Trigonometry and Double Algebra (1849)

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TRIGONOMETRY
AND DOUBLE ALGEBRA
AUGUSTUS DE MORGAN
OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
SECRETABY OF THE ROYAL ASTBONOMICAL SOCIETY
FELLOW OP THE CAMBRIDGE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
AND PEOFESSOB OF MATHEMATICS IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON.
seule maniere de bien trailer les elemens d'une science exacte et rigoureuse,
d'y mettre toute la rigueur et 1' exactitude possible. D'ALEJHBERT.
La
c'est
et la geometrie ont et6 separees, leur progres ont ete lents

bornes; mais lorsque ces deux sciences se sont reunies, elles se sont
prgtees des forces mutuelles, et ont marche ensemble d' un pas rapide veis la per-
Tant que 1'algebre
et leurs usages
fection.
LAGRANOE.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR TAYLOR, WALTON, AND MABERLY,
BOOKSELLERS AND PUBLISHERS TO UNIVERSITY COLLEGE,
UPPER GOWER STREET AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.

1849.
CAMBRIDGE:
PRINTED BY METCALFE AND PALMER. TRINITY STREET.
Engineering
&
Mathe
Scierces
Library
/\
PREFACE.
\
M
<N
THE work
before the reader
is
new, not
entirely
V:>
being in any sense a second edition of that which
on the same subject in 1837.
I published
It
of two
consists
endeavoured
In the
books.
to give the student
who
has a competent
knowledge of arithmetic and algebra

instance
jects,
to
as
contained in
is
which reference
view
of
is
trigonometry,
my
much
as
for
works on those sub-
made
in various places
branch
as
have
first,
of algebra
and a constituent part of the foundation of the higher

In the second, I have given an
mathematics.
mentary
character,
basis
of
view
with
of
algebra
the
in
its
application
significance
which
of
affords
purely
ele-
symbolic
that geometrical
explanation
of
every symbol.
The term
double algebra has not yet obtained cur-
rency, though that of triple algebra has, of late years,
been much employed.
It
means algebra
in
which
each symbol stands for an object of thought having
two
and independent
distinct
symbol of a straight
nate both the
have not,
been able
If,
length
after
to fix
by the
tive to the
line,
much
to
qualities
the
be perfect, must desig-
and direction of the
line.
thought, and some discussion,
on a better name of
application of a
word
just as
sufficient brevity.
somewhat
startling adjec-
algebra, any of those
who
are
still
bewildered by an art in which impossible quantities,

or
quantities
objects
of
which
are
not
reasoning, should
quantities,
are
become aware
slow degrees, and the union of
many
made
that
by
heads, the art
has become a science, and the impossibilities possible,

they, at least, will have no objection to the phrase.
A.
University College, London,
Feb. 10, 1849.
DE MORGAN.
LIST
OF SOME WRITINGS ON THE SUBJECT OF ALGEBRA,
In which
the peculiar
Symbols of Algebra are discussed.
JOHN WALLIS.
A Treatise of Algebra, both
London, 1685, folio.
historical and practical.
Reprinted in Latin, with additions, in
the second volume of Wall-is' a Works, Lond. 1693, folio.
GILES FRANCIS DE GOTTIGNIES.
Logistica
Naples, 1687, folio.
Universalis.
London, 1758,
FRANCIS MASERES.
4to.
Dissertation on the use
of the Negative Sign in Algebra.
London, 1796, 8vo.

Cambridge, 1803,
WILLIAM FREXD. The Principles of Algebra.*

ROBERT WOODHOUSE. The Principles of
4to.
Analytical Calculation.
M. L'ABBE BTJEE. Memoire

Philosophical Transactions for 1806.
sur les Quantites Imaginaires (Read June 20, 1805).
See also
the review of this in Vol. xn. of the Edinburgh Review, April
-
'
.has
the
].riiit-v
In the list which follows the preface,
foBowed the v?bj
omitted a note of interrogation which
Playfair.
Quantites
et
Negatives,
des
Quantites
Pretendues
Imaginairus.
Dedie aux amis de T evidence.
A Treatise on the Geomeof the Square Roots of Negative Quantities.

JOHN THOMAS GRAVES. 'An
attempt to rectify the inaccuracy of some logarithmic formula;.'
Cambridge, 1828, 8vo.
JOHN WARREN.
trical Representation
(Read December 18, 1828.)

JOHN WARREN. 'ConsideraPhilosophical Transactions for 1829.
tion of the objections raised against the geometrical representation of the square roots of negative quantities.
(Read
February 19, 1829.) The same volume contains JOHN WARREN.
1
On the geometrical representation of the powers of quantities,
whose indices involve the square roots of negative quantities.'
(Read June
4,
1829.)
Cambridge, 1830, 8vo. GEORGE PEACOCK. A Treatise on Algebra.

Cambridge, 1837, 8vo. Anonymous [OSBORNE REYNOLDS]. Strictures on certain parts of 'Peacock's Algebra,' by a Graduate.
*
An opponent
not only of imaginary but of negative quantities.
Perhaps
this
work suggested M. Buee's memoir.

1 have a letter in my possession from M. Bute
to Mr. Frend, dated June 21, 1801, by which it appears that the former was desired
by a gentleman in whose house he was living (as tutor, perhaps) to write a private
This letter evidently contains the germs of the
reply to Mr. Trend's objections
views which he afterwards published. See the Annual Report of the Royal Astronomical Society
for 1842.
According
to Dr.
tainer of the geometrical signification of
Peacock,
1.
M.
Bfcee is the
first
formal niain-
LIST OF
vi
SOME WRITINGS ON ALGEBRA.
'
DAVIES GILBERT.
On the
nature of negative and of imaginary quantities.' (Read Novem-
ber 18, 1830.)

Report of the Third Meeting of the British
This volume conAssociation for the Advancement of Science.
tains George Peacock Report on certain branches of analysis,'
a most valuable historical discussion on, among other things,
the advance of algebra.
I cite from it the following works,
which I have either not seen, or cannot immediately obtain.
Paris, 1806, ARGAND, Essai sur la maniere de representer la
London, 1834, 8vo.
'
Also
Quantites Imaginaires dans les constructions geometriques.
papers or observations by FRANCOIS, ARGAND, SERVOIS, GERGONNE, in the Annales des Mathematiques for 1813 (and I suppose the following year). Also a paper on the arithmetic of
impossible quantities, by PLAYFAIR* in the Philosophical Transactions for 1778
with a Reply, by WOODHOUSE, in the same
work for 1802, entitled On the necessary truth of certain
conclusions obtained by aid of imaginary expressions.'
;
'
London, 1836, 8vo.
Anonymous [GEORGE PEACOCK].
Syllabus
of a Course of Lectures upon Trigonometry, and the Application

of Algebra to Geometry.
Elements of Algebra.
2nd
London, 1837, 8vo. A. DE MORGAN.
edition.
Elements of Trigonometry
A. DE MORGAN.
London, 1837, 8vo.
and Trigonometrical Analysis, preliminary to the Differential
Calculus, ....
Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions, Vol. XIV. Part 1. D[UNCAN]

On the real nature of Symbolical Algebra.
F[ORBES] GREGORY.
'
(Read May
7,
1838).
Ladies' Diary.
London, 1839, 8vo. (small). THOMAS WHITE. 'On
the algebraical expansion of quantity, .... and on the symbol
V-l> which is usually considered* to denote impossible or
imaginary quantity,' (at page 59).

Cambridge
A. DE
Transactions, Vol. VII. Part 2.
the Foundation of Algebra.
(Read Dec. 9,
Philosophical
MORGAN.
'
On
1839).
A. DE
Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, Vol. VII. Part 3.
On the Foundation of Algebra, No. II. (Read
MORGAN.
'
Nov.
29,
1841).
M. F. VALLES.
Premiere Partie.
Etudes Philoso2>hiques sur la AY

yet published.
Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, Vol. VIII. Part 2. A. DK
'
On the Foundation of Algebra, No. III. (Read
MORGAN.
Paris, 1841, 8vo.
du
calcul.
Nov.
No more
27, 1843).
A Treatise on Algebra.
Arithmetical Algebra.
Vol. II. Symbolical Algebra
applications to the geometry of position.
Cambridge, 1842 & 1845, Svo. GEORGE PEACOCK.

Vol.
I.
and its
London, 1843, 12mo.
JOHN ELLIS].
MARTIN OHM
[translated
by ALEXANDER
and its
The Spirit of Mathematical Analysis,
relation to a logical system.

*
The author supposes

help of a divergent series.
it
to
be indeterminate, because
The paper
is
it
can be expanded by
marked 'received April
1816.'
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
THE REFERENCES ARE TO THE PAGES OF THE WORK.
BOOK L TRIGONOMETRY.
CHAPTER
I.
Preliminary Notions.
Definition of trigonometry,
undulating magnitude,
periodic
gradual meamagnitude,. 2
suggested by angular magnitude, 2
surement of angle, 3 factors of 360, 3 circumference of circle, 4 ;
;
arcual
arc -f radius, 5
multiplication and division by IT, 5
measurement of angle, 5, 6
gradual and arcual comparisons, 6
IT,
gradual measurement of arc,
6.
CHAPTER
On
the Trigonometrical Functions,
Axes,
r,
0,
II.
and on Formula of One Angle.
projections, co-ordinates, abscissa, ordinate, 7

four quarters and their signs, 8
sign of r, x, y, 8
origin,
x, y, 7
and Innr
0,
sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant,
versed sine, coversed sine, 9
complement, supplement, opponent,

trigonometrical functions as abstract numbers and
multipliers, 10; curve of sines, &c., 11; fundamental equations,
11, 12; limits of value, 12; signs, 12, 13; negative sign of r, 13;
completion, 10
initial
and terminal values, 13; cosine even, sine odd, 13; tangent
and its rules, 14, 15 double value of functions,
%nnr +
odd, 14
16; 15, 18, 30, 45, 60, 72, 75, 16, 17; sin 6 -f 0, (1 - cos 6) ^ 0,'
tan0 -^ 6, 17, 18;
and 1 -^0 2 , 18; older system of definitions,
18,
19
arese of circle
and
sector,
20.
CONTENTS.
viii
CHAPTER
III.
Formulas which involve two or more Angles.
Extended notion of projection, 21 distinction of AB and BA,

and consequences, 21
similar distinction as to angles, 21
signs
of projections, 22 general investigation of cos(< + 0) and sin (< + 0),
;
23
connexion of the formulae, 24
cases of limited demonstration,
27 ; remarks on the formulae,

of any number of angles, 29, 30 ;
coswO and sinwO, 30, 31 trisection of an angle, 31 ; series for cos 9
and sinO, 32, 33; ditto for tan 6, 34; algebraic definition of trigocos" 6 and sin" 6, 34, 35, 36.
nometry, 34
26
25,
28, 29
collection of formulae,
cosine and sine of the
26,
sum
CHAPTER
On
IV.
the Inverse Trigonometrical Functions.
Functional notation, direct and inverse, 37

inverse trigonometrical functions, 37, 38 ; examples in the use of inverse symbols,
;
38, 39, 40.
CHAPTER
V.
Introduction of the unexplained Symbol *J
Remarks on the evidence
of
V-
\.
in this chapter, 41
;
connecting
formulas of trigonometricals and exponentials, 42 ; De Moivre's
roots,
theorem, 42
multiplicity of directions in 6 4- n, 43, 44
1
and
particularly of unity, 45, 46; transformations of a + b
;
extension of logarithms
(b -4- a), 46
extension of the Naperian base, 48
47
isolated case of coincidence of logarithms in different systems, 48
selection of
1
meaning in tan"
with Naperian base,
the negative quantities which have real logarithms, 49 equivalents

of De Moivre, 49 deduction of ordinary formulae from them, 49, 50
;
reduction of sinm
cosn0a: n and
and
2a n sinn6x",
<O-yV-l),
tan" 1 a;, 55
53;
52,
calculation of
mode of finding
52; connexion of <(x + y V
1)
cos"0 to a linear form, 50, 51
-rr,
51,
examples, 53,
54,
55;
series
for
inverse connexion of trigouse of multiplicity of value
55, 56
and exponentials, 57 ;
of logarithms, 57, 58 ; resolution of sin
into factors, 58, 59, 60 ;
Wallis's form of ir, 61: deduction of approximate form, for 1.2.3...n,
61, 62; factors of cos
logarithms of sin 0, cos 6, tanfl, 63; Vieta's
nometricals
expression for
cot a;,
and
x
(t
63; Bernoulli's numbers, 64; series for tanx,
JTT,
I)"
65.
CHAPTER
On
the Connexion
of
Common and
VI.
Hyperbolic Trigonometry.
Hyberbola, 66 its areas, 67, 68 formation of hyperbolic trigonometry, and connexion of its formulae with those of ordinary
;
trigonometry, 69, 70.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
On
ix
VII.
the Trigonometrical Tables.
Arrangement and extent of the tables, 71, 72 distinction of real

tables recommended, 73
and tabular logarithms, 72
argument,
;
interval, function,
difference, interpolation,
73
method of
inter-
choice of functions for accuracy, 75

tangents of
polating, 74
first notions of the construction of triangles near to 90, 75, 76
;
gonometrical tables, 76, 77, 78.
CHAPTER
On
Meaning of
79,
80
VIII.
the Solution of Triangles.
formulae for right-angled triangles,

