12 months at room
temperature and refrigerated storage. At incubated temperature
(110 F), Freedom X-PGA samples were stable for 45% longer
59
60
M. SIKORA
Types of Sauces
Salad Dressings
The studies on salad dressings have centred primarily on the
survival of micro organisms in model systems. In a simulation by
the addition of contaminated eggs, Salmonella enteritidis and S.
typhimurium inoculated into oil and vinegar based Italian salad
dressing (pH 3.49 and 3.67),Salmonella spp. were not detected
after 5 minutes of holding and thereafter. Spoilage yeasts and
Lactobacillus fructivorans from commercial starch-based salad
dressing displayed a minimum growth at pH 3.553.60, with
the minimum water activity of 0.89 for yeast, and 0.91 for L.
fructivorans (Meyer et al., 1989).
61
62
M. SIKORA
revealed that Candida crusei had the fastest growth rate, especially at low temperatures (Fujikawa et al., 1998).
Mayonnaises
A probability model was developed, describing the influence
of temperature (1030 C) and the other factors, such as pH,
acetic acid and sucrose content. The model characterized the
influence of composition of mayonnaise on the survival of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in tryptic soy broth (McKellar, Lu and
Delaquis, 2003). Logistic polynomial regression with a total of
1820 factor combinations was used to describe the influence of
main, quadratic, and cross-product effects of the environmental factors. The model successfully predicted survival or death
in 1772 (97.4%) of the samples; of those incorrectly predicted,
28 were false-positives and 20 were false-negative. The concordance index was 99.4% and the disconcordance index was 0.6%,
indicating a good fit of the model to the observed data. The results suggested, that the probability model developed, could be
usefully applied to predictions of E. coli O157:H7 survival in
mayonnaise.
Growth and survival of 4 strains of coliform (two strains of
Escherichia coli 0157:H7, a non-pathogenic E. coli and the nonfaecal coliform Enterobacter aerogenes) in samples of mayonnaise and ranch salad dressing were investigated. Mayonnaise
had a greater antimicrobial effect than salad dressing, which
might be attributed to differences in pH, water activity, nutrients, storage temperature and the presence of lysozyme in the
whole eggs, used in its production. Coliform bacteria survived
longer in refrigerated salad dressing, than in mayonnaise. Both
mayonnaise (pH 3.91) and salad dressing (pH 4.51) did not support growth of any of the microorganisms, even though survival
was observed (Raghubeer et al., 1995).
The survival of Salmonella enteritidis after a pressure treatment, in relation to composition variables (NaCl, pH), both in
model, and real systems was studied. The fate of the surviving cells of S. enteritidis was monitored during storage at 10 C,
and the growth of death parameters have been calculated and
modelled in relation to pH, NaCl, concentration of the medium
and entity of the pressure treatment applied. The modelling of
the environmental factors on the treatment effectiveness indicated, that the salt content and pH displayed a synergistic effect
with pressure. The extent was higher in the mayonnaise based
products (Guerzoni et al., 2002).
To produce data towards development of a predictive growth
model, a 6-strain cocktail of L. monocytogenes was inoculated
onto the surface of a shrimp-crabmeat product, mixed with mayonnaise that was previously adjusted to pH 3.7, 4.0, 4.4, 4.7 or
5.1 with NaOH, and then stored at 4, 8 or 12 C, under both aerobic and vacuum conditions (Cheng-an and Tamplin, 2005). The
slowest growth of L. monocytogenes was observed in seafood
salad with mayonnaise, at pH of 3.7, and a storage temperature of 4 C, under vacuum conditions. At the same temperature,
the lag phase duration (LPD) of L. monocytogenes decreased,
as mayonnaise pH increased. Regression analyses indicated that
NaCl-medium were in the range 2.3 103 3.6 105 /ml. The
dominant microbial flora in shotturu were Vibrionnaceae and
Bacillus, in 2.5% NaCl-medium, and the members of the genus
Halobacterium, Bacillus, and unidentified cocci, in 20% NaCl
medium. In putrid shotturu, the aerobic and anaerobic viable cell
counts, in 2.5% NaCl, and 20% NaCl medium increased up to the
range 5.8 106 2.2 107 /mL, although the count drastically
changed during storage. The dominant microflora (aerobes) of
putrid shotturu, in 2.5% NaCl medium were bacteria of the genus
Streptococcus, and in 20% NaCl mediumthe members of the
genus Streptococcus, while in 20% NaCl mediummembers of
Halobacterium, Micrococcus, Bacillus and unidentified cocci.
The classification of bacteria at the genus level was performed
on 40 strains, isolated from bagoong (fish paste), produced
in Philippines. The dominant microorganisms were Bacillus,
Micrococcus and Moraxella, some of which grew well on the
medium containing more than 20% NaCl. For patis (fish paste),
the viable count was 4.5 103 cells/ml (Fujii, Basuki and
Tozawa, 1980).
Soya Sauces
Strained lees of soya sauce made from whole soybeans were
desalted and dried for making livestock feed. Most (98%) of the
salt in the raw lees was removed by desalting. The product was
microbiologically safe, as microorganisms were not found in it,
and the water activity (Aw ) was under 0.3 (Makino, Matsushita,
and Takegami, 2001).
Fourteen sphere-shaped, and thirty rod-shaped lactic acid
bacteria were isolated from soya sauce mash, obtained from two
factories in Thailand. Separated by cell-shape and DNA-DNA
similarity, group A, contained 14 tetrad-forming strains, which
were identified as Tetragenococcus halophilus, by DNA similarity. Group B contained 30 rod-shaped bacteria, which were
further subdivided into four sub-groups, and three ungrouped
strains, by phenotypic characteristics and DNA similarity. The
strains identified in subgroups were Lactobacillus acidipiscis,
Lactobacillus farciminis, Lactobacillus pentosus and Lactobacillus plantarum. Two ungrouped strains, which were homofermentative and the other heterofermentative showed a low
degree of DNA similarity, with the type strains tested, and were
left unnamed (Somboon et al., 2002).
Five Escherichia coli O157:H7 strains in soya sauce were
incubated at 4, 18, or 30 C, after inoculation. The cell numbers
of E. coli O157:H7 decreased to an undetectable level (<20
CFU/ml), within 9 days, in all soya sauce samples, at 30 C, but
did not decrease in the 0.1 M phosphate-buffered saline (pH
7.0) control solution, under the same conditions. Soya sauce
reduced the cell numbers of bacteria, at 18 C to a lesser extent,
than at 30 C, but to a greater extent, than at 4 C. Components
of soya sauce, such as 10% or 16% NaCl, 5% ethanol, lactic
acid, or acetic acid, at pH 4.5, sodium benzoate (0.6 g/kg), or phydroxybenzoic acid n-butyl ester (0.05 g/L) caused a reduction
of the E. coli 0157:H7 population, at 30 C, and the anti-E. coli
63
TableTop Sauces
In an observational study in Mexico City, 43 street-vended
chilli sauces were collected for microbiological examination.