solution, 79
cases of ditto ditto, 80
tabulated example, 80 ; formulae
;
for oblique triangles, 81, 82, 83; cases of ditto ditto, 84, 85;
mode
of entrance of double solution, 85 ; tabulated example, 86, 87 ;

mention of occasional rules, 87 ; reduction of triangular formulae
to identities, 88.
BOOK
DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
II.
CHAPTER
I.
Description of a Symbolic Calculus.
Object, 89 ; peculiar symbols, meanings, rules of operation, 89

possible deficiencies of either, 90, 91 ; complete absence of either,
91, 92; symbolic calculus, what, 92; recovery of meaning, significant
;
calculus, 93
slight example,
with illustration of defects,
93, 94
more than one mode of restoration to significance, 94

step from specific to universal arithmetic, and thence to ordinaryalgebra, 95, 96
necessity for other than numerical distinction, and
mode in which distinction is suggested by algebra, 95, 96 single
twofold use of its signs,
algebra, phrase whence derived, 96, 97
directive and conjunctive, 97
remarks on the progress of algebra,
possibility of
98, 99, 100.
CHAPTER
On
II.
Symbolic Algebra.
Abandonment of meaning,
101
collection of the symbolic laws
of algebra, 101, 102, 103 instances of symbolic deduction, 104, 105 ;

reservation of small italic letters to signify combinations of unit
;
symbols, 105.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
III.
On Areas and
Solids,
Meanings of the fundamental symbols under which, algebra becomes a legitimate mode of establishing the second book of Euclid,
106, 107
comparison of an inexplicable symbol of this algebra
with one of ordinary algebra, 107, 108 this system not altogether
new, 108.
;
CHAPTER
IV.
Preliminary Remarks on Double Algebra.
Suggestion on
which gave
to be incorporated, 109
rise to
109
it,
the old algebra
examination of magnitude of one dimension,

a wider basis of significance in length
109, 110
;
time, gain and loss,

affected by direction, 110, 111
;
geometrical introduction extension,

not restriction, 111, 112 mode of making the application to problems
of one dimension, 112, 113, 114; separation of subject-matter and
;
operative direction in
and
addition
arithmetical
multiplication,
-15, 116.
CHAPTER
Reason of the term
V.
of Symbols in Double Algebra.
Signification
double
algebra,
drawn from the meaning
of an isolated symbol, 117; meaning of =, 117; origin, 117; unitline, 118 ; axes of length and direction, 118
meaning of A + B,
;
B, 118
B,
coincidences of
&c., 118; addition really junction
meaning of
and
4-
common and extended

and
119
B,
addition,
joint effect, 118;

symbolic representation of
its resiilt
double-meaning symbol, (a, a), 119 coincidences of common and

extended multiplication, &c., 120 roots and powers, without reference to exponents, 120
developed expression of an algebraical
construction of all double symbols by single ones
theorem, 121
and V 1, 122; re-introduction of trigonometry, 122; demonstration
of the symbolic rules, 123, 124, 125
deduction of fundamental
;
trigonometrical formula?, 126 proof of the validity of that deduction,

and of its coincidence with ordinary proofs, 127, 128.
;
CHAPTER
On
VI.
the Exponential Symbol.
definition of logometer,
Assumption of arithmetical logarithms,
choice of logometer, 129 ; multiple values of logometers, 130

definition of A B , 130; limitation of
130; logometric equations,
131
proof of symbolic rules, and limitations, 131 ; proof of
129
^ _l
e and the arcual unit,

example of reduction
to significance, 135; fallacy exposed, 136; formulae which supply
those of p. 131 when the limitations are removed, 136, 137.
e Ov-i
132,
COS
133,
_j_
134
ginfl
;
182
connexion of
transformation of
It s ,
134
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
xi
VII.
Miscellaneous Remarks and Applications.
- 1), 138, 139 ;

b
Extension of logarithms, 138 ; forms of
(a
extension of trigonometrical terms, 139, 140; discontinuity of passage from + to + in single algebra, 140 interpretation of a problem
<
impossible in single algebra, 140, 141 ; Cauchy's theorem on the

limits of imaginary roots of equations, 141, 142, 143, 144 ; Paradox
of single algebra which disappears in double algebra, 144, 145 ;
change of geometrical representation in passing from real to imaginary, 145, 146.
CHAPTER VIH.
On
Power
147, 148
154
of Unity.
of considering (
1)" as either quantitative or directive,
properties of the roots of + 1, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153,
n
solution of x
the Roots
when n
is
prime and
a;"" 1
has been
Gauss's accession to Euclid's geometry, 157 ;

formation of recurring expressions,
1, 158
properties of the roots of
158, 159 Thomas Simpson's method of section of series, 159, 160.
solved, 155, 156, 157
CHAPTER
IX.
Scalar View of Algebraical Symbols.
Law
of ascent of algebraical operations, 161 ; illustrative notation,

scalar function, 162; ascent of algebraical operations, 162;
imperfection of ordinary notation for scalar representation, 163 ;
162;
other law which this notation follows, 164 ; general law of scalar
ascent, 164 ; limitation of the scalar function, 164 inverse operation,
;
165
fundamental basis of algebra, 166
scalar notation in extension
of that of ordinary algebra, 166, 167.
ERRATUM.
XX
Page
138, after
insert
A.x
BOOK
I.
TRIGONOMETRY.
CHAPTER
I.
PRELIMINARY NOTIONS.
IT
is
proved in the sixth book of Euclid that when sides and

number enough to determine a rectilinear
diagonals are given, in

figure,
angles
depend
solely
upon the proportions of
sides,
and
If two angles of a triangle

proportions of sides solely upon angles.
be given, all the ratios of sides are given and, If the ratio of
:
each of two sides to a third be given, all the angles are given.
There is then a close connexion between angles, and ratios of
lines
of mathematics in which this
the branch
connexion
is
examined, suitable modes of expression invented, and results obtained and
applied,
from one of
its earliest
called
is
TRIGONOMETRY, taking
its
name
applications, the measurement of triangles.
Trigonometry contains the science of continually undulating

magnitude; meaning magnitude which becomes alternately greater
and less, without any termination to succession of increase and
decrease.
function of x
is
continually undulating, when, as
increases continuously, say from
to oo
(fox
never becomes per-
manently increasing nor permanently diminishing, nor permanently

approaching to a fixed limit. Ordinary algebra has no such functions in
series,
property.
lating
forms; and though
finite
its
yet
it
has them in
its
infinite
cannot easily recognize and establish the undulating

Trigonometry is the branch of algebra in which undu-
it
functions
are
considered.
All trigonometrical functions
common algebra
undulate: in trigonometry nothing but
infinite series do not undulate.
are not undulating
nothing but
but
it
may be
stated that in
infinite series
Trigonometry is a branch of algebra: nevertheless, it is usually

founded on geometrical considerations. This is not an absolute
ELEMENTARY NOTIONS.
necessity
but any other foundation would make
difficult for
the beginner to understand.
that another
mode
of
establishing the
It will
it
much more
become evident
algebra of
undulating
might have been chosen, in which no geometrical

notion need have been even alluded to.
quantities
Of
all
undulating magnitudes, the most simple is the periodic,

a perpetual recurrence of the same cycles of
which exhibits
alteration.
from
11
to
If,
however a function may change while x changes

same changes take place while x changes from
to a, the
2o,
from 2a to
equation
(x +
value of a, or for
its
(x + 2a) = $x.
or
of such
0:r,
all
For
(x
Similarly
about that extremity.
line,
The
+ 3a) =
0a:
(x
4-
ad infinitum: the angle
a)
<px ;
and so on.
must suggest periodic
fixed at one extremity,
total
periodic.
is
(x f a + a)
angular magnitude
Let a straight
is
expressed by the
values of x, and for one
a function
true for
multiples.
Consideration of
functions.
increasing
and so on, that function
'3a,
The general property
angle described
itself is
revolve
may go on
not a periodic mag-
But the
nitude, though beginners are apt to think so.
direction
though not a magnitude.
indicated
is
periodic,
There
is
no direction indicated during the second revolution,
which was not previously indicated during the first. Let a wheel
turn on an horizontal axle, by a handle at the end of a spoke
the angle turned through by the spoke goes on increasing as
:
long as the wheel turns one way; but the height of the handle
above the ground is a periodic magnitude, which goes through
the same cycle of changes in each and every revolution.
Certain
periodic functions, suggested by the revolution of a straight line
about a point, form the trigonometrical alphabet, as we shall see.
If
we had now
most convenient
to invent a
first
mode
method would be
lution* as a standard unit;
of measuring angles, the

to adopt the whole revo-
thus the angle
'467
would signify
* Observe this
consequence of the periodic character of direction,
that the angle has a unit expressible in words without reference to
'
The angle through which a line revolves
other magnitude exhibited.
in regaining the direction with which it first started,' is a perfect
But no
description of a definite amount of angular magnitude.
of volumes could describe an English foot, if drawing, and
number
reference to length supposed capable of access, were both prohibited.
ELEMENTARY NOTIONS.
467-1000 ths of a revolution.
the usual method
is
This plan has not been adopted:
to divide the
whole revolution into 360 equal
Each degree is divided

60 minutes, each minute into 60 seconds; formerly each
second was divided into 60 thirds, each third into 60 fourths,
parts,
each of -which
is
called a degree.
into
and so on.
This sexagesimal mode of division was once applied

magnitude: thus the sixtieth part of any length,
to all kinds of
time, weight, area, &c.
of the minute
its
was called
minute, the sixtieth part

Nothing of this method
its
second, and so on.
remains to us, except in the divisions of a degree of angle,

a degree of arc (the 360th part of the whole circumference of
a
circle),
Thus
and the hour of time.
diameters, meaning 3 +
it
would have been
said
very near to 3 8' 29" 44'"

+ g-g^ + FrtoTO of a diameter.
that the circumference of a circle
is
" '"
&c.
Degrees, minutes, seconds, &c. are represented by
But it must be noticed that thirds, fourths, &c. are wholly
Thus
obsolete, decimal fractions of the second being preferred.
'
18 47' 23" -1774
indicates
the following
of
fraction
whole
revolution,
18
47
23
1774
60 x 360
60 x 60 x 360
10000
60 x 60 x 360
_L
360
In this
mode
of measurement
it is
worth while to remember
the right angle and its multiples, 90, 180, 270, 360; the half
of a right angle and its multiples, 45, 90, 135, 180, 225,
270, 315, 360; and the third of a right angle and its multiples,
30, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, 330, 360.
Also the thirds of the revolution, 120, 240, 360; and its fifths,
72, 144, 216, 288, 360. And 360 should be well known a>
x3*x5, from which its separation into pairs of factors, 2.180,
23
3.120, 4.90,
will
5.72,
6.60,
8.45,
9.40,
10.36,
12.30,
15.24,
18.20,
be easily gathered.
The above method of measurement may be called gradual

(pronounced yrade-ual). But it is not the only method in use.
There is another, which 1 shall call the arcual* method. To
explain this method,
it
must
first
be shewn that circumferences
* I have been in the habit of

styling this the theoretical method,
used in the theory of the subject but I shall now adopt
as being
the term used in the text.
ELEMENTARY NOTIONS
Let
one another as their diameters.
of circles are to
granted that the circumference of a circle

of any inscribed polygon,
and
be
it
greater than that
is
than that of any circum-
less
scribed polygon.
Draw
the circle whose radius
part of a revolution:
2
BD
OA.
Let
BOA
be the 2n th
that
so
CA
and 2w x
is
are the
circumferences of the inscribed
and circumscribed regular polygons of n sides. These circumferences are as
OB
as
to
OC.
BD
CA, or
to
Consequently,
BOA
the angle
be made
small enough, or n great enough, the inscribed and circumscribed
if
regular circumferences
and
may be made
we
as nearly equal as
we
please
please to the circumference
either, therefore, as near as
Now take
of the circle, which lies between them in magnitude.
another figure like the preceding, but constructed on a different
know then
radius OB', and with all its letters accented.
We
that the two inscribed regular circumferences of
one another as
circumferences.
OB'
to
Let
sides are to
OB', and also the two circumscribed

and P', C and C', Q and Q' be the
circumferences of the inscribed polygons, the circles, and the

circumscribed polygons. Then the order of magnitude is always
P,
C,
and
P',
1
,
Q',
and the
ratios
P P
:
and
Q' are always
equal and constant (each being the ratio of the radii) while
P and Q, and also P' and Q', can be made as nearly equal as
we
please.
P:P
and
Hence
Q'.
it
follows
Let
that
and
be
C'
is
the same ratio
C-M
and
C+X;
as
and
Then M, N, M', N',

and OJ be C" - M' and C" + N'.
may each be made as small as we please; and C-M: C' - M'
let
being always one ratio (that of the radii), the limiting ratio C C'
can be no other (Algebra, p. 157). The same follows from the
same use of the ratio (7-f JV: C" + N'.
:
The circumference being

the fraction
CR
the
C,
and the radius R,
same
for
all
circles.
it
follows that
It
is always
denoted by 27r; that is, TT is always made to represent the fraction
which expresses the ratio of the circumference to the diameter.
An
is
investigation of the value of
TT,
such as we can hereafter make,
ELEMENTARY NOTIONS.
but of which at present we must assume the result, shews that it

is nearly ^, very much nearer to f||, and expressed, as far as
twenty places of decimals will do it, by 3-14159265358979323846.
Its reciprocal
is,
same extent, -31830988618379067153.
the
to
I leave the student to demonstrate the following rules, the con-
venience of which
the formation of results
is
rections, so that the point
which
at
is
it
by successive cor-
desirable to stop
is
pointed out by the value of the corrections.