Seventeen (40%) samples were faecally contaminated and 2
(5%) harboured sufficient enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli to
cause disease. The authors estimated that the consumption of
only one of these chilli sauces could result in enterotoxigenic E.
coli disease in at least 21,000 consumers per year, making them
important potential vehicles for food borne disease (EstradaGarcia at al., 2002).
The level of microbial contamination of table-top sauces
found in Mexican-style restaurants in Guadalajara, Mexico and
Houston, Texas found that 47 of 71 sauces from Guadalajara
were contaminated with Escherichia coli versus 10 of 25 sauces
from Houston (P = 0.03) and the median number of E. coli
colonies per gram of sauce was 1000 in Guadalajara sauces
versus 0.0 in the Houston sauces (P = 0.007). Among diarrheogenic E. coli, 4 of 43 sauces contained enterotoxigenic E.
coli and 14 of 32 contained enteroaggregative E. coli. It was
concluded that contamination with E. coli was common in samples in Mexican table-top sauces from Guadalajara restaurants
and that these sauces commonly contained enteric pathogens
(Adachi et al., 2002).
Physicochemical, microbiological and sensory properties of
Korean hot red pepper sauce, aged in an oak barrel for 012
months, at 10 C, were investigated and compared to characteristics of imported Tabasco sauce. Yeast and lactic bacteria
increased up to 2 and 3 months, respectively. Microbial counts
decreased after 8 months of ageing. Physicochemical properties
of the Korean hot red pepper sauce changed slightly during 12
months of ageing (Dong et al., 1998).
R
Either Tabasco sauce or a horseradish-based sea food cocktail sauce was placed on freshly oysters which were incubated
R
for 10 minutes on the half shell. Tabasco sauce, but not the
cocktail sauce was highly effective in reducing the number of
Vibrio vulnificus cells present on the oyster meat surface. Hot
sauces were not capable of significantly reducing the overall
numbers of V. vulnificus cells associated with oysters and people were at risk from infection, thus should avoid consumption
of raw oysters (Yi-Sun and Oliver, 1995).
64
M. SIKORA
65
Chromatographic Approaches
The two main types of chromatographic approaches for monitoring quality aspects of sauces found in the literature were gas
chromatography (GC), usually coupled with mass spectrometry
(MS), and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
Gas Chromatography
Splitless direct injection GC for determination of sorbic acid,
dehydroacetic acid and benzoic acid in salad dressing was developed, with 1,5-pentanediol as an internal standard. Into the
sample (0.5 g), 1 ml of 0.1% 1,5-pentanediol in ethylacetate
was added, and thoroughly blended to dissolve the fatty sample, and injected directly into the GC. Recoveries of sorbic,
dehydroacetic and benzoic acid were 95104%, with coefficient of variation <6.7%. Contents of sorbic, dehydroacetic
and benzoic acid in salad dressing were 0972, 0 and 0 g/g,
respectively. Results showed that benzoic and sorbic acids
were illegally used in some of the products (Choong et al.,
1999).
Nyman and co-workers (Nyman, Diachenko and Perfetti,
2003) have utilized GC-MS to determine 1,3-dichloropropanol
(DCP) in soya and other sauces. The method was validated by
66
M. SIKORA
Sensory Aspects
67
Fish Sauces
The sensory acceptance of fish sauce having a partial substitution of sodium chloride by potassium chloride was investigated by Sanceda et al. (Sanceda, Suzuki, and Kurata, 2003).
Fish sauce was prepared with sodium chloride or natural salt
with partial replacement by potassium chloride in the ratios
90:10, 75:25 and 60:40. Volatile acids were collected by steam
distillation, under reduced pressure, and the sensory properties of the products were evaluated. The amino acid content
was also measured. Sensory evaluation showed slight differences in odor between the samples with added potassium chloride and the controls, however the differences did not affect
the acceptability of the product. Acceptance of the taste was
terminated at the 75:25 sodium chloride: potassium chloride
ratio.
The same authors studied the sensory acceptance and overall
quality of a histidine-added fish sauce (Sanceda et al., 2003).
The fish sauce was incubated for 4 months to allow hydrolysis
of fish proteins by an accelerated fermentation process. Sensory evaluation with respect to taste, smell, colour and overall
quality was carried out. The control was found to be in an immature stage and was unacceptable. Panelists do not familiar
with the fish sauce preferred the histidine-added sauce over the
commercially-available products. However, those who were familiar with the sauce preferred the traditional one, but they still
accepted the histidine-added sauce. It was also reported, that the
addition of histidine during fermentation did not increase the
amount of histidine in the fish sauce.
In another variation of this study, the feasibility of making
fish sauce containing lysine (0.53%) was investigated (Sanceda
et al., 1990). High concentrations of lysine did not significantly
affect acceptance due to aroma, but there was reduced acceptance to flavor and color. In was found, that the addition of up
to 2.0% lysine was acceptable for the panelists.
The use of Staphylococcus xylosus, isolated from fish-sauce
mash (moromi) of frigate mackerel, in improving fish-sauce odor
was studied by Fukami et al. (Fukami et al., 2004). The volatile
compounds were analyzed by GC, after incubation, at 32 C, for
24 days, with the cultured bacteria. The sensory evaluation of fish
sauces showed, that the notes of such attributes as: fishy, sweaty,
faecal and rancid were weaker, than those of not treated with
bacteria. No changes were found with respect to the attributes,
such as: burnt, cheesy, meaty and ammonia. It was concluded,
that the odor of the fish sauce was improved by treatment with
bacteria.
The taste effects of oligopeptides in a Vietnamese fish sauce
(Nuoc mam) were studied by Park et al. (2002). In this sauce,
the oligopeptides accounted for approximately 20% of the total nitrogen. The high molecular weight peptide fractions enhanced sweetness along with the sourness and bitterness of the
fish sauce. Several other flavour characteristics, such as continuity, first taste and after taste were also increased. It has therefore
68
M. SIKORA
Effect of formulation on sensory perception and flavor release was investigated on salad dressing models. Oil-vinegar
emulsions (phi = 0.5, droplet size >10 m) with thickeners
and a whey protein concentrate were prepared, with different
fat droplet sizes, and distributions of droplet size. Effect of
emulsifier content was also tested. Sensory profile analysis was
performed by a trained panel, and flavour release was quantified by dynamic headspace analysis. Results showed, that with
an increase of droplet size, lemon and citrus aromas increased,
whereas egg, mustard, and butter aromas decreased significantly.