To multiply by TT, first take the multiplicand 3 times and
one-seventh of a time, deduct its 800 th part, the 100 th part of
the
last,
Then add the
and 2 millionths of the multiplicand.
hundred-millionth of the multiplicand, and 7 3 per cent, of that

hundred-millionth. The result is as correct as if thirteen figures
had been used
To
divide
3 millionths,
millionths,
in the ordinary multiplication.
th
ndi of the
dividend, one 8000
by TT, take seven 22
and 7 hundred-millionths then deduct 2 thousand>
and add the thousandth of the last.

had been used
as correct as if thirteen decimals
The
result is
in the ordinary
division.
Let there be an angle of which the arc
and
to the radius
s'
the angle
as
s'
to
Hence
s to
is
the radius
the circumferences being c and
to four right angles (Euc. vi.
is
c'.
r',
2irr
s'
ITTT'
33) as s to
-
whence
r,
Then
c'.
and
c,
Or, to a
r'
given subtending angle, arcs are to one another as their radii.

Let there be another angle, having the arcs S and S' to the
radii r
and
Then
r'.
or as - and
the angles are as s
That
and
S, or as
is,
the fractions obtained from
'
For
has an arc 6 to the radius 17
to the angle
r-
are
rad.
proportional to the two angles.
From
any two angles being made central
angles in any two circles,
11 to the radius 8 as
and -
to
is
instance, the angle
which
which has an arc
1.
-g
mode of measuring
this theorem is
Let the arcual angular unit be that angle which subtends
an arc equal to the radius, and let all other angles be measured
by the numbers of arcual units, or the fractions of an arcual
derived the arcual
angles.
unit,
which they contain.
Then we
shall
have the following
n3
ELEMENTARY NOTIONS.
The number of arcual units in any angle is the quotient

of any arc which that angle subtends, divided by the radius.
For if 9 be the number of arcual units in the angle which
theorem
subtends
s to the radius r,
we have
(Euc. VI. 33),

o
When we
'
or 6 = -
r,
'
number
fll'C
write the equation angle =
an abbreviation of
angle'
-j-
we understand by
of arcual
contained
units
in the
angle'.
The number of arcual

ference
angle,
unit
is
-f
radius,
or
2?r
units in four right angles

in
two right angles,
Since 180 degrees
\TT.
180
- 7T
make
It
it
may be remembered,
is
also
one right
fourth of a minute and one-fifth of a second.
3437''74677
within the hundredth
part of a second, as 57 degrees and three tenths,
The
circum-
is
in
arcual units, the arcual
TT
degrees, or 57-295779513;
and 206264"-806.
TT
This
is
all
but one-
57
17' 44"-8.
and second, are severally the fractions

01745329, -0002908882, and -000004848137, of an arcual unit.
The arcual unit being our usual reference, the degree may gedegree, minute,
Most
nerally be considered as a small angle.
of the theorems
which I assert to be approximately true for small angles, are

nearly true for an angle as small as a degree.
The student must remember not

nor
TT
2?r= 360
to
confound
with 360,
2?r
sometimes done, even by writers. That

true in a certain sense and so is 20 = 1, for 20 shillings
with 180, as
is
is
are one pound.
When
a circle
is
divided into 360 equal arcs, each
a degree of arc; and the degree of arc
The radius
is
57
47' 44''-8 of arc.
On
is
is
called
divided sexagesimally.
a great circle of the earth
(the equator for instance, or a meridian), the second of arc
about 100
feet.
is
CHAPTER
IT.
ON THE TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS, AND ON FORMULAE OF

ONE ANGLE.
4*
LET two
them be
let
straight lines be
called axes,
Let any
origin.
line,
drawn
and
at right angles to
one another
their point of intersection,
OP, be drawn from
the origin;
O, the
and
let
PM
PN,
be drawn perpendicular to the axes.
MOPN, ON and
OM are
The
OP
projections of
called projections of
In the rectangle
OP
upon
the axes.
are also called coordinates of the point
and the coordinates are distinguished by the names abscissa and

ordinate.
Usually, a projection and a parallel to the other projection are employed, as
generally
named
projection, the ordinate of
upon the
and of
NP
and then the projection
is
P.
And
generally the abscissa
is
taken
drawn horizontal in the page, and the ordinate

The letter x usually designates an
the vertical axis.
axis
parallel to
abscissa,
ON,
the abscissa of P, and the parallel to the other
y an
ordinate
and the axes are
called the axes of
y.
line terminating at
0, and indefinitely extended, revolves
about O, setting out from one side of the axis of x, OA. "When
it has described an
angle 6, which may be of any magnitude,
a distance r is taken off.
This distance is always considered as
ON THE TRIGONOMETKICAL FUNCTIONS
positive,
tive,
POA
with
taken
is
off
on the revolving line
on the opposite
off
OP is
part of a line which
and
as nega-
Thus, the acute angle
side.
being 30, we may refer OP to

OA, and then we say that OP is
say that
it
when
taken
if
a line which makes 30
But when we
positive.
makes 210 with OA, we
call
negative.
Again, one. particular direction of revolution is considered as

If the arrows designate the posipositive, the other as negative.
tive revolution,
then
OP, being
makes an angle with OA,
positive,
which may be called +30 or -330; but

makes an angle + 210 or - 150.
On
OP
if
be negative,
the axes, each species of coordinate or projection has
it
its
proper algebraical sign. The starting-line of revolution is always

taken as the positive side of the axis of x and the result of -f 90
;
Thus
of revolution as that of the axis of y.

is
negative
OH
;*
OM'
is positive,
is
ON
is
positive,
ON'
negative.
The axes divide the plane into four quarters: and as a line,
to 90, from 90 to 180, from
revolving positively, passes from
180 to 270, and from 270 to 360, it is said to be in the first,
second, third, and fourth quarters of space.
But these might
equally well be designated as the ++, +-, --, and
-+
quarters
of space.
In
this system,
the succession
-f
f,
-I-
third,
first
+, the first of
-.
each pair gives
signs of the
y projections
the projection on the axis of
quarter of space,
-; in the fourth,
succession +
and these are the
of lines in the four quarters

a line in the
-,
is
in the second,
The second of each
-f
of
in the
pair gives the
and these are the signs of the x projections
of lines in the four quarters. The algebraical combination of each

of the pairs gives the succession + - + - and these are the signs
;
When
the revolving line comes into the position ON\ is it

no: OA", as a projection, is considered as part
of a line which makes an angle
with, the starting-line
and, on
a line so described, is negative. But OJV as a position of the line of
revolution, is part of a line which makes 180 with the starting-iine
negative?
I answer,
and thus considered,

to the other axis.
line
may
The same
considerations apply
be considered as making with itself
positive.
or an angle ISO": whatever signs its parts have in the

case, the}- have the opposite ones in the second.
an angle
first
it is
AND ON FORMULAE OF ONE ANGLE.
of the arithmetical products or quotients derived from the two

projections of a line in each of the four quarters.
Everything that takes place in the first revolution is repeated

second; and is repeated in an inverted order in the first
in the
negative revolution. In all that depends upon the direction in

which an amount of revolution terminates, an addition or sub-
whole revolution makes no difference whatever.
traction of a
in
actual magnitude
depends upon the
that
all
But
of the
angle
revolved through, an alteration by a whole revolution makes an
effective difference.
Measuring arcually, Itmr + 9 may most often
be confounded with 9 when
any integer, positive or negative
is
but not always.
The primary trigonometrical functions of an angle are the

and to one another,
of the projections to the revolving line,
and inverse
revolving
line.
ratios
direct
these ratios are independent of the length of the

Let x, y, r be the values, with their proper signs,
of the abscissa, ordinate,
The
hypothenuse.
and
six ratios
radius, or base, perpendicular,
and
- take each a
name, the etymology of which cannot be explained till we come

to exhibit the older definitions
at present they must stand for
:
arbitrary sounds.
r has
gained
its
Let 9 be the angle by revolving through which
position.
is
base
r
y.
called the
abbreviated into
ON THE TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS
10
This table must be thoroughly learned. The terms base, perpendicular, and hypothenuse, referring to the right-angled triangle
in which the projections are sides, does not mean that what Euclid
would
an angle of that triangle
call
It is so
when 6
the
line is in
opponent
many
in the
first
of
supplement*
is always the angle in question.

than a right angle, or when the revolving
But in the second quarter, 6 is a
quarter.
is less
Euclid's
in
it is
the
third
quarter
All
a completion.
it
is
this,
an
and
other things of which only hints are given, must be fixed

mind by attentive consideration of all the phases of the
figure of a line projected

will
angle
in the fourth quarter
on the axes: no amount of description
supply the place of such consideration.
It is
important to remember that
all the
trigonometrical functions
They are not angles, nor lines, any

more than they are weights, or sums of money. They represent
are purely abstract numbers.
the fractions which lines are of lines, the ratios of lines to lines.
Thus, the cosine of 60
of a time
on the
when
axis of
is
one-half of what ?
Answer, one-half
the revolving line has described 60, the projection

is
one-half of the revolving line
in italics contain the assertion that cos 60
the last words
Thus the functions may be advantageously remembered by

as multipliers.
The cosine and sine may be called
their effect
projecting factors:
multiplication
jection on the axis of x;
projection on the axis of y.

r s'mO.
by
cos<? turns r into its pro-
multiplication
The
by sin# turns r
into its
projections of r are rcosd and
The tangent and 'cotangent
are interchanging factors;
multiplication by tan0 converts the projection on x into that on y

multiplication by cot6> converts the projection on y into that on x.
We
may
of course take a line which has as
many
linear units
as a certain angle has of angular units, or as a sine or tangent has
The
term, supplement has long been

thus 6 and TT
from two right angles
used
Q
to signify the detect

are supplements.
By
mean angles made by opposite straight lines with one

straight line, in the same direction of revolution thus 6 and IT + 6
are opponents. By completions, I mean angles which together make
opponents, I
up a whole revolution
6 each is the completion of

thus of and 2-nFinally, the well-known term complement is arbitrarily
used to denote the defect from a right angle : thus 6 and \ir
are
the other.
complements.
11
and in this sense it may be permitted (to those

without confusion) to talk of a line and angle being
of abstract units,
who can do
it
The frontispiece
equal, or of a line equal to the sine of an angle.
has curves constructed in this manner for each of the six principal
is
OA...: the abscissa
the angle, the ordinate on one curve
is
the sine, &c.
The
functions.
is
student may,
O, the axis of
is
origin
when he has read a
The
further, detect for himself
little
the curve of sines, of cosines, of tangents, of cotangents, of secants,

of cosecants.
There are eight trigonometrical
which two are
'functions, of
absolutely defined by formula?; namely,

vers<3
Of
the
remaining
six,
- cos#,
we may
among them
equations exist
- sin#.
that five independent

one angle and one ratio of sides
predict
for
covers
absolutely determine all the angles (and therefore all the ratios
whensoever that given angle
of sides) of a triangle,
There are easily found more than
angle or more.
is
a right
five relations;
all independent.
First, there are the relations which
obviously and necessarily follow from the algebraical form of
the definitions, independently of the meaning of the symbols.
but not
These are
sec# =
1,
x cosecu =
1,
cos<? x
smu
tan^ =
cott/
cot0 =
tantf x
Of
cos#
-
saw
cose/
1.
the third and fourth
these only four are independent:
make
Secondly, there are the relations which follow
the fifth follow.
from the meaning of x, y, and r. The equation y? + y* = ?*,

which follows from the application of arithmetic to Euc. I. 47,
gives
cos
+ sin
of which one only

1
+ tan
sec
fl,
+ cot
is
independent; for cos # + sin
"Ef V =
\costfj
The following
1,
- Y.
or
+ tan
sec
= cosecV,
=
2
6>,
1,
gives
&c.
\cosO)
collection
of
formulae,
either
proved above, or
12
easily deduced, should
seuf -
i,
sin0.cosec# =
1,
cos o.
be carefully remembered:
cu

The whole system remains
13
consistent with itself if negative
values of r be introduced, under the definitions in page 8.

Take
the figure in page 7 as an instance, and say that
is negative.
OP
Then,
ON
negative.
NP
and
And
being positive,
to be
so they ought
must be considered
as
on a
the
sine
and cosine
are
OP, being
negative,
line in the third quarter,
and d as
for
between two and three right angles.

Versed sines and coversed sines are always positive.
3. Initial or terminal values.
These are the values when
and
the revolving line begins or ends a quarter of space,
is
on
every such case one of the projections

vanishes, and the other is of the same length (but not always
= 0, and
of the same
At
as the revolving line itself.
one of the axes.
In
sign)
TT,
y vanishes;
the values at 9 =
following table,
at
9 =
are
\TT,
and 6 =
repeated.
%TT,
x vanishes.
Examination
which should be remembered;
help of the connecting equations.
Arcual Anyle
At 6 =
will
IK,
give the
partly
by the
14
is changed into or sin (- 0) = - sin 0.

changes sign when
Let two equal lines revolve, one positively and one negatively
it is clear from the elements of geometry, that whatever equal
it
angles they
may have
the projections on
described,
are the
same, identically, and the projections on y differ in sign only.

Hence, x f r is the same for both and y 4- r is not, but the
;
difference
is
in sign only.
for tan(- 6) = sin(- 6) 4- cos (- 6)

is an odd function
cos# = - tan0. The cotangent is also an odd function.
The tangent
~ -
sm6
-f
The secant and versed

odd
is
is
even functions; the cosecant
are
sine
the coversed sine
The terms even and odd,
neither
as
applied to functions in general, are suggested by the properties

of the even and odd powers.
and the length of the revolving line being given, we

If,
form a new angle thus, one or more right angles
0, it will
made
that
the
be
seen
right-angled triangle
by the rereadily
volving line
But two
in
differ
is
in all cases
the same in form and magnitude.
variations of position occur; sometimes the projections
from those of the original triangle
sign
sometimes
they change name, the line which was x becoming y, and vice
An examination of all the cases will present the following
versa.
table
Conclusions.
Absc. Ordin.
Angle.
\TT~Q
x cos(|7r-e) =
ITT + O
-y
x COS^TT
7T-6
-x
+ 6
-x
-ycos(7r +
-f
6)
sin0,
sinQ7r-0) = cos0, tan(j7r-0) = cote,
=-sin0, sin( J?r+0) = COS0, tan(i-7r + 0)=-cot0,
y cos(?r-e) =-cos0, sin(?r-
0)
=sin0, tan(7r-0)
=-tanf>,
=-cos0, sin(7r+0) =-sin0, tan (TT~ 0) =
tantf,
-y
-x
cos(fTT-e) =-sine, sin(2-7r-e)=-cose, tan(-}7r-0) =
cote,
\ir-\ti
-x
cos (|TT + 0) = sin0,
ITT -
-y cos(2;r-0)=cos0,
TT
'-TT-e
0)
sm(f/r-i 6)=-costf, tan(f7r-fe)=-cotf,

sin('27r-6)
=- sin0,
tan('>7r-0)='- tan*'.
These transformations, it must be observed, apply to all values

For instance, let 6 lie between Zv and 2?r; then \TT Draw the
-.
lies between - TT and and
of 0.
figure accordingly,
it
will
sign
appear that the x of either
and magnitude.
The formulae
is
the
y of the
other, loth in
therefore are universally true

but they
may be
best
remembered by the supposition that 9
a small angle, so that
the
in
as
second,
15
\ir-Q
also
TT
is
9,
is
in the first right angle, \TT + Q
and so on.
All the cases
may
now be
contained in the following rule. According as the number of right angles is even or odd, let the function remain, or
let it
be changed into
co-functions).
has
when 6
its
and
co-function (sine
cosine, &c.
are
Then
is
prefix the sign which the given function

less than a right angle
and lastly, write
for
;
For example, let it be required to simplify tan(f ?r + 6).

an odd number of right angles; -|TT + 9 is in the fourth
the angle.
There
is
when 6 <|TT:
right angle,
is
negative:
in the fourth right angle the tangent
cotd.
But in transtan(f TT + 0) =
we see an even number of right angles, and
accordingly,
forming cot(7r 6),

an angle in the second right angle; accordingly, cot(7r-0) = -cot#.
The following cases are so important that they should be
remembered apart
The functions of complements are
:
sm(\7r
0) = cos0,
Supplements have the same
co-functions,
cos (TT - 6) = sin 0,
sine,
sin(7r
6)
= smO.
Opponents have the same tangent, tan(w + 6) = tan0.

Completions have the same cosine, cos(27r 0) = cos0,
COS(|TT + 6)
=-
sin(|7r +
<?)
sin0,
cos0,
COS(TT
tan(?r
0)
=-
0)
= - tan#.
COS0,
All the angles which have the same sine as 6 are included in
the formulae 2>mr + 0, and (2? + 1) TT - #: all which have the
16
same cosine
as
9 in the formulae Irmr
-t-
have the same tangent as 6 in imr + 0:
6 and 2imr -6:
all
which
being any integer, posi-
tive or negative.
To one
sine there
but one cosecant; to one cosine there
is
but one secant; to one tangent there
is but one cotangent;

every other case a function has two
functions of every other kind attached to it, with opposite signs.
This appears, firstly, from what precedes
any sine, for instance,
is
and
versa.
vice
But
in
belongs
to
two angles,
supplements, which have cosines,
&c.
Supplements, opponents, and completions have

functions of equal value, and opposite signs, except in the
opposite in sign.
their
three cases noted above.
= sin(7r + 0)
Thus,
tan (277- - 0) = - ta.nO, &c.
sin6>,
Secondly, from the equations in page 12, in which
it
appears
that every determination of one function in terms of one other
function requires an extraction of the square root, except

the functions are reciprocals.
cosfl
When
And by
tan0 = + </(!- cos 2 0) f
= + V(l - sin ! 0),

one function
is
when
Thus,
found,
all
the
cosfl,
&c.
others can be found.
very ordinary geometry we can contrive to express the
45, 60, 72, 75.

deduce some, and arrange the whole in a
Of
functions of 15, 18, 30,
leave the student to
fill
up
table,
these I shall
of which
the demonstration.
This angle has equal projections, or tan 45 = 1.

(30, 60). If a, a, c be the sides of an isosceles triangle,
and 20 its vertical angle, then c = 2asinO. Let the triangle be
or sin 30 =
then a - 2a sin 30
And this is cos 60.
(45).
equilateral
|.
(18, 72). By Euc. IV. 10, it appears that an isosceles triangle

having 36 for its vertical angle has for its base the greater
segment of the side, as determined in

side, and c the base, we have a(a
Hence, sin 18 (or cos 72) = J (V5
1).
II.
c)
11.
c
2
,
If then
or 2c =
a be the
(V5-l)o.
(15, 75). Take a right-angled triangle having an angle of 30,

an hypothenuse 2, and therefore 1 for the side opposite and <J3
for the side adjacent to that angle.
Bisect the angle of
30;
the
bisecting line divides 1 into segments which are as ^3 to 2 the

smaller segment is then V3 f (2 + V3), or y3(2 - ^3), or 2^3 - 3.
:

The
bisecting line
is
therefore
12-/3),
V(3 + 12 + 9
or yi2.y(2 -
y3)
17
18
sin ad
important to observe that
It is
nn
smpd
sinaO
,
or
/30
.
ad
smpO
has
--,
Also that n sin .
for its limit,
has the limit
We
=
when
0,
diminishes without limit.
when n
increases without limit.
have seen that tan# and
sectf
both become
infinite
when
Now
TT.
sec0-tan0 =
-=
^cosO
cos<9
Shew
cosec0 - cot# diminishes without

,
Again,
l-cos#=-
Hence, when 6
is
of calculation,
small, cos#
when
is
are equations which are near
in
nearty>
tan0 and
way
that
9.
-
when 6
This,
\6* nearly.
enough
a similar
limit, with
2 (~
when
difference of
the
-|-7r,
,,
(=0,
consequently, as 6 approaches
secO diminishes without limit.
is
small).
and sin0 =
small.
now
give an account of the method of defining the

gonometrical terms which was,* until very lately, universal.
I
0,
most purposes
to truth for
tri-
given straight line, called the radius, revolves from a starting

line OA, as in our definitions but it must be of the same length
-
for all angles,
which need not be the case in ours.
The arc
de-
by the revolving extremity generally (though not always)

takes the place of the angle, f Then
was called the sine of the
scribed
BM
AB (sinus, bosom, the literal translation of an Arabic word:

BAB represent a bow (arcus), half of the string BB" comes
And OM the cosine of AB
against the breast of the archer).
arc
'
if
is
word
an abbreviation of sine of the complement, or comwas considered as anyplemented sine ; it was long before
but
the
sine
of
BA.
And
another
arc,
(once the
thing
this
is
OM
AM
sagitta, as
occupying the place of the arrow) was the versed sine
(or turned sine) of the arc
AB.
And A'L
should have been
called the coversed-sine, as being the versed sine of the comple-
ment
but this term
is
only a recent invention for the completion
* But not from all time

for Rheticus, who gave the first
complete trigonometrical table, and invented the secant and cosecant
to complete it, used the method of ratios.
;
By
constant attention to the arc of a circle, some writers
have become unable to think of angle as a magnitude.
V'
OB
to
a tangent at A, and at
Draw
of the system.
19
and produce
A'
meet them
in
T and
Then
V.
A T was
called the tangent
drawn on the tangent) of AS; and A'V, the tangent

of the complement, was called the cotangent of AS.
Lastly,
OT was called the secant of AS, as being on a line which cuts
(as being
the circle
OV
and
the cosecant.
All these definitions are thus connected with ours
divided by the radius, in every case
linear function,
the old
gives the
modern numerical function.

Denote the
linear function
and
capital letter;
let
MB
OS = r,
Sin
AB
Cos
AS
by the word commencing with a

SOA = 6. Then we have
AT
Tan
AS
OT
Sec
AS
OS
cos<?
cot
OM
~OB~
OM AV
Cot
~MB~ ~OA~
COSCC0 =
OS
OV
MS
OA'
~~r
AS
vers
~~r
CosecAB
1-
_
Covers0 = l -
OM AM
MB AL
'OB
with the
new
unit for a radius.

tinction,
that the
that of the
one,
if
we only make r=
is
Covers
AS
is
iden-
or take the linear
But there always remains
this
function of the old system
is
essential
dis-
a line,
always
In the old system the sine of
half a radius, whether that radius be used as
new one a number.
the arc of 30
1,
AH
~OB
Speaking but of ultimate calculation, the old system

tical
Vers
~OB~ ~7
~OB
ON THE TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS,
20
In the modern system, the sine of

which half a radius is of the
the measuring unit* or not.

the angle
of 30
is
&c.
the fraction
whole radius.
If
we substitute in our formulae

we have such equations as
the equivalents of the old
system,
AB
Sin
Cosec
AB =
1,
or Sin
1,
or
Cos*AB
5
2
r
If
it
-r
AB
Cos*
Cosec
AB +
Sin*
AB = r
AB = r\
sides,
of the circle
thus found.
is
2n th
and 9 being the
part of a revolution, or
whole polygon nr* cos# sin#, or r cos -
being to the
whole
The
circle as
sector
is
we
2r smO, and
7T
n increases without limit, the limit of this
7T
area of the whole circle.
it
&c.
sines,
Inscribing the polygon
have for each of the n triangles, the area |r cos#

for the
&c.
be occasionally desirable to refer to the old system,
The area
n
r*
may be done without confusion by speaking of the

of arcs or the linear sines, &c. of angles.
of
sin
wr8 which
,
When
is
which has the angle
the
0,
Or*
to 2?r, is
*
Trigonometry might be defined as that part of the application
of Algebra to Geometry which is independent of linear measure;
since ratios are independent of the units in which their terms are
One disadvantage of the old system is,
arithmetically expressed.
that
it
keeps this independence of linear measure out of view.
21
CHAPTER
IIT.
FORMULAE WHICH INVOLVE TWO OR MORE ANGLES.

IT will be desirable to gain a more extended notion of the
If any line, AS, be taken as belonging
projections of a line.
an indefinite line on which sign

must be drawn between
to
and the other

which
is
to this,
is
AB
tinction
is
negative.
there positive,
we
p. 7,
NO
while
shall find that,
on a straight
Thus,
is
recognized, a careful dis-
SA
NO
and
is
one
not
C,
positive
but
x,
ON,
If
we attend
may be
distributed
negative.
however A, B,
is
line,
A C= AB BC= AB-CB = BC- BA; AB + BC+ CA=0;
Thus
AC =4-2, AB = + 1,
C=-5,
and + 2 = +
7 + (- 5).
made by P with Q is to be carefully disthe

made by Q with P. If one be
other is - 0, or, at our pleasure, 2?r - 6. To gain fixed ideas,
let us suppose that in the angle made by P with Q, denoted
Next, the angle
tinguished from the angle
by
PA
Q,
we proceed from the
positive direction
of
as
starting-line, and thence by revolution, positive or negative according as we want a positive or negative angle, to the positive
direction of P.
from the
But in Q A P, we
di-
proceed
rection of
positive
P to that of Q. Ascertain from this that

P A Q + Q A P ITT, 0, or - 2?r,
is
according as
positive
When
are
we
take the positive angles in both cases, or one
and one negative, or both negative.

neither end of a line
is
at the origin, the projections
determined by drawing perpendiculars from both ends of
FORMULAE WHICH INVOLVE
22
the
Thus AA' has
line.
NN'
MM'
and
but
for projections:
N
-
AA
N'N
has
and M'M.
projections of the line r, making the angle 6 with the

of x, are always r cos0 and r sin#. Take the preceding
be the angle it makes with
be -f. If
figure, and first let
The
axis
AA
the axis of x, that angle belongs to the

as to sign, + x
is
+ x
-f,
and
or negative
-,
is
and
positive;
so
is
and so
NN'.
-f-
is
But
quarter
MM'.
if
A A'
r sin#
But
is,
r cos0
be negative,
the angle (the opposite side being now used, .as in p. 8) is

of the - -f quarter; and r sin<? is - x -, or +, as before; while
r cos0
- x
is
+, or -, as before.
In the language of Euclid, equal and parallel lines have equal

projections.
But we must
say, equal
and
parallel lines, estimated
AA
SB
have equal projections. Thus

and
and B'B but
have equal projections and so have
A and
BB' have only projections equal in length, and differing in sign.
in
tJie
same
directions,
AA
If
is
any points, as A, B, C, D, be taken, the projection of

sum of those of AB, BC, and CD.
AD
the algebraical
These projections, taking the axis of x, are PS,

and, by what precedes,
PS=PR+RS=PQ+QRiRS.
The only question now is this,
do PS, PQ, QR, RS, always
represent the projections,
what manner soever the
AD, &c.
answer
in
lines
take signs ? And the

in the affirmative,
is
PQ, QR,
RS
TWO OR MORE ANGLES.
23
we have
seen that any variation of sign is accompanied

by a compensating variation in the mode of estimating the
angle; so that the projection remains unaltered both in sign and
magnitude, so long as the line remains unaltered in direction
since
and magnitude.
Now
let
the axes revolve through the angle 0, giving a pair
of secondary axes
and
let
a revolving line,
starting from the
positive side of the secondary axis x, revolve through a further
angle 6; having thus revolved through 0-i-O from the original