Content of alcohols and acids increased, when droplet size increased, whereas those of other compounds, such as limonene or
benzaldehyde, decreased significantly. Dispersion of the droplet
size had a small effect on flavor perception, and effect of increases in emulsifier content was noticed, only by instrumental
analysis (Charles et al., 2000).
Twelve type of salad dressing with three levels of fat content
and two levels of emulsifier were produced according to factorial
design (Wendin and Hall, 2001). These dressings were evaluated
by descriptive profiling and time-intensity evaluation. All design
parameters had a significant influence on the properties of salad
dressings, mainly on texture and mouthfeel, with fat content
being the most influential factor.
Succinylated whey concentrate (SYC) was substituted for
20% of the egg yolk in salad dressing, and the effects on quality and acceptance were determined by Thompson and Reniers
(Thompson and Reniers, 1982). SYC had emulsification properties suitable to these products. A more stable salad dressing
with higher viscosity, and no significant differences in consumer
acceptability, was produced in this way. It was also found, that
SYC had potential as a new and functional protein emulsifier.
Chemical analyses revealed, that Korean-type hot sauces had
pH 3.29, titratable acidity 3.88%, the content of capsanthin
0.13% and capsaicin 2.68% mg. Contents of capsanthin and
capsaicin decreased during storage for 50 days, at 20 and 30 C,
and sensory scores were found to decrease with storage time. The
correlation between color and capsanthin content was found to
be high; thus, capsanthin content was selected as a quality index
for Korean-type hot sauce (Kwon et al., 1998).
Packaging Aspects
Mayonnaises packed in 3 types of jars (glass jars with plastics closures and foil seals, or glass or PVC jars with plastics/expanded PE closures) with a capacity of 250 g, and stored
for 8 months, at 8, 23 and 35 C, were taken periodically and examined by chemical analysis (peroxide and anisidine values), as
well as organoleptically. The results indicated that temperature
was the most important factor affecting the rate of deterioration
of the products. The organoleptic evaluation was useful for monitoring the loss of quality of the mayonnaises, but did not show
differences between the types of packaging. Chemical analysis,
mainly the peroxide value at 23 C, showed a difference among
the packages based on their oxygen permeability. The peroxide
69
olive oil showed no phase separation, in comparison to mayonnaise and Italian dressings, made with olive oil. Major changes
in magnitudes of the rheological parameters in a model salad
dressing were attributed to coalescence of oil droplets, and to
hydration of the food gum. In comparative study on the rheological properties, sweet sauces exhibited Newtonian behavior,
while the salad sauces was more pseudoplastic.
Concerning Chromatographic Analyses
For determination of sorbic acid, dehydroacetic acid and benzoic acid in salad dressing, a simple and rapid method was developed using splitless direct injection gas chromatography, with
recoveries of 95104%. GC-MS was used in the determination
of 1,3-dichloropropanol (DCP) in soya and other sauces with
the limit of detection being 0.055 g/g of sauce. A modified
method used capillary GC-MS to detect 1,3-dichlorpropan-2ol and 3-chlorpropane-1,2-diol in soya sauce with detection in
parts per billion. GC-MS was employed to identify distinctive
volatile compounds in fish sauce of non-treated fish sauce and
of deodorized fish sauce.
For sample preparation in the analysis of volatile compounds
in Thai soya sauce, dynamic headspace sampling (DHS), direct solvent extraction (DSE), and vacuum simultaneous steam
distillation solvent extraction (V-SDE) were used.
Sudan I in hot chilitomato sauce was detected by HPLC
with diode array detection and by HPLC with diode array detection. The photodiode array detection method using HPLC was
developed for determination of Sudan dyes in chili- and currybased sauces, with overall recoveries in the range of 5186%.
Sudan red I, Sudan red II, Sudan red III and Sudan red IV in
chili sauce were also detected by inversed phase HPLC, using
ZorbaxSb-C18 chromatograph column, with recoveries of 91
95%. HPLC was also used for simultaneous determination of
Sudan Red I, II, III and IV in chili sauce with a clean-up procedure by gel column, with recoveries for all dyes in the range
80.796.3%. Preservatives in soy sauce samples were extracted
with C18 bonded SiO2 SPE cartridge, and detected by the HPLC
using a gradient elution system. A liquid chromatography was
used for analysis of sucrose polyester (SPE) in vegetable oil
based salad dressings, in which the SPE was separated from
acylglycerols, by gel permeation chromatography.
Concerning Sensory Studies
The sensory acceptance study of fish sauce having a partial
substitution of sodium chloride by potassium chloride showed
slight differences in odor between the samples with added potassium chloride and the controls. Sensory acceptance and overall
quality of a histidine-added fish sauce was studied with panelists,
who preferred the histidine-added sauce, over the commerciallyavailable products. In overall quality, it was found, that the addition of up to 2.0% lysine into fish sauce was acceptable for
the panelists. The use of Staphylococcus xylosus, isolated from
fish-sauce mash (moromi) of frigate mackerel improved the odor
70
M. SIKORA
and carrots with addition of salad dressing and citric acid dip
was lower, than those in the control, after the first day of storage.
71
72
M. SIKORA
SUMMARY
Food products such as sauces, mayonnaises, and salad dressings have been studied for many years. However, the growing
consumer demands pose ever-increasing challenges for the food
technologists to constantly develop new and better technologies,
improved quality products and products with healthpromoting
functions. Therefore, it is very crucial that papers such as this
one are presented to the readers, especially since the specialized
literature lacks in this area.
In the paper it is underlined, that all aspects concerning
sauces, dressings, mayonnaises and similar food products production are of great importance. Particular sections are arranged
in this way, that the reader, even not familiar with the subject,
could get easily into the scientific base of e.g. emulsion preparation, or the use of polysaccharide hydrocolloids. Thus, in the
first section the most important properties of polysaccharide and
protein hydrocolloids, as well as the combined polysaccharidepolysaccharide and polysaccharide-protein systems for thickening, texturizing, and stabilization of sauces, emulsions and
foams are presented, as the above mentioned systems and the
understanding of their application seem to be crucial for such
systems.
In the next section (Section 2), the applications of polysaccharide hydrocolloids and their combinations used as thickeners and stabilizers of cocoa syrups, sweet and sour sauces
and related products were demonstrated. Hydrocolloids such
as: agar, carrageenans, carboxymethylcellulose, xanthan gum,
acetylated distarch adipate, acetylated starch, and oxidized
starch, combinations of potato starch, oxidized starch, acetylated distarch adipate and acetylated starch with xanthan gum,
also combinations of oat starchxanthan gum, oat starch
oat hydrolysate, and oat hydrolysatexanthan gum were used
as stabilizers, thickeners and consistency providers in these
studies. Starches of special properties (amaranthus and corn
starches) were also used in order to improve mouthfeel of
sauces and beverages and compared as thickeners of salad
dressings.
In section 3, a number of hydrocolloids such as: gum acacia, guar gum, arabinogalactan, inulin, flaxseed gum, xanthan
gum as well as propylene glycol alginate blended with the
other hydrocolloids enhanced emulsion stability. It was shown
also, that ultra-filtered whey peptide fractions and soya protein
showed improved interfacial and emulsifying properties, and
hydrolyzed whey protein concentrate showed stronger surfaceactive properties, which extended shelf-life of emulsions. Hydrolyzed lupine protein showed good emulsion stability in salad
dressing, and could be used as replacer for egg protein in mayonnaise and salad dressings. Canola protein isolate with an
addition of carrageenan and guar gum increased emulsifying
activity index of stabilized emulsions. Emulsifying stability increased with increasing incorporation of beef plasma protein,
spray-dried preparation in emulsion type salad dressing preparation. Also, spray-dried preparations of pig blood plasma and
decolorized pig blood cell protein (globin) with sodium hexam-
etaphosphate were excellent acid emulsifiers in the manufacturing of mayonnaise and salad dressings.
In the study on various microbiological aspects of sauces and
salad dressings (Section 5), the studies have primarily focused on
the survival of microorganisms in the systems. For fish and soya
sauces, the studies have been directed on the isolation of various
food borne microorganisms. For various fish sauces such as nampla, Bakasang, shotturu and bagoong, the research has focused
on detection and isolation of faecal coliforms, Staphylococcus
aureus, Bacillus spp., Micrococcus, Streptococcus, Pediococcus, Moraxella. halobacterium and yeasts. Research on Mexican table-top chilli, hot sauces revealed faecal contamination by
Escherichia coli, which had the potential to cause food-borne
disease. Yeasts and lactic acid bacteria in Korean hot, red pepper sauce were monitored on storage and ageing. The effectiveR
ness of Tabasco sauce or a horseradish-based sea food cocktail
sauce was effective in reducing the number of Vibrio vulnificus cells present on the oyster meat surface. Additives such as
sucrose and methyl ester sucrose and methylglucose esters of
medium to long chain fatty acids, ethylene diamine tetraacetic
acid, ascorbic acid and acetic acids and sorbate acids have been
plied against spoilage microorganisms such as yeasts, Zygosaccharomyces bailii and Lactobacillus fructivorans in salad dressings. Salt content and pH displayed a synergistic effect with
pressure on the survival of Salmonella enteriditis in model, and
real systems, however the extent was higher in the mayonnaise
based products.
Studies on the rheological and textural properties of low
fat/calorie sauces and salad dressings have focused on the effects of fat, thickeners, emulsifiers blends, mixed gums, fat replacers and stabilizing agents. The inclusion of whey protein
peptidic fractions and variations of processing parameters have
been studied, as being influential on the stability of sauces and
salad dressings.
In the various chromatographic approaches, gas chromatography (GC) has been applied for the determination of preservatives and identification of volatile components in soya and
fish sauces using different techniques. Also, a number of studies
have applied high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
by using various detection methods, such as diode, photodiode,
diode array spectra for artificial dyes in chili and curry-based
sauces, as well as for determination of preservatives in soya
sauce samples, and analysis of sucrose polyester in vegetable
oil based salad dressings.
The sensory studies on fish sauces have been carried out on
partial substitution of sodium chloride by potassium chloride,
the use of Staphylococus xylosus to improve fish odor, and consumer preference for histidine-added fish sauce. In ranch salad
dressings, the effects of fat and level of flavoring on flavor release, as well as the effects of fat and garlic levels on sensory
scores, using hedonic testing were investigated. Sensory studies
on the other type of sauces and salad dressings were based on:
more sophisticated physical characteristics of obtained products (textural characteristics, with an application of different
measuring systemsback extrusion, squeeze flow tests, and
application of the newest rheological methods for characterization of products),
trials on application of new, rare polysaccharide hydrocolloids, or their combinations in the production and stabilization
of emulsions,
application of the new and various sensory evaluation methods
for characterization of products,
mutual correlation of sensory, textural and rheological methods in evaluation of final products, that could lead to optimization of thickener content,
73
more frequent use of shelf-life and microbiological determinations for characterization of products, and application of
them parallely with physical characteristics,
investigation in the area of texturizing and structurizing ingredients of sauces,
trials on substitution of various fat replacers in dietetic sauces
and their effects on physicochemical and sensory properties,
inclusion of functional ingredients for beneficial healthful
promoting properties of sauces, e.g. inclusion of oat hydrolysates, phytochemicals, etc.,
fermentation of sauces using probiotic microorganisms,
processing of sauces and salad dressings from exotic
tropicalbased fruits and vegetables.
REFERENCES
Abdalla, A. E. and Roozen, J. P. (2001). The effects of stabilised extracts of sage
and oregano on the oxidation of salad dressings. European Food Research
and Technol., 212(5):551560.
Abdulmola, N. A., Hember, M. W. N., Richardson, R. K., and Morris, E. R.
(1996). Effect of xanthan on the small-deformation rheology of crosslinked
and uncrosslinked waxy maize starch. Carbohydrate Polymers, 31:6578.
Adachi, J. A., Mathewson, J. J., Jiang, Z-D., Ericsson, C. D. and DuPont,
H. L. (2002). Enteric pathogens in Mexican sauces of popular restaurants
in Guadalajara, Mexico and Houston, Texas. Annals of Internal Medicine,
136(12):884887.
Akoh, C. C. and Nwosu, C. V. (1992). Emulsification properties of polyesters and
sucrose ester blends 11. alkyl glycoside polyesters. J. American Oil Chemists
Soc., 69(1):1419.
Alloncle, M., Lefebvre, J., Llamas, G., and Doublier, J. L. (1989). A rheological
characterization of cereal starchgalactomannan mixtures. Cereal Chem.,
66(2):9093.
Alvarez E., Cancela M.-A., and Maceiras R. (2004). Comparison of rheological
behavior of sweet and salad sauces. Int. J. Food Properties, 7 (3):511518.
Ambjerg-Pedersen, H.-C. (1997). No and low fat salad dressing compositions.
United-States-Patent, US 5 626 901; (US5626901), Hercules, Wilmington,
DE, USA.
Anon. (1991a). Salad dressing stabilizer cuts costs, not quality. Prepared Foods,
160(12):69.
Anon. (1991b). Stabilizer lends fresh appeal to salad dressings. Prepared
Foods, 160(5):73.
Anon. (2000) Healthy oils show their usefulness for salad dressings. Khranitelno
vkusova Promishlenost, (12):1214.
Bahnassey, Y. A. and Breene, W. M. (1994). Rapid viscoanalyzer (RVA)
pasting profiles of wheat, corn, waxy corn, tapioca and amaranth starches
(A. hypochondriacus and A. cruentus) in the presence of konjac flour, gellan,
guar, xanthan and locust bean gums. Starch, 46(4):134141.