In the diagram,
is about 2k
right angles, and
is
or, if you please, a little
nearly three right angles more
starting-line.
more than a right angle negatively.
The
OP
on
on the
se-
projections of
the primary axes are r cos (0 + 0) and r sin (0 + 9}
condary axes, r cos<? and rsin#; and these last projections, ON,
and
or OH, make angles with the primary axis of x which,
NP
estimated by our rules, are

and
+ %TT for the revolving axis
of y is always a right angle in advance of the axis of x.
If then
we project the secondary projections on the primary axes, we have
;
Projections of
ON
are
Projections of
NP
are r sinfl.cos (0 + ITT)
Looking
rcos#.cos0
at the projections
Projection of
rcos(0
OP = Projection
-l-
0)
and Vcos0.sin0,
and r sin 6. sin (0+2^).
on the primary axis of x, we have

of
ON + Projection
of
NP,
rcos0cos0 + 7-sin0.cos(0 +
-i?r),
cos(0 + 0) =
cos0cos0 + sin#{cos(0f |-7r)or-sin0},
- sin
=
cos#
t
cos(0 6)
cos0
24

Looking
at the projections
Projection of
on the primary axis of y, we have
OP = Projection
r sin(0 f 0) =
of
ON + Projection of NP,
r cos& sin0 + r s'mO sin(0
sin(0 + 0) =
cos
sin(0 + #) =
sin0cos0 + cos0sin#.
+ sin
sin
{sin (0
-f
77),
+ |TT) or cos0},
These formulae being universally true, we might write we have
instead of 0, and then

cos
(0
0) =
cos0 cos (- 0) - sin0 sin (-
0),
= cos0cos# + sin0sin#,
sin(0 - 6) = sin0cos(- 0) + cos0sin(- sin cos 9 - cos sin 0.

This foundation of
all
0),
the ulterior part of trigonometry,
may
be stated thus,
6) =
cos(0
COS0COS0 + sin0sin0,
sin(0 + 0) = sin0cos#
cos0
sin0.
The formulae
are not independent: but any one really conThis has partially appeared. To shew it completely,
observe that the operations connected with projection on the
tains
all.
axis
of
axis
of x.
are precisely the

If
we adopt
same
as those connected with
the axis of
the
and
as a starting-line,
preserve the positive direction of revolution unaltered, we may

reckon angles from the axis of y, and use cosines in determining
the projections, provided that every line
/<
which makes an angle
with the axis of x, be considered as making
whichever we please, with the axis of

apply the formula
cos(0
-f
0) = cos
y.
cos 6 - sin
to angles measured from y, we must

- i 77. This
from x, into
- i
/<
TT,
If then
or
/(
+ |
we want
ir,
to
sin 0,
alter 0,
which
is
measured
gives
or
sin(0
-t
6) = sin0cos# +
cos0
sin0.
The demonstration above given is universal but it can nly

be convincing to those who enable themselves to understand,
:n the most general s-ense, the preliminary theorems.
Any want
:
TWO OR MORE
of such
25
ANGLES.
mastery over the universal character of theorems in
projection will follow the student through
his course,
all
par-
geometry and in mechanics. To break

the difficulty, it may be worth while to examine demonstrations
of particular cases, so as to show what manner of arithmetically
ticularly in the higher
separate
are
operations
algebraically presented
in
one by the
preceding process.
[Within these brackets,

specified
sign
no distinction
Let
AB
thus
is
made between
AOP = 0, POQ = 0,
nearly three, right angles.
MQ
AS
AS
In the
first
SA.
and
both taken in the positive direction
Project
NQ;
and ON,
RQ,.
are
In the second diagram
of revolution.
OM,
NR,
not affected by any but

and
negative is written
lines
when
project
OQ
is
on
ON,
nearly two, and
OA
NQ
diagram, in which
and OP, &c.
into
into
OS, SN, and
and 6 have
positive
and cosines (and RQN^tfi), we have

= OS = OS - UN,
cos(0 + 0) =
sines
OQ
OM
cos(0 + 0)
SM
= ONcos(fr-QNsm<p=OQ cos# cos0 -OQ sin# sin0,

= cos0 cos6> - sin0 sin6>.
OQ sin(0 + 0) = QM = RM + QR = NS + QR,
= O^ sin0+Q^Vcos0=OQ cos0 sin0+OQ sin# cos0,
Also
sin(0
-I-
6) - sin0 cos0 + cos0 sin#.
RQN not 0, but - 0.

OM= OS+ SM = OS + JtN
In the second diagram,
OQcos(0
+ 0-27r)=
=
cos(0 + 6
27r)
is
TT
And
first,
Q cos QONco sNOS+ OQ sin QONsmNQR;
= cos
QOAr cos NOS +
sin
FORMULA WHICH INVOLVE
26
cos
Q ON =
sin
QON= sin (0 -
NOS
cos
Whence
= cos
(TT
cos (0 +
cos (d
TT)
= cos
TT)
= - sin
0) = - eos0
2?r)
sin
(TT
- 0) = - cos 6
(TT
NQR
0)
= - sin0;
sin
(TT
0) =
sin 0.
= (- cos#) (- cos0) + (- sin#) (sin0)
cos (0 + #) = cos0 cos0 - sin0 sin0.
or
Again,
OQ
sin
(040-27r)=
(0 +
sin
2?r)
QM = QR - RM= QR - NS
QN cos NQR - NO sin NOS
OQ
= sin
QONcos NQR-OQ cos QO^.sin NOS,

Q O^V cos NQ R - cos Q ON sin NOS
sin
= (- sin 0) cos
or sin
(0 + 0) = sin 6 cos
- 0) (TT
(- cos 6)
+ cos
sin (TT
0),
sin 0.
The student should repeat the same process on various
cases.]
Observe that a complete proof of the cases of cos (0 -f 9} and

sin (0 + 6) is also one of cos (0 - 6) and sin (0 - 0), independently
of the substitution of for 6.
For cos (0 - 0) is cos (0 + 2?r - 0)
or
cos0 cos
And
(277-
0)-sin0
similarly for sin
From
48, 63.
sin
(27T-6) or cos
cos
+ sin
sin 0.
0).
the table in p. 17, verify the first row by aid of the

find the sines and cosines of 3, 12, 27, 33,
and fourth
third
(0
From
these the sines
and cosines of
all
the multiples
may be easily expressed.

The only form of the preceding theorems which occurs among
the fundamental equations is
of 3
cos (0 - 6) = cosO cos 6? + sin6> . sin$ or 1

.
large collection of formulae

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
may
sin*#.
be deduced, as follows
cos (0 + 6) = cos0 cos0 - sin0

cos (0 - 0) = cos0 cos# + sin0
sin (0 -f 6) = sin0 cosO + cos0
sin (0 - 6) = sin0 co&O - cos0
sin0.
sin0.
sinO.
sin0.
= 2 cos0 cos0.
cos (0
0) -f cos (0 + 0)
cos (0 - 0) - cos (0 + 6) = 2 sin0 sin0.
sin (0 + 6) + sin (0 - 6) = 2 sin0 cos0.
sin (0 + 0) - sin (0 - 0) = 2 cos0 sin6>.
-
= cos"9 +
TWO OR MORE
For
write
and
6 write
for
cost/
2t
6+0
+ cos0 = 2 cos J!
0-0
11.
sin0 + sin^ = 2 sin
12.
sin0
si
13
"0
sin
*-
- sin0 = 2 cos
~ sin
tan
sin0 + sine
14.
cos s-g
2
.0-0
+
-
cos0 - co30 = 2 sin

,
10.
27
^-75
2t
9.
ANGLES.
|(0 -
tan
ton0 + tan* =
sin0 +
0)
5?-l^,
'
sin6>
'
(0 + 0)
"
cos 0+ cos
+
:an
~T~
tan
cos0cose'
-
tan0
cos0cose'
15.
(^ A g ) =
si
=
~ sin0 cos0 cos0 sin0
0)
cos (0
sin0
0)
cos0 cos0 + sm0 sin
sin
tan (0
and denominator by cos0 cos0, and
divide numerator
which also follow immediately from

16.
20 = 2 sin0 cos 0,
sin
sin6>
14.
= 2
sin - cos -
2
17.
2
cos 20 = cos
z
- sin!
= i + f cos
=2
2
cos
-1 = 1-2
=i_ i
cos
19.
l+cos0=2cos2 ^, l-co S = 2sin s -,

tan 20 =
1
91
31.
20,
2 tan0
2
- tan5-
l-sin0
77. =
+ sm0
::
tan 8
---0\I.
^4
tan0
sin*0.
cos 20.
1
" cosg
214- cos0
ITT
1
22.
4/
sin e
18.
20.
^
'
2/
tan' -
'
FORMULAS WHICH INVOLVE

The following remarks may be made on
Remember
5, 6, 7, 8.
these formulae.
these formulae thus
product of cosines = half cosine of difference + half cosine of sum,
= half cosine of difference - half cosine of sum,
product of sines
sin greater x cos less = half sine of

sin less x cos greater
sum + half sine of difference,

= half sine of sum - half sine of difference.
The
least)
universal formulae are here expressed (the two last, at

with some arithmetical limitation; by which the one most
may be
convenient for arithmetical operation

once we learn to write down
sin5 cos 18 =
We
sin 23
-f sin 13,
sin50 cos4
Thus
selected.
=sin54
at
ism46
have thus convenient substitutes for multiplication of sines
and cosines by one another; of which much use was made before
the invention of logarithms
and
of sines
cosines.
We
can also resolve any product
Thus
= cos a { cos (b - c) - \ cos (b + c)}

- c - a) + cos(6 - c +
-$
a) + cos (b + c + a)}
a)}
{cos (b + c
= J {cos (6 c a) + cos (b c -f a) cos (b -f c a) - cos (6 + c 4- a)}.
Or thus cos a sin b sin c = {\ sin (b - a) + J sin (b + a)} sin c
= i (2 cos (b-a-c)-% cos (6-a+c)} + { cos (6+a-c) - | cos (6+a-f c)},
the same as before.
cos a sin b sin c
{cos(6
9, 10, 11, 12.
Sum
Remember
these formulae thus:
of sines = twice sine of half
sum x
cosine of half difference.
Difference of sines=twice cosine of half sumxsine of half direct*
Sum
of cosines
= twice cosine of half sum x cosine of half
Difference of cosines=twice sine of half sum x sine of half inverted
Most write the formula 10
diff.
diff.
diff.
as
cos0 - cos0 = 2
sin *-=
sin
&
0-0
^-r
2>
But whichever way it is written, no one will ever be expert in

the use of trigonometrical formulae until cos (a - b) and cos (6 - a)
prevent the instantaneous notion of perfect identity of value and
sign
while sin (a - b) and sin (b - a) equally suggest sameness
of value with difference of sign.

*
Again,
it is
Direct, read in the order of reference
When </>,
contrary order.
is the direct difference, 6
0,
tf>
frequently desirable,
inverted,
read in the
are mentioned in that order,

the inverted difference.
<f>
TWO OR MORE ANGLES.
29
effect of an interchange
upon one side of
an equation, to verify the sameness of the effect on the other
side.
Thus in 9, interchange of
and
produce no alteration
in the first side: how is it seen that no alteration is
produced
on the second side ? By remembering that cos |- (9 - 0) and
cos i (0 - 9) are the same.
and
Again, interchange of
changes
after observing the
the sign of the first side of 10; and of the second also, since
sin
(9 0) and sin f (0 - 0) have different signs.
person tho-
roughly practised in these considerations remembers the general

character of the formulae 9-12, and
by the habit of
Two
15.
satisfying the
angles differ by a right angle
If
related
result,
which
TT,
tan0 = -
often wanted,
is
nominator in 15
tan(0| YT
it
are their tangents
is
we must have
0.
tan0 + tan VT + tang- tan0. tan yr.
)x
|
-tan0 tan ty -tan YT tan# - tan# tan0
'
sum of the tangents of the three

equal to their product. Also the following
of the tangents of a set of angles, t v t3 &c.
follows that the
angles of a triangle
If
how
+ tan0 tan# = 0. This

best remembered by the de-
+ tan0 tan0 =
Prove the following formula
details correct
cot0, or 1
tan (0 - 9) be infinite,
if
from which
makes the
above conditions.
be the sum
is
the sums of the products of every two, every three, &c.; then
the tangent of the sum of those angles is ^ - t3 + tb - ... divided
by 1 -tt + tt ... . This may best be proved by showing that if
it
be true for any number of angles,
more angle
is
If there be
of
all their
it
remains true when one
introduced.
any number of angles, and if Sa be the product

and S, the sum of all the products which
cosines,
have for factors the sines of n of them and the cosines of

the rest
then the sine of the
and the cosine of the sum

Suppose
sum
is
of those angles
S3 +S^~
this proposition true for
...
is
all
S -S3 -\-S.,-...
l
any one number of angles,
S Sv
&c. have the above meaning.

Introduce one more
a,
angle, having a and b for its cosine and sine, and let T be
now the product of all the cosines, and Tn the sum of the products
and" let
in
which n are sines and the rest cosines.
Now
it
is
clear that
D3
30
S a. Next, 7\ consists, first, of all the terms which compose

each multiplied by b, and of those of Sr each multiplied by a
whence 2\ = S b + S^. And T2 has all the terms in Sl each
S
is
by
multiplied
and
b,
those in
all
each multiplied by a
whence
= Sfi + Saa. And thus we show that Tm = S,,^ + Sm a. But if

there be k angles in the first set, T^+l is SJ), and S^ does not
exist.
But the law of connexion Ti+l - Stb + oSâ still exists if
z
S^ = 0.
we suppose
Now
S -St + S
angle, the cosine
-S
(S,- S, +
(S
and Sl
...
new
sum
the cosine and sine of the
if
-S
and
...,
sum
-S
Sb
s -...)a + (S
-#.+
$-)
of the k angles be
then, after introduction of the
sine of the
...)a- (S,
...)
of the
k+
or
&
or Z\ -
angles are
T
T
T
T
...,
....
k angles, it is true for kBut it is true for two angles for,

and 6 being those angles,
S is cos0 cos0, and S is sin0 cos0 + cos0 sintf, and St is
sin0 sinO, S3 is 0, St is 0, &c. And cos (0 + 0) is S Sa + St ...,
while sin (0 + 0) is S - S3 + Sb - ...
Hence the theorem is true
If then the
theorem be true
for
for three angles,
hence for four, &c.
proceed in one or two cases thus

cos (0 +
= cos (0 +
I/'
i/<-)
The beginner had
+ 0)
cos# - sin (0 +
^)
sin#
= (cos0 cosi^-sin0 sim/^) cos#-(sin0 cos^ + cos0
=cos0 COST/*-
better
sini/r)
sin^
cosO- (sin0 sini/r cos^4sin0 sin# cosY^sin^ sinO cos0)
-V% + (*4-0)-(flr.-0)+....
n angles, the number of products having m srnes
of distinct ways in which we can select m out
If there be
is
the
number
number
angles, or the
of the
mn
denote this by
mn
of combinations of
out of
accordingly
stands tor
n - 2
...
!
.
be equal, and each of them be 0, each term of Sm

c means cos# and s means sin#.
Accordingly,
S m becomes m,,c"""'s m , and we now have
n
s
cos nO = c" - 2, c ^s + 4 c*V - 6,,c"V + ...
n
=
l n c"-'s
3 n c"-3 s 3 + 5 nc ''^ - 7 n c'^s 7 + ...
sin n0
If all the angles

is
c""'"8
where
fl
TWO OR MORE ANGLES.

Now
the development of (c + s)"
c"
is
l nc
31
n "'
2,,c
~V
...
whence the following theorem Develope (c + s)" by the binomial

theorem, and put together the odd terms, 1st, 3rd, 5th, &c., and
:
the even terms, 2nd, 4th, 6th, &c.; change the alternate signs
in
each
may
lot,
and the
results are
cos
nO and
cos 20 = c* -
cos 30 = c - 3cs
cos 46 = c 4 -
sin
20 =
sin
30 = 3c s s -
sin
40 = 4c3s - 4cs3
s",
a
,
6cV
-f
4
,
The beginner should form some of these

sin (30)
sin (16
2cs,
sin (30 + 0)
-f
30
sin
(c
3
,
successively
+ 6) = sin 20 c + cos 20
= 2cs
sin (40)
Thus we
sin nO.
down
at once write
8
)
thus
+ cos 30
= 3c2 s .
s"
= (3c ! s - s3 ) c + (c3 - 3cs 8 )

= 4cs s - 4cs 3
and so on.
The question of
finding the sine or cosine of the
now reduced
an angle
is
degree.
For example, given the
to find the sine of
its
x*)
x being the sine of the third

3
4a; - 3x + 6 = 0.
if
x-
an angle,
= 3x - 4xs
z?
Hence x
part.
the angle be 30,
8x - 6x +
3
b, it is
There are three roots to
this
problems are attempted,
th
required
we have
1
is
found from
to be
to solve
0,
which, by Horner's method, has '173648177867 for one of

approximately; and this root is sin 10.
distinct
part of
Here
third part.
6=3(1
For example,
sine of
n^
an equation of the
to that of solving
equation,
all soluble.
all
real
its roots,
but three
For what we
really
ask, in the equation, is the sine of the third part of the angle
whose sine
is
|.
This last angle
may be
either
30, 360 + 30,
2 x 360 + 30, 3 x 360 + 30, 4 x 360 + 30, &c., or 180 - 30,

3 x 180 -
30, 5
these angles, and
x 180
we
- 30, &c.
Look among
the thirds of
find three angles having distinct sines,
130, 250; or 10, 50, 250.

sines of these three angles.
And
the three values of
all
10,
are the
32
From
we
the preceding theorem
can,
exhibit the algebraical series which cos0
and with
tolerable ease,
and
are equivalent
sin
cos
(x\-j
when n
neither diminishes nor increases without limit
without
Of
X
cos n
limit.
n increases,
we must be
a priori,
this,
uncertain, for as
while the increase
increases towards unity,
of the exponent has a diminishing
increases
Between the increase
effect.
2"
cos
for instance, is greater or
than
less
x\
so great to
begin with as
+ ^TT,
we
effects
an increase.
easily
cos*
-l-
But, taking n
nl
be between - |TT and
shall
xxx
cos -
cos - + cos
>
2
cos
2n/
x^" >
or
x
> cos n
*\"
cos - .
ml
(
&c.
is
by our formulaj that the duplication of n

For
see
-x =
2n
cos -I
X
that -
(y.
cosj
(cos-
a succession of increasing terms, of which no one exceeds
cannot exceed unity, unless cos ^ could be
unity: for (cos -)

\
greater than unity.
Accordingly, the preceding terms severally
approach to some limit: let it be L.

Now take the term which may represent any one of the
terms already found in cosnd and sinnO; namely,
m
n
Let nO =
as
we
z,
a fixed angle
it
by
g ~~
it
0,
- 9
by
but nevertheless n
(cos#)",
times.
nO-0
~
(cos 0)"- (sin0)
-f
'"
It
and
may
And
n.
Now
diminishes without limit.
preceding, divide
and divide
6 be taken =
please, provided
without limit,
factors)...
at the
as
+ 1)0
""
n increases
take the term
same time multiply

1
'
be as great
then becomes
n9" (m
J_
(sin^)"
'
TWO OR MORE ANGLES.

z-20
When
z
......
'
(m +
1)
33
/tan6>\
Q diminishes without
value of m, approaches without limit to
for
this,
limit,
a.
22
- .-...
o
every specific
2
.
m or
,
^z"*
Next, after dividing both equations in page 30 by c" or (cos -]
and equate the

8
cosz
limits
We
(Algebra, page 157).

z
compensatory operations on the several
perform the preceding

terms,
2,o.*.ni
>n
of
the
of
sides
the
equations
have then,
sinz
2.3
2.3.4
2.3.4.5
These series will be found to be convergent (Algebra, page 186);

and these equations themselves determine L. For if we make
z = 0, the first gives cosO = L, or L = 1
if we divide both sides
:
of the second by z, and diminish z without limit, remembering

= 1.
that sinz f z has the limit 1, we also find
Our
cosz =
sm z =
2.3.4.5.6
2.3.4
in arcual units),
8
2.3.4.5.6.7.8
z*
-f
2.3.4.5
2.3
in
an angle
results then are (z being
which we see
2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9
2.3.4.5.6.7
verification of the preceding assertions
an even function, and sinz an odd one

and cosz = 1 - za nearly, when z is small.
cosz
that
that sin z
is
The
readiest
throwing them
mode
of
from these
calculation
- {l - 2
smz =
r,
{l
where
all
series
is
by
into the forms
r,
indicates that the
r,
{l
r,
^ {l
preceding multiplier
r,
...... ,
{l
is
a factor
of
that follows.
Thus, the calculation of cosl (or 5717'44"'8 in gradual units)

is
obtained to twelve decimal places (see the property of alter-
nating
series,
Algebra, page 184) from
34
Turn
13.14 into a decimal fraction of 13 places, subtract
-f-
from unity, divide by 11.12, subtract from unity, &c., keeping

13 places throughout: the final result may be
depended on to
it
12 places.
Those who have mastery enough over algebraical division

to divide the series for the sine
tans = z +
2z
by that
11 z
-f
1-
315
15
the law of the terms of which
for the cosine, will find
G2z9
2835
said (page 2)
series, cos z + sin*z
we should soon make
that
If
gonometry.
we had chosen
1,
very evident
it
made
a purely algebraical basis might have been
that
of
....
too complicated for the beginner.
is
Every one, however, should verify on the

cos's - sin*z = cos2z, 2 sinz cosz = sin2z.
I
for tri-
the preceding functions
to call
namely
z,
z*
-2
+ ""
-2^
Z+
""
+ -'
by the names of cosine, sine, and tangent of z, (and their reciprocals

and cotangent), we might have investigated the
properties of these series, and we should at last have arrived
secant, cosecant,
at all
more
I
our preceding
formula?
much
but with
of connexion;
difficulty.
now go
to the converse problem, in which
it
required to
is
express cos"0 and sin"0 by means of sines or cosines of
W,
6,
30, &c.
n angles a, b, c, d, &c., and proceed

page 28 with cos a cos b cose. Thus we have
cosa cos6 = |- cos(a - 6) + cos(a b)
First,
let
there be
-f-
-|
cosa
cosft
cose = \ cos (a
-f
The
final divisor will
be
b - c) + J cos (a - 6 + e)
J cos (a + b +
2"~
1
,
as in
e),
the final
-f
cos (a + b - c)
&c.
number
of cosines
looking at the manner in which the angles enter,

cosine of every choice out of + a
b
c
d + ...
we
2""';
and,
shall see the
In every term
change the sign of every letter, which will not alter the value of
any one cosine, add the results together and divide by 2, which
will leave the
divisor,
2"
abcd
whole unaltered, and we

for
...
the
number
among
of terms,
the angles.
If
shall
then have 2" for
and every variety of
we now make
a, b, c,
&c.
TWO OR MORE ANGLES.

all
all
equal to one another and to

the choices furnished in 4
One
following.
taking
all
(giving (n
of
- (n - 4)
cases of (n
6 -
1)
only positive
and
6),
be able to subdivide
(n terms) into the
...
and one case of - nd,
2) 6, with one only taken negative
as
with - (n - 2)
many
cases of (n - 4) 0, taking
2,,
taking two only 4
0,
shall
case of nO, taking all +,
we
6,
35
two only
and so on.
But
taking one
0,
and
-,
as
many
at the last step
there will be a separation between the cases of n even and
n odd.
If n
be even, say = 2k, there will be at last k cases of {(n - k) - k} 0,

or 00, taking k - and k + ; the case of k taken 4 and k taken not being distinct from the former. But if n be odd, say = 2k + 1,
or 0, in which k are taken then there are k cases of
lt
6, in
cos b cos
now
c... being
2"cos"0 =
(cos04
cos
-0)
Collecting these,
cos"0,
Accordingly, cos a
4.
we have
4
{cos(n- 2)04 cos
(-2)0)
4)0+ cos - (n - 4)0} 4 3 n {cos(n-6) 04cos-(n-6)0}
ending with
...
k}
which k are taken
[cos04 cos(-0)
4 2 n {cos (n
4
k)
{(n
and as many of -
if
k,
cos 09 if n
2k,
and with
n = 2k+l~\.
by help of cos (-
a)
= cos
a,
we
have, for a final
form,
cosn0 =
-^-A cosnO
n cos(w-2)0 + n -
on the condition that cos 00, when
it
cos
(w- 4)0 4
...
occurs, is only to take half
the coefficient indicated by the general law.
The beginner may proceed thus,

3
cos*0 =
cos0 4 i(cos0 4
4 \ cos 20 cos =
cos 30)
= i (cos 30 4 3cos0)
cos
(cos 30 cos0 4 3 cos 0)
= | (cos 20 4 cos 404 3 4 3 cos 20)
= i (cos 40 4 4 cos 20 4 f cos 00), &c.
Now
be changed into ^7r-0, or cos"0 into
let
examine cosfm
\
we
--A\,
2
begin by rejecting
all
sin"0.
If
we
the fours out
of m, as indicative of complete revolutions; and the final form

of this term depends on the remainder.
number, as
it is
the 2& th even number,
th
being the (2k 4 l)
odd number;
4&4
Call
4k an even even-
4k 4 2 an odd even-number,
an odd odd-number, is it the (2k + l)th

an even odd-number, being the
and 4k 4 3
FORMULAE WHICH INVOLVE,
36
th
(2k + 2)
&c.
Then, for even even-numbers, the above
for
odd odd-numbers, +
for
even odd-numbers, -
sin
m-2
And
A.
sin
+ cos^t
is
odd even-numbers, - cos
for
even numbers, or of odd numbers, of which
of the class of
is
is
not, &c.
We
have then the four following formulae:
n even even sin"# =