Baldini, M., Danuso, F., Turi, M., and Vannozzi, G. P. (2003). Evaluation of
new clothes of Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosum L.) for inulin and
sugar yiels from stalk and tuber. Industrial Crops Production, 19:2540.
Becher, P. (2001a). Emulsion stability: creaming, inversion and ripening. In:
Emulsions: Theory and Practice. American Chemical Society, Washington,
D.C. pp. 200242.
Becher, P. (2001b). Emulsion instability: theory. In: Emulsions: Theory and
Practice. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. pp. 243288.
74
M. SIKORA
Belitz, H. D. and Grosch, W. (1999). Amino acids, peptides and proteins. Food
Chemistry. Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 891.
Bergenstahl, B. A. and Claesson, P. M. (1990). Surface forces in emulsions. In:
Food Emulsions. Ed. by K. Larsson and S. E. Friberg. Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York, pp. 4196.
Biliaderis, C. G., Arvanitoyannis, I., Izydorczyk, M. S., and Prokopowich, D. J.
(1997). Effect of hydrocolloids on gelatinization and structure formation in
concentrated waxy maize and starch gels. Starch, 49(7-8):278283.
Blecker, C., Paquot, M., Lamberti, I., Sensidoni, A., Lognay, G., and Deroanne,
C. (1997). Improved emulsifying and foaming whey proteins after enzymic
fat hydrolysis. J. Food Sci., 62(1):4852.
Bononi M. and Tateo F. (2004). HPLC/APCI-MS determination of Sudan I in
tomato sauces containing hot chilli. Italian Food & Beverage Technol., 37:59.
Brandt, L.-A. (1999) Salad days for healthy dressings. Prepared Foods.
168(10):5354.
Castro, M., Garro, O., Campos, C. A., and Gerschenson, L. N. (2002). Interactions between additives: its effects on sorbate stability and Z. bailii minimum
inhibitory concentration in model aqueous systems resembling salad dressings. Food Sci. and Tech. International, 8(1):3339.
Castro, M., Garro, O., Gerschenson, L. N., and Campos, C. A. (2003). Interaction between potassium sorbate, oil and Tween 20: its effect on the growth
and inhibition of Z. bailii in model salad dressing. J. Food Safety, 23(1):47
59.
Causey, J. L., Feirtag, J. M., Gallaher, D. D., Tungland, B. C., and Slavin, J.
L. (2000). Effects of dietary inulin on serum lipid, blood glucose and gastrointestinal environment in hypercholesterolemic men. Nutrition Research,
20:191201.
Chae, H.-J., In, M.-J., and Kim, M.-H. (1997). Production and characteristics
of enzymically hydrolyzed soy sauce obtained by using proteases. Hanguk
Sikpum Yongyang Kwahak Hoechi., 26(5):77847787.
Chappat, M. (1994). Some applications of emulsions. Colloids and Surfaces A.
Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects., 91:5777.
Charles, M., Rosselin, V., Beck, L., Suavageot, F., and Gichard, E. (2000).
Flavour release from salad dressings: Sensory and physicochemical approaches in relation with the structure. J. Agric and Food Chem., 48(5):1810
1816.
Chase G.-W., Jr, Akoh, C.-C., and Eitenmiller, R.-R. (1995). Liquid chromatographic analysis of sucrose polyester in salad dressing by evaporative lightscattering mass detection. J. AOAC International, 78(5):13241327.
Cheng-An, H. and Tamplin, M. L. (2005). The influence of mayonnaise pH and
storage temperature on the growth of L. monocytogenes in seafood salad. Int.
J. Food Microbiol., 102(3)277285.
Chiralt, A., Ferragut, V., and Salazar, J. A. (1992). Rheological characterization
of low-calorie milk-based salad dressings. J. Food Sci., 57(1):200202.
Chiu, C. P., Lin, T. C., Lii, C. Y., and Hung, S. S. (1988). Studies on functional properties and applications of B-cyclodextrin. 2. foaming, powdering,
emulsification and stabilization. Jiemian Kexue Huizhi., 11(4):3340.
Choong, Y. M., Wang, M. L., Chou, C. H., and Fan, J. J. (1999). Rapid method
for the determination of sorbic acid, dehydroacetic acid and benzoic acid
in butter, cheese, margarine and salad dressing by gas chromatography. J.
Chinese Agri. Chem. Soc., 37(2):166178.
Christianson, D. D. (1982). Hydrocolloid interactions with starch. Food Carbohydrates. Eds.: D. Lineback, G. Inglett, AVI Publishing Co., Westport,
399419.
Chu, T.-Y., Chen, C.-L., and Wang, H.-F. (2003). A rapid method for the simultaneous determination of preservatives in soy sauce. Yaowu Shipin Fenxi.
11(3):246250.
Chung, W.-C., Hui, K.-Y., and Cheng, S.-C. (2002). Sensitive method for the
determination of 1, 3-dichloropropan-2-ol and 3-chloropropane-1, 2-diol in
soy sauce by capillary gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection.
J. Chromatogr. A., 952(12):185192.
Closs, C. B., Conde-Petit, B., Roberts, I. D., Tolstoguzov, V. B., and Escher,
F. (1999). Phase separation and rheology of aqueous starch/galactomannan
system. Carbohydrate Polymers, 39:6777.
Cornet, V., Govaert, Y., Goedele, Moens, G., Van Loco, J., and Degroodt, J.M. (2006). Development of a fast analytical method for the determination of
Ford, L. D., Raju, P., Pechak, D., and Schwimmer, B. (2004). Dressings and
sauces. Food Sci. and Tech. J., New York. 132:525572.
Fox M.-M., Luhrsen K.-R., and Burkes A.-L. (1993). Calcium fortified dressing
salad product. United-States-Patent, US 5 215 769; (US5215769), Procter &
Gamble, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
Franco, J. M., Berjano, M., and Gallegos, C. (1997). Linear viscoelasticity of
salad dressing emulsions. J. Agri. and Food Chem., 45(3):713719.
Friberg, S. E., Goubran, R. F., and Kayali, I. H. (1990). Emulsion stability. In:
Food Emulsions, ed. by K. Larsson and S.E. Friberg. Second edition. Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York, 140.
Fridie, M., Badrie, N., and Pemberton, C. (2003). Sensory characteristics of
vinaigrettes with tropical spices. Foodservice Research Int., 14:139151.
Fujii, T. and Sakai, H. (1984a). Chemical composition and microflora of fish
sauce shotturu. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 50(6):10611066.
Fujii, T. and Sakai, H. (1984b). Chemical and microbiological analyses of putrid
sauce shotturu. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 50(6):10671070.