1
w odd odd
sin"<?
n odd even
sin"# = -
-<
sin"0 = -
smnd
-1 cosnd
2
even odd
cosnO - n cos(n- 2)0 + n
<
j
-n
sin(n-2)6 + n
-
n cos(n-2)0 + n
\_
<
sin ??0 -
Of
cos(w-4)#~...
n sin(n-2)0 + n
sm(n-4)6~...
cos(n~4)6>-...
also try to prove the following
Si
~
n2 0-
sin(-4)0-...
theorems
1-cos^
= tan 2
tan (45 +0)- tan (45 -0)

tan (45 + 6) + tan (45 - 6)
tan<9
sin^
'
= cot0- 2cot2(?,
+ costf
e
= cot 2
>
I
J
these the beginner should construct instances, as before.
He may
>
CHAPTER
IV.
ON THE INVEKSE TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS.
WE may now
itself as
ingly,
may be
then 6
consider cosO, &c. as functions of
6,
a function of cos#, or of sin#, &c.
an angle whose cosine is x.' The

by angle (cosine = x), but in our
'
described as
and accordIf x = cos#,
continental writers denote this
country
it
is
by a symbol derived from a
universally described
If 0a: denote a function of x, then
functional analogy.
(0a?)
2
3
8
On this notation
denoted by
a:, 0(0 #) by
ar, and so on.
0~'a; should denote the function on which performance of
gives x,
= x, and <p^x should denote that function which
so that
(0~'#)
is
gives (f?(<p*x)
x.
Accordingly, cos a; being considered as a funcword cos as a functional symbol,
tion of x, and the abbreviated
cos
-1
should denote the function which
o:
Hence, cos" ^ must stand

1
cosine
Similarly, suT'a;, tan~'#, &c. stand severally for
is x.
angle whose sine, tangent, &c.
The
We
satisfies cos (cos"'a;)
is
sin a; x sin a: or (sina-)
sin
2
.
the analogy, and that
!
a:
is,
that
for the sine*
The answer
we
any
x.
objection to this analogy
do not employ
= x.
(meaning any angle) whose
for the angle
is,
we do not pursue
it.
of the sine of x, but for
we ought
that
if
certainly should,
to follow
questions in which
the sine of the sine, or the sine of the sine of the sine, were
so frequently
such
sin {sin (sin

3
(sina:)
a:)},
actually
and
then
occur,
sin a: x sin
a form which
of sines, &c.
And when
employed as to require abbreviation.
questions
a;
x sin a;
some writers
very rarely occur,
sin
a:
should
prefer, as
it
is
are
should
be
it is.
stand
for
denoted by
But
as sines
not necessary to disturb
established notation.
As above defined, 0# and

But when we talk
functions.
*
The student may
(f)~
what are called inverse
of the inverse function of 0ar,
How
it
can any thing but an angle have

ask,
I answer, that 6 is not an angle, but the number of arcual
units in an angle.
Every number has a sine.
a sine
5'
ON THE INVERSE
38
is
when we
as
knowing that there
talk of the square root of x,
Generally speaking, inverse functions have more values

in the case before us, an infinite number.
than one
For, let
are two.
cost's
be
6, that is, let
then so has 2nnr
cosine
it
is
as dictated
x or - x,
either
sin" sin
cos" sin#
= 2mir
= Znnr
or
\2
This chapter
is
Similarly
tan"'
0,
= 2mir +
one or the other,
at pleasure, or else
by the particular problem in hand.
cos" cos
0,
its
or negative.
= x, 0~ 0o; is not
always arises that though 00" *
but only has x for one of its values. Thus (^xf is x,
Hence
always x,
but \/(x*)
6 be an angle which has x for
m being any integer, positive
(2m +
1)
TT
cot"
0,
0)
tan" cot0
tan# = imr +
0,
cot# = rmr +
6,
m-n-
wholly on expression, and
^
2
6,
&c.
intended to enable
is
the student to understand the theorems hitherto demonstrated,
when expressed
is
All that
in inverse language.
a set of examples for consideration.
with full explanation, and then write
by the student.
is
wanted, then,
I shall give
down
two cases
others to be considered
cos (2 sin" *) = 1 - 2x*.

1
- 2 sin*0. Let x be the sine

nothing more than cos 20 = 1
sine is x, and substitute.
let
an
whose
be
is,
angle
The formula is to be understood as the cosine of double any
- 2#V
angle whose sine is x is 1
This
is
of 0, that
'
tan"
In
all
* + tan"V = tan"
[\1
.
)
-xyl
the formula? which have inverse functions for their terms,
we have
4^ x 9*
choice on one side and not on the other.

In the formula
= 36^ we are not at liberty to say that any square root
by any square root of 9
of 4 multiplied
is
any square root of 36
but any square root of 4 multiplied by any square root of 9 is

of the square roots of 36.
And by the above we mean that
out'
uinj
angle whose tangent is x augmented by any angle whose tangent

is y, is one of the
(1
angles whose tangent is (x + y)
xy).
It is proved thus
:
a>
l-tan0.tan0
tan
\1
tan0 + tan0
tan0.
TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS.
or
is
-f
= tan" *,
1
39
one of the angles, &c. Let tan0 = x, tand = y, or

= tarT'y, and substitute.
let
The student may now employ himself on the following:

smcos" x = V(l-^8)) tansec" *^: VO^-l)* sin (2 sin" *) = 2*i/(l-**),
3
sin (3 sin' *) = 3* - 4x*,
sin (4 sin" *) = (4x - 8* ) A/(! - aJ*)
1
tan (2 tan" *) =
1
<2x
*s
x3
3x
tan (3 tan" *) = -^
o*a
taking acute angles,
= tan" 1 + tan" ^ = 4 tan" l

1
- tan'
sin"
cos"
cos tan"
*+
*+
&
/** + 1
This
is
tan 3 cot
'*
cos sin
.
= 5(6*
'.
cos sin"
.
zy},
1
*=
*,
- 4*z
sm cot" * = \ /
\ x* +
sm 2 cos
+ tan'
sin" (*V(1 - y
2
- 2=
^ cos" {V(l *
y* + a^y )
sin'ty
cos"
- tan'
--
V3 -**3-
2)J
V(*
^ -- 15* -+ 15* 6
x* (x* - 3)*
1)'
.
on language; and some of the preceding
a chapter
examples are merely hard phrases to be construed from trigonometry into algebra. But such transformations have an important
use in calculation.
we wanted to calculate the value of the

when * = 5'1761328, and had such
If
last-named function of *
trigonometrical tables as those of Hutton, hereafter described,

it
would be the
the
easiest plan,
That
first side.
beyond comparison^
we should
is,
find
by
to proceed
the table
by
the angle
whose cotangent is 5*1761328, treble it, find the tangent of the

trebled angle from the table, pass to the table of cosines with
that tangent, find the angle to it, double that angle, and take
Thus sin cos" * is, with tables, easier than

last.
2
sin"
* easier than 2*V(1 - #*)
and
sin
3?),
V(l
The following are a few instances of reduction to mixed
1
the sine of the
trigonometrical forms
2 V(o* + &
25
cos<7) = Vl(
by - 2ab
(1
+ cosC)}
2v/ai.cosi<?\
'
40
ON THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRICAL 'FUNCTIONS.
V(rt*
&*
- 2ab
cosC) = V{(a
v/(a*
+ i
= a sec tan" -
W + 2ab
</( a
C1
b*)
cosC)}
= a cos
1
sin" -
(I
- 6
V(&*
2a
4ae)' =
cos i sin
[I
.2 Vac
'
or
Mir*
sin
'
2 v7 ac
-
CHAPTER
V.
INTRODUCTION OF THE UNEXPLAINED SYMBOL ^-1.

IF
we look
in p. 33,
we
p. 225).
We
at the series for sin0
see that each term
and cos#, of the form obtained

one of those
is
1,
k*
tity there is
is
absurd.
k =
*J-\,
not in Algebra, as
If,
would give
then cosfl + k sin0 would be
k, &c.,
to
demonstrably govern our
we adopt
use
k'
=-
1, k*
=-
k,
Such a quanhitherto considered for k - - 1

6**.
under pretence of satisfying
and proceed
gative quantity,
(Alyebra.
W-f-ftg+^H.*^-....
If there existed such a

quantity k, as
deduce
easily
eosÂdn^l +
k*
in e
this equation,
we invent
according to the laws which
it
intelligible
symbols of positive and ne-
the process of
what we are doing.
all
the algebraists, with
use,
which ought to
have been called experimental, of the symbol -J-l, under the name
of an imf>ossible quantity, shewed that, come how it might, the
a fair statement of
(when such things occurred) of the experiment

were always true, and otherwise demonstrable. I am now going
intelligible results
to try
some of these experiments the student may rest assured

new results of this chapter will, in the second book,
:
that the
be rendered demonstrative, upon a system which clearly defines

or he may doubt it
but he must not think they are
-V/-1
demonstrated here, though they will have strong moral* evidence
:
in their favour.
By
giving precedence to the use of *J-1, under

the student will gain the advantage of
the above stipulation,
familiarity with the language of double algebra, before
proaches the
he ap-
difficulties.
* It is almost
impossible to discredit Woodhouse's remark
" "Whether I have found a
logic, by the rules of which operations
with, imaginary quantities are conducted, is not now the question
;
but surely this is evident, that since they lead to right conclusions,
they must have a logic."
E3
42
INTRODUCTION OF
Say that we suppose, from the above,
The processes of algebra constantly lead
mean
refuse every other; I
this
to
those in which
V~l
and
result,
is
assumed
to
be something which, though unintelligible, is governed by the

laws of algebra a fellow-subject of the other symbols, with a mask
over his features. For instance, common multiplication will give
(cos# + sin 0. -/-I) (cos0 + sin0 V~l) = cos (0 + 6) + sin (040). V~l.
Let
denote cosfl
fe
4-
sin6
fd must
(Algebra, p. 204)
V-l
be
9
,
fO x/0 =/(0 + 0), and
then
where
independent of
is
6.
Accordingly,
E -l _ cosfl-1
~e~ ~e~
9
Diminish 6 without
log
v ~*
If
limit,
and
.8=0 + V-l.
v"
E=d~
l
,
JS
=^'
266)
p.
1' 1
.
universally, then
cosO - sin#.
V~l
---
0v-i
i
'
and Algebra,
(p. 17,
or
cos 6 + sin 0.V~1
sinO
-ev-i
whence
07 " 1
e"
6lv " 1
Had these forms been intelligible, they would have been the
proper algebraical definitions of the cosine and sine of 0; and
trigonometry would have been pure algebra in the ancient sense,
and a very easy part of it. For assuming tan0 to be sin04-cos0,
and
cosec#, cot#, to be reciprocals of the other three,
sec<?,
all
the formulse of trigonometry would have been proved by simple

algebraical operation.
For example,
cos0
cosfl
= i (e^- + e-*"-
_ i (g^+flw- +
1
^ + e^' )
1
(e
6 -(^+e)v-i
= \ (cos (0 + 6) + cos (0
''' 1
Since e
it
to the
e (^-OK-i
w th power, we must have

.
n
(cos0 + sin0 V~l) = cos n & + sm n
is
called
De
e -(0-0)v-i\
0)}.
has this property, that a change of
This
Moivre's Theorem.
The
into
nO
raises
V~lstudent, instead of
must take pains to associate cos0 4- sinfl v/-l

it,
with the notion of a quantity which is squared, cubed, &c., by
introducing a double, treble, &c. angle. And in like manner
referring to
he must associate the notion of reciprocals with cos0 + sin0.
-J-\
THE UNEXPLAINED SYMBOL V-l.
43
and cosQ-smO ^-1, without being obliged to bring them back

1
ev "
to e^' and e"
The following equation will assist:
.
(cos0 + sin0
If
n be
integer, the
second.
the
But
10 distinct values
duces us to a
We
V- 1) (cos#
if
;
new
!
- sintf
.-j-\) = cos
n be
+ sin*0 =
side has one value only,
first
as
fractional,
f-
the
first
1.
and
also
side
has
the second apparently only one. This introconsideration of the highest importance.
have been using an angle in two different ways:
absolutely, as a magnitude,
same manner
in the
first,
any other
as
kind of magnitude; secondly, as generated by a straight line

revolving from a given starting-line, and indicating the direction
line points out when it has revolved through
and 6 + lir arcual units of angle
As magnitudes,
much as d and 6 + 2?r feet, or gallons, or hours as
which the revolving

the angle.
differ
as
indicators of direction, they yield

dicate the
same
negative.
so
many
indicating a
as
6 + Znnr would have done

of a problem in which 6
equally solved
difference at all
they in-
direction.
we begin with
If
no
direction
if
FO
(for
which
be the solution
a given quantity, that problem
is
J
by F(9 r2mw),
So many
and
as well),
is
being any integer positive or

different values as we can give to F(d + 2rmr),
different solutions
?n
but
FO
if
be another angle, used
an indicator of direction, then so many different values as

we can find for F(0i ^trnr), no two of which differ by a posias
tive
or negative multiple of
And
2?r,
so
many
distinct answers
are
we
say of directions applies to the

take value only from the direcwhich
trigonometrical functions,
tion of the revolving line, and not at all from the number of
indicated.
all
revolutions by which
that
it
has been attained.
Q be an angle which indicates a direction, nO can only

indicate one direction, when n is integer.
For, using 6 + 2ni7r
If
for 6,
if
nO becomes nO + Intmr, and 2nm
n be a commensurable arithmetical
an even integer.
is
But
fraction, say - in its lowest
9
terms, then n9 indicates q distinct directions, no
fewer.
For n (0 + 2t7r) or q
rection for any
TT
more and no
indicates the
same
di-
two values of m, m' and m",
in
which
9
INTRODUCTION OF
44
is
an even integer, or (m' - m") - an integer, positive or negative
no others. Now since q and p are prime to each other,

can only be when q divides m' - m", positively or negatively,
or when m' and m" differ by a multiple of q.
and
for
this
we take
If then
the following values of m, namely,

0,
we get
all
1,
2, 3, ...
(q-1),
that give really different directions
number, positive or negative,
by a multiple of
q.
for every other
from one or another of these
differs
All the distinct directions
then, are indi-
cated by one or another of the following angles,
Now
if
p and
q be prime to one another (Arithmetic, Apif we divide

...
pendix, p. 195), and
p, 2p,
the remainders (which are

a
in
quotient
occur
in,
are
is
2rr
all
1)^
(q
we need look
severally
to, since
by
q,
every unit
whatever order they may

each occurring once somewhere.
in the angle),
1, 2, 3, ... (<?-i),
Consequently, changing the order, we may say that all the

which n (0 + 2)mr) can indicate, are those indicated by
di-
rections
p1
which may be expressed thus

of n,
be the lowest denominator
If q
the directions indicated
all
by nO may be derived from any
one of them, by successive advances of the q ih part of a revolution each.
In the
last equation, written thus,

-
(cos0 + sintf
V-l) 9 = COS-
we
see
sin
p
-
q different results on the second side
q ambiguities
of value
we
are
taught
</-!,
q
;
which are the
by common
algebra to
give to the first side.