Fujii, T., Basuki, S. B., and Tozawa, H. (1980). Microbiological studies on aging
of fish sauce. 1. Chemical composition and microflora of fish sauce produced
in the Philippines. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi, 46(10):12351240.
Fujikawa, H., Maruyama, B., Wauke, T., Morozumi, S., Itoh, T. I., Hyakunin,
C., and Shinjuku, K. (1998). Analysis of yeast growth in salad dressing during storage with chromogenic agar CHROMagar Candida. J. Food Hygienic
Society of Japan, 39(2): 120126.
Fukami, K., Funatsu, Y., Kawasaki, K., and Wattage, S. (2004). Improvement
of fish-sauce odour by treatment with bacteria isolated from fish-sauce mash
(moromi) made from frigate mackerel. J. Food Sci., 69(2):FMS 45-FMS 49.
Fukami, K., Ishiyama, S., Yaguramaki, H., Masuzawa, T., Nabeta, Y., Endo, K.,
and Shimoda, M. (2002). Identification of distinctive volatile compounds in
fish sauce. J. Agric. Food Chem., 50(19):54125416.
Gambus, H., Nowotna, A., Ziobro, R., Gumul, D., and Sikora, M. (2001). The
effect of use of guar gum with pectin mixture in glutenfree bread. Electronic
Journal of Polish Agricultural Universities. Food Science and Technology,
Volume 4, Issue 2.
Gasaluck, P., Yokoyama, K., Kimura, T., and Sugahara, I. (1996). Some chemical
and microbiological properties of Thai fish sauce and paste. Bokin Bobai.
24(6):385390.
Gauthier, S. F., Paquin, P., Pouliot, Y., and Turgeon, S. (1993). Surface activity
and related functional properties of peptides obtained from whey proteins. J.
Dairy Sci., 76(1):321328.
Gibiski, M., Kowalski, S., Sady, M., Krawontka, J., Tomasik, P., and Sikora,
M. (2006). Thickening of Sweet and Sour Sauces with Various Polysaccharide
Combinations. Journal of Food Engineering, 75(3):407414.
Glicksman, M. (1982). Food Hydrocolloids, vol. 1. Ed. by M. Glicksman. CRC
Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
Glicksman, M. (1983). Food Hydrocolloids, vol. 2. Ed. by M. Glicksman, CRC
Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.Damodaran, S. (1996). Amino acids, peptides
and proteins. In: Food Chemistry, ed. O. R. Fennema. pp. 321429. Marcel
Dekker Inc., New York.
Guerzoni, M. E., Vannini, L., Lanciotti, R., and Gardini, F. (2002). Optimization
of the formulation and of technological process of egg-based products for
the prevention of Salmonella enteritidis survival and growth. Int. J. Food
Microbiol., 73(2-3):367374.
Guinard, J.-X., Wee C., McSunas, A., and Fritter, D. (2002). Flavor release from
salad dressing varying in fat and garlic flavor. Food Quality and Preference,
13(3):129137.
Hoefler, A. C. (2004). Hydrocolloids (chapterOther Food Applications, pp.
91103, Chapter 8) American Association of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. 111pp.
Hoefler, A. C. (2004). Hydrocolloids. American Association of Cereal Chemists,
St. Paul, Minnesota, USA. 111pp.
Ijong, F. G. and Ohta, Y. (1996). Physicochemical and microbiological changes
with Bakasang processing-A traditional Indonesian fermented fish sauce. J of
the Sci. of Food and Agric., 71 (1): J. Food Safety, 23(1):4759.
Iqari, H., Pedroche, J., Giron-Calle, J., Vioque, J., and Millan F. (2005). Production of Lupinus angustifolius protein hydrolysates with improved functional
properties. Grasas y Aceites, 56(2):135140.
75
Katerson, A. and Badrie, N. (2002). Sensory and physicochemical quality of reduced sodium hot sauces from dwarf golden apples (Spondias cytherea): Effects of brining and debrining. J. Food Sci., 67(9):3476
3483.
Kilinc, B., Cakli, S., Tolasa, S., and Dincer, T. (2006). Chemical, microbiological
and sensory changes associated with fish sauce processing. European Food
Research and Technology, 222(5-6):604613.
Kinsella, J. E., Damodaran, S., and German, J. B. (1985). Physicochemical and
functional properties of oilseed proteins with emphasis on soy proteins. In:
New Protein Foods: Seed Storage Proteins, ed. A. M. Altshul and H. I. Wilcke,
pp. 107179. Academic Press, London.
Kiosev, D. D. and Boshkova, K. S. (1998). Study of quality parameters of fish
sauce during its preparation. Plovdiv., 43:153158.
Koga, T., Koga, Y., Ohta, C., Saito, M., and Ohta, H. (2002a). Effect of beef
plasma protein on quality of emulsion type salad dressing preparation. Nippon
Shokuhin Kagaku Kogaku Kaishi, 49(2):8290.
Koga, T., Koga, Y., Ohta, C., Saito, M., and Ohta, H. (2002b). Effect of beef
plasma protein on quality of emulsion type salad dressing preparation. J.
Japanese Society for Food Sci. and Technol., 49(2):8290.
Kolakowski, E. (1992). Wlasciwosci funkcjonalne hydrokoloidow i ich wykorzystanie w technologii zywnosci. Materialy Konferencji Naukowej, Wroclaw, pp.
3550 (in Polish).
Kulicke, W. M., Eidam, D., Kath, F., Kix, M., and Kull, A. H. (1996). Hydrocolloids and rheology: regulation of visco-elastic characteristics of waxy rice
starch in mixtures with galactomannans. Starch, 48(3):105114.
Kwon, D. J., Lee, S., Kim, Y. J., Yoo, J. Y., and Jung, K. S. (1998). Changes
of physicochemical characteristics of Korean type hot sauce during storage.
Korean J. Food Sci. and Technol., 30(3):548551.
Lah, C. and Cheryan, M. (1980). Emulsifying properties of a full-fat soy protein product by ultrafiltration. Lebensmittel-Wissenchaft und-Technologie.,
13(5):259263.
Lai, L.-S. and Lin, P.-H. (2004). Application of decolourised hsian-tsao leaf gum
to low-fat salad dressing model emulsions: a rheological study. J. Sci. Food
Agric., 84(11):13071314.
Ledward, D. A. (1979). Protein-polysaccharide interactions. In: Blanshard, J.
M. V. and Mitchell, J. R. Eds. Polysaccharides in Food Systems. pp. 205217.
Butterworth, London.
Ledward, D. A. (1994). Protein-polysaccharide interactions, In: Hettiarachchy,
N. and Ziegler, G. R. Eds, pp. 225259. Protein Functionality in Food. Systems. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
Lee C. and Beuchat L.-R. (1991). Functional and sensory properties of
salad dressing containing fermented peanut milk. J. Food Sci., 56(6):1664
1667,1684.
Liang, J. and Huang, J. (2005). Determination of red dyestuffs in the chili sauce
by inversed phase high performance liquid chromatography. Huaxue fenxi
Jiliang. 14(5):2729.
Liao, S. Y. and Mangino, M. E. (1987). Characterization of the composition,
physicochemical and functional properties of acid whey protein concentrates.
J. Food Sci., 52:10331037.
Lo, C. T. and Ramsden, L. (2000). Effect of xanthan and galactomannan on the
freeze/thaw properties of starch gels. Nahrung, 44(3):211214.
Losso J. N., Khachatryan A., Ogawa M., Godber J. S., and Shih F. (2005).
Random centroid optimization of phosphatidylgycerol stabilized luteinenriched oil-in-water emulsions at acidic pH. Food Chemistry, 92(4):737
744.
Maiolino, D. (2002) Starches can improve mouthfeel for salad dressings. Food
Process, 63(3):42, 44.
Makino, Y., Matsushita, S., and Takegami, I. (2001). Quality of dried and desalted lees of soybeans in soy sauce production for preparing feed. Haikibutsu
Gakkai Ronbunshi, 12(1):2629.
Masuda, S., Hara-Kudo, Y., and Kumagai, S. (1998). Reduction of Escherichia
coli 0157: H7 in soy sauce, a fermented seasoning. J. Food Prot., 61(6):657
661.
McClements, D. J. (1999) Chapter 1 Context and Background. Food Emulsions:
Principles, Practice and Techniques., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp.
116.
76
M. SIKORA
McKellar, R. C., Lu, X., and Delaquis, P. J. (2003). A probability model describing the interface between survivial and death of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in
a mayonnaise model system. Food Microbiol., 19(2-3):235247.
McKeown, M.-J. (2000). Health enhancing salad dressing. United States Patent,
US 6 090 432; (US6090432), North Bend, OR 97459, USA.
Meyer, R. S., Grant, M. A., Luedecke, L. O., and Leung, H. K. (1989). Effects
of pH and water activity in microbiological stability of salad dressing. J. Food
Prot., 52(7):477479.
Miller, M. L. and Martin, E. D. (1999). Fate of Salmonella enteritidis and
Salmonella typhimurium inoculated into an Italian salad dressing with added
eggs. Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation, 10(1):1214.
Min, S., Mistry, B. S., and Lee, H. O. (2003). Improvement of oxidative and
emulsion stability of model salad dressing by glucose oxidase-catalase. J.
Food Sci., 68(4):12721275.
Mistry, B. and Min, D.-B. (1992). Reduction of dissolved oxygen in model salad
dressing by glucose oxidase-catalase dependent on pH and temperature. J.
Food Sci., 57(1):196199.
Morris, E. R., Rees, D. A., and Robinson, G. (1980) Cation-specific aggregation helices: domain model of polymer-polymer gel structure. J. Mol. Biol.,
138:349362.
Morris, V. J. (1991). Weak and strong polisaccharide gels. Food polymers, gels
and colloids, ed. by E. Dickinson, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 310321.
Munoz J. and Sherman P. (1990) Dynamic viscoelastic properties of some commercial salad dressings. J. Texture Stud., 21(4):411426.
Muschiolik, G., Draeger, S., and Sutton A. (1993). Molkenprotein und die Eigenschaften von Salatsossen [Whey protein and properties of salad dressings].
Deutsche Milchwirtschaft, 44(21):10541057.
Nguyen, T. H. (1985). Binding interactions of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose
and sodium hexametaphosphate to pig blood proteins-emulsifying properties
and applications in some food products of the complexes. Donghai Xuebao,
26:833843.
Nyman, P. J., Diachenko, G. W., and Perfetti, G. A. (2003). Determination of 1,3dichloropropanol in soy and related sauces by using gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry. Food Additives and Contaminants, 20(10):903908.
Ohr, L. M. (2000). Salad dressings tap inulins functional benefits. Prepared
Foods, 169(1):48.
Ortiz S.-A., Oliveira, L.-M.,-de, Silva, M.-T.-C., and Barbieri M.-K. (1991). A
comparative study of packages for mayonnaise and salad dressings. Coletanea
do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos, 21(2):249263.
Paraskevopoulou, A. and Kiosseoglou, V. (1997). Small deformation properties
of model salad dressings prepared with reduced cholesterol egg yolk. J. Texture
Stud., 28 (2):221237.
Paredes, M.-D.-C., Rao, M.-A., and Bourne M.-C. (1989). Rheological characterization of salad dressings. II. Effect of storage. J. Texture Stud., 20(2):235
250.
Park, J.-N., Ishida, K., Watanabe, T., Endoh, K.-I., Watanabe, K., Murakami,
M., and Abe, H. (2002). Taste effects of oligopeptides in a Vietnamese fish
sauce. Fisheries Sci., 68(4):92128.
Parker, A., Gunning, Ng-K. P.-A., and Robins M.-M. (1995). How does xanthan
stabilise salad dressing. Food Hydrocolloids., 9(4):333342.
Pascale, L., Boucon, C., Kooyman, G. M., Musters, P. A. D., Rosing, Ed A.
E., de Joode, T., Laan, J., and Haring, P. G. (2002). Sensory and chemical
cahnges in tomato sauces during storage. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 50(11):32623271.
Pascual, C., Alfaro, M. C., and Munoz, J. (1999). Rheology and physical stability of low-calorie salad dressings, Special Publication, Royal Society of
Chemistry. Food Emulsions and Foams, 237:356365.
Patel, A.-S. (1994). Fractionation of salad dressings for fatty acid profile and soluble sugar determination using the ultracentrifuge. J. AOAC Int., 77(6):1539
1542.
Popov-Raljic, J., Dodic, S. N., Popov, S. D., and Dodic, J. M. (2001). Rheological
quality characteristics of frozen- ready-made sauces. Roumanian Biotechnological Letters, 6(5):411422.
Puppo, M. C., Sorgentini, D. A., and Anon. M. C. (2003). Rheological properties
of emulsions containing modified soy protein isolates. Journal of the American
Oil Chemists Society, 80(6):605611.
Raghubeer, E. V., Ke, J. S., Campbell, M. L., and Meyer, R. S. (1995). Fate of
Escherichia coli 0157: H7 and other coliforms in commercial mayonnaise
and refrigerated salad dressing. J. Food Prot., 58(1):1318.
Raymundo, A., Nunes C., Franco, J.-M., Empis, J., and Sousa, I. (2002). White
lupin protein as an ingredient to produce egg-free mayonnaise and salad dressings. Food Industry J., 5(4):322329.
Reddy, B. S. (1999). Possible mechanisms by which pro-prebiotics influence
colon carcinogenesis and tumor growth. J. of Nutrition, 129:1478S-1482S
Riscardo, M. A., Franco, J. M., and Gallegos, C. (2003). Influence of composition of emulsifier blends on the rheological properties of salad dressing-type
emulsions. Food Sci. Technol. Int., 9(1):5363.
Roberfroid, M. B., Van Loo, J. A. E., and Gibson, G. R. (1998). The bifidogenic
nature of chicory inulin and its hydrolysis products. J. Nutrition, 128:1119.
Robinson, G. (1991). Rheological characterization of manufactured materials.
Rheology., 1:91100.
Rodolfo, A., Tomasicchio, M., and Castelvetri, F. (1974). Stabilization of emulsified salad dressings against freezing. Mayonnaise and mayonnaise-like dressings. Industria Conserv., 49(2):95100.
Rojas, J. A., Rosell, C. M., and Benedito de Barber, C. (1999). Pasting properties
of different wheat flourhydrocolloid systems. Food Hydrocolloid., 13:27
33.
Sanceda, N., Norlita, G., Kurata, T., and Arakawa, N. (1990). Overall quality and
sensory acceptance of a lysine-fortified fish sauce. J. Food Sci., 55(4):983
988.
Sanceda, N., Norlita, G., Kurata, T., and Arakawa, N. (1995). Sensory acceptance
and overall quality of a histidine-added fish sauce. Developments in Food Sci.,
37B:141725.
Sanceda, N., Suzuki, E., and Kurata, T. (2003). Quality and sensory acceptance of
fish sauce partially substituting sodium chloride or natural salt with potassium
chloride during the fermentation process. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol., 38(4):435
443.
Sikora, M., Juszczak, L., and Sady, M. (2003a). Hydrocolloids in forming properties of cocoa syrups. International J. Food Properties, 6(2):215228.
Sikora, M., Juszczak, L., Sady, M., and Krawontka J. (2003b) Use of
starch/xanthan gum combinations as thickeners of cocoa syrups. Nahrung/
Food, 47(2):106113.
Sikora, M. and Kowalski, S. (2003). Interakcje skrobi roznego pochodzenia
botanicznego z hydrokoloidami polisacharydowymi. Zywnosc, 10, nr 1(34)
Suplement, 4055 (in Polish).
Sikora, M., Juszczak, L., Sady, M., and Krawontka, J. (2004). Use of modified
starches as thickeners of cocoa syrups. Food Sci. and Technol. Int., 10(5):347
354.
Sikora, M., Sady, J., Krawontka, P., Ptaszek, S. Kowalski, Starch: From Starch
Containing Sources to Isolation of Starches and Their Applications. Chapter
13. Combinations potato starchxanthan gum and modified starchesxanthan
gum as thickeners of sweet and sour sauces. Thickening and stabilizing of
sauces with vegetables. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, Ed. by V.P.
Yuryev, P. Tomasik and H. Ruck, 2004, 143156.
Sikora, M., Sady, M., Krawontka, J., Ptaszek, P., and Kowalski, S. (2004). Starch:
From Starch Containing Sources to Isolation of Starches and Their Applications. Chapter 12. Combinations potato starchxanthan gum and modified
starchesxanthan gum as thickeners of sweet and sour sauces. Thickening of
sauces without additives. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, Ed. by
V.P. Yuryev, P. Tomasik and H. Ruck, 2004, 125141.
Singhal, R.-S. and Kulkarni, P.-R. (1990). Utilization of Amaranthus paniculatas
(Rajgeera) starch in salad dressing. Starch/Staerke, 42(2):5253.
Smittle, R. B. (2000). Microbiological safety of mayonnaise, salad dressings and
sauces produced in the United States: A review. J. Food Prot., 63(8):1144
1153.
Smittle, R. B. and Cirigliano, M. C. (1992). Salad dressings. In: Compendium of
Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods. eds. Vanderzant, C.
and Splittstoesser, D. F. pp. 975983. American Public Health Association.
Washington, D.C. US.
Somboon, T., Jaruwan, T., Sanae, O., and Kazuo, K. (2002). Lactic acid bacteria
isolated from soy sauce mash in Thailand. J. General and Applied Microbiol.,
48(4):201209.
77
Turgeon, S. L., Sanchez, C., Gauthier, S. F., and Paquin, P. (1996). Stability and
rheological properties of salad dressing containing peptidic fractions of whey
proteins. Int. Dairy J., 6(6):645658.
Uruakpa F. O. and Arntfield S. D. (2005). Emulsifying characteristics of commercial canola protein-hydrocolloid systems. Food Research International,
38(6):859672.
Vatanasuchart, N. and Stonsaovapak, S. (2000). Arim-5 as fat substitute in low
calorie salad cream: Nutritional and microbiological. Kasetsart Natural Sciences, 34(4):500509.
Vatanasuchart, N. and Stonsaovapak, S. (2000). Oatrim-5 as fat substitute in
low calorie salad cream: Nutritional and microbiological qualities. Katsetsart
Journal: Natural Sciences, 34(40):500509.
Velez, G., Alfaro, M. C., and Munoz, J. (2000). Rheological characterization
of protein-polysaccharide interactions in the continuous phase of light salad
dressings, Proceedings of the International Congress on Rheology, 13th, Cambridge, UK, August 2000, British Society of Rheology, Glasgow, 398400.
Wanakhachornkrai, P. and Lertsiri, S. (2003). Comparison of determination
method for volatile compounds in Thai soy sauce. Food Chem., 83(4):619
629.
Wang, F., Sun, Z., and Wang, Y.-J. (2001). Study of xanthan gum/waxy corn
starch interaction in solution by viscometry. Food Hydrocolloids, 15:575581.
Ward, F. M. (1998). Water-soluble gum systems as oil mimetics in low-fat salad
dressings and sauces. Food Marketing and Technol., 12(4):68.
Wendin, K. and Hall, G. (2001). Influences of fat, thickener and emulsifier contents on salad dressing: static and dynamic sensory and rheological analyses.
Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technologie, 34(4):222233.
Whistler, R. L. and BeMiller, J. N. (1977). Carbohydrate chemistry for food
scientists. Eagan Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, 63217.
Xie, W., Huang, Y., Fu, H., and Huirong, G. (2005). Simultaneous determination
of Sudan dyes in foods by High Performance Liquid Chromatography with a
clean-up procedure by gel column. Sepu. 23(5):542544.
Yackinous C., Wee C., and Guinard J.-X. (1999). Internal preference mapping
of hedonic ratings for Ranch salad dressings varying in fat and garlic flavor.
Food-Quality-and-Preference, 10(4-5):401409.
Yang, C. M., Ludecke, L. O., Swanson, B. G., and Davidson, P. M. (2003).
Inhibition of microorganisms in salad dressing by sucrose and methylglucose fatty acid monoesters. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation,
27(4):285298.