If cos a + sin a. *J-\ be one of the values of (cos0 + sin0. */-!)",
then cos a -sin a. ^-1 is, by similar reasoning, one of the values
w
of (cos0-sin0.V-l) . If sin0 = 0, that is, if cos0 be either
or -1, then cos0
sinfl. y'-l
is
the same as cbs0-sin0. </-!,
THE UNEXPLAINED SYMBOL

or both cosa +
sina.y-1 and cos a-
sin a.
45
-/-I.
y-1 are values of both.
This will enable us to arrange our sets with better perception

of their connexion.
I
now
shall
12th roots of gives
TT
for
and all the

= TT, (which
a commencement), and on these angles we must
exhibit
all
For the
1.
the 12th roots
first,
6=
0, for
make advances of one-twelfth of a revolution

when we have gained 12 distinct values for
surement
will here
1,
at each step, stopping
Gradual mea-
each.
be most convenient.
The twelve twelfth
roots
1.
of+
gives only one root, +
cosO
sinO.
cos30
sin30. V-l
......
cos60
sin60. V-l
......
cos90
sin 90.
V- 1
......
cosl20sml20.y-l
......
- \
cos 150
sinl50.V-l
......
- 1V3
cos!80 4 sinl80.V-l
......
only one root,
The twelve twelfth
y-1
roots
of
1.
cosl5
sinl5. V-l gives
cos45
sin45. y-1
V~l
- V2
V6
-
......
cosl05
sinl05.V-l
......
^6
cos 135 + sin 135. V-l
......
^2
V6
..
sinl65.V-l
iAV~l
W"
1
1.
^^ ^^
sm7o. V-l
cosl65
iv'3-V-l
1V2
......
1 itself
^3 ^-1
cos7o
We
of +
the second
"
.y-1
JV2.V-1
,
6
V
-
+ V2
j-*
V-1
V6
V2
+
V6
V2
"
..
have now found the twelfth roots of any quantity, positive

If a be any twelfth root of +- 1, a ^m, m being
or negative.
positive, is a twelfth root of
or
m.
if
Similarly,
twelfth root of - m.
We
may extend
/3
m.
For
its
twelfth
be any twelfth root of -
this further,
as follows.
power
1,
Two
is
ffim
a lz .m,
is
given quan-
INTRODUCTION OF
46
titles
and
a,
b,
unless a* + 6* = 1
cannot be cosine and sine to the same angle,

but they may be proportional to the sine
:
For
and cosine of the same angle.
and
are cosine
is
angle
a2 +
if
Hence we have a transformation
costart"
- + sintan" 1
-V-l
and
that
\
I
= V( a8 +^! ) 6
tan"'-v-i
'
has two values
a;
and those values are oppoNow 6 and 6 + TT have

is the other.
sin (6 + TT) = - sin0, cos (0 + ir) = - cosO.
different directions;
Q being one,
+ TT
contrary sines and cosines
;
we
of great importance,
be remembered: tan"
this point is to
which indicate
nents
same angle, and the tangent of
sine to the
(b
But
= in1 then
b*
with a given sign, say the positive one, for ^(a* + 6*),
and take the wrong angle, we shall end with - a - b^f-l, instead
If
set out
of + a + 6-/-1
we ma y
'
set
it
right either
or using the other square root of a* +

root
6*.
by altering the angle,

But as the positive
generally used, the proper value of tan"

1
is
membered
may be
re-
whose cosine has the same sign
as a.
The following would be the most convenient arrangement.
One
as the angle
angle which
and
has - for tangent has
cosine of the
its
its
sine of the
same sign
as a,
same sign as b; the other has the sine

a, and the cosine of a different sign
of a different sign from
from
Let the
b.
by tan" a
first
be denoted by tan"
and the second
Thus we have
b
Show now
that one twelfth root of a
'vYCa* +
and that
all
&')
(cos
(& tan"
the twelfth roots
increasing the angle
the above by
-b
all
-f
sin
|)
may be
by twelfths of a
the twelfth roots of
6-/-1
is
(& tan"
W~
found, either by successively

revolution, or
T 1.
by multiplying
THE UNEXPLAINED SYMBOL ^-1.
47
Returning to our original notation, we have
y^-1 = r(cos0 +
x -
T/y'-l
= r(cos0 - sinftV-1) =
The fundamental equation 6

2 '""^ 1
= 1, and
following results e
;
we have a =
quantity,
r^'
sin 0.^-1)
e logo
1
-,
rr fllM
v"
= cos0 + sin0.</-l, gives the

m "*"'- 1 =
e
-l. If a be a positive
{
a+2 ""r ' v - 1

1
.
e g
j^ then
gy^^
&n y
be a logarithm of a, which satisfies a = e we have such right

as we can take in this chapter to say that the ordinary arithmetical
logarithm (which we shall still denote by log a) is only one
,
of a
contained in log a + Ztmr-J-l, in which
all
class,
may
be any positive or negative integer. Let Aa denote any logarithm

of a; then we have \o = logo -t 2//wr<\/-l
and the usual form
:
log a
is
Here a was positive.

* n" 1} " a
io a
= (-l).a = e
.<?* = e *
one case of Xa.
Now -a
we may say
still,
quantity
as before, there
for,
is
1
.,
whence
added
to a negative
cannot vanish.
that, in this extension,
any logarithm of
to
no arithmetical logarithm
m being integer, 2m + 1
Let the student now show

of a,
w-
that negative quantities have logarithms, and that
X(- a) = log a + (2m + \)TT^-\

but
**+ i
any logarithm
gives one of the logarithms
b,
All our ordinary logarithmic relations remain true
of ab, &c.
Since
in this sense.
1
1
mv
x + y^-i = r ^- = re ^- ^- = eiog-c^-)/-^
we have
all
the system of logarithms exhibited in
X (x
y-J-l)
-f
= logr +
(6 + 2tmr)^-l,
= $\og(x* + f)
(tan\
Here 2nnr
is
not necessary, unless
we
tinction
between
it
and
still
restrict tan"
- to
-(remembering
x
\
the dis-
tan"
expresses every case by
itself.
further extension of the notion of a logarithm
now be made.
be
-J-l.
x
HI
in the first revolution; otherwise, tan"
y+
x Zmir]/
The base
is
--""IV - 1
may
jf x, a
represent the
INTRODUCTION OF
most extensive logarithm of a, which we can get from any
such form of e, it must be obtained (a being positive) thus:
/""*
-r-
,.
La =
or
'
log a + 2w7rv -l
i.o^. /!i
-(-) =
>
lo
and w being any positive or negative integers.

way with x + y-J-l, and we have
Proceed
in
the same
It thus appears that there
to the base
is,
an
e,
infinite
number
of systems of logarithms, corresponding to the values of m, and
an
infinite
number of logarithms
in each system, corresponding
to the value of n.
Two logarithms of one quantity, taken out of different systems,

cannot generally be found equal. If,
and m' being two integers,
we form the equation {let p = 6 + 27m, p = 6 + 27m'}
r 4 p'-Jlog r + p i/- 1 _
~ log
1 + 2TO7T V- 1
1 + 2mVVclear
it
1
'
of fractions, and equate the possible and impossible terms,

2mV log r + ja = 2m7r log r -f p'. Substitute
we get pm' = p'm and

in the
second the value of p' from the
and we get
m) =
first,
(27TTO log r
p) (in
1
m, and the systems are the same, or 27rm log r = p

and 27rm' log r = p'. In these cases a logarithm of x + y V~ 1 or
either then m' =
is log r, the arithmetical logarithm of r.

those
being the indices of the bases, and n and
of the particular logarithms to those bases, this requires that r
But,
in each system
m and TO'
'
and 6 should be determined by

+ 27rn
or log r =
so that, for
6 + 27m
6 + 27m'
- n
--
w'
e=
ZTT
--
rim - nm'
- m
two given systems, and two given values of n in those

is one expression, and one only, which has the same
systems, there
logarithms in both.
THE UNEXPLAINED SYMBOL V - 1

In ordinary algebra
it
Ve being
We
a,
is
And
this in the face of the result that,
either + a or - a, so that - a has ^ for a logarithm.
now show how
can
said that negative quantities have none
is
but impossible logarithms.
49
these isolated cases of negative quantities
with real logarithms arise.

Let us solve the general question
logarithms, what are
What
expressions have real
The
they, and in what systems?
follow-
ing equation is produced by multiplying both terms of the fraction

- 2w7r
-/- 1)
by 1
L(x
log r + (6 + Imr) ^1-
log r
This
case
in
is
+ 2nnr V-f
2m7r(0 + 2mr')"
a real quantity only
and 2
is
-f
2mr - 2mir log r
"^
(1 +
~A
log r =
when 2nnr
L (x + yj- 1) = log r (1 + 4mV)
which case y =
V~
+ Imr, in which
If = TT,
4wV) = log r.
1
negative (# = re^" =
r)
we have
2n+l
= log
log (- r)
is
r,
whenever 2m?r log r = (2n + l)7rorr =

we might have anticipated for
precisely the case
8W
This
e
8 " +1
has two
th
But it appears that instead of
roots, one negative.
(2m)
U2""rv
the system being that of the base e, the base is g
The
-\
of
this
illustration
be
from
the
difficulty may
complete
gathered
real
second book.
Returning now to the fundamental equations,

1
e^' or cos0 + sin0 V~ !
We have then
stand for
let z
2
1
z"
= cos0 + sin0.
= cos0 - sin0
\]- 1,
J-
2 cos0 = z +
2
V-
sinfl
These equations
may
z"
1,
1
,
z-,
a"
= cosnO +
sinn<?.
= cosnO -
sin nO
z'
cos0 =
2V-
sinwfl
J-
1,
*J- 1,
z'",
z"
n
.
almost be said to contain trigonometry.
Completely established, they would furnish proof of all we have

done the deduction from them of our previous results must
:
be inductive proof that, somehow or other, the use of -/lead to true results.
3
Required sin
=-
in terms of functions of multiples of
(sin
30 - 3 sin#}, as in page 35.
does
INTRODUCTION OF
50
Required cos 49 in powers of

z
cos40 =
+- 3^
c*
and cos#;
--
(c
S
6cV +
The student must take
sin 6
4
+ sV-l)
+ (c'
*
as in
page 31.
manner
notice of the
which the action
in
of -/- 1 supplies the place of the rule in page 31.
"We may now extend some of our rules. Required sin"'0 cos"^
That is, we have to find
n
-z m
+
in functions of multiples of 6.
l
(z
(z
g-')
2'"'(V-ir
In the numerator, the descent of each developed factor
dimensions in each term for
is
by two
-f
Qb by
(z
Now
n
- b
is z
z-')
m-
l mz
m - zl
m
+ 2 mz -V* -
......
we multiply Ka + La*' b + Jf*'V +

or by a + 6, we have as results,
if
1
....
Paft*'
shortest way of doing this is by writing down the coefficients

K, L, &c. in a row, and under them -ZT+0, -E + JT, &c. In this
manner we may rapidly make the multiplications, and in either
The
by coefficients from (z - z" )" ,

and successive multiplications by z 4 z" or by coefficients from
- a"
As to the rest,
(z + z" )" and successive multiplications by z
of two mutually verificatory ways
the final divisor will be 2"''
for a 2 (and >J-l,tf there) will be
taken up in the reconversion of

if
if
odd-odd,
it is
be even-even, (7-1)'"
1,
it
is
and the
V~
1>
result
is
anc^ the result

is,
we may
in negative sines.
is
is
in sines
And
in cosines;
if
odd-even,
And
even-odd,
it is
<J- 1,
and
the conclusion begins with
this
occur, there
mentioned
is
say, in negative cosines, the
if
is
result
angle diminishes by 29 at each step. But

distinct having z", so that the 2 just
not taken up in forming cos 09, and must therefore
(w + n)0 and
if z
and the
1,
sign of each term being changed
the result
into cosine or sine.
z""
z"'
is
no term
be used in denoting the coefficient or only half the coefficient in

5
6
the result must be used. As an instance, I shall take sin # cos 0,
;
in
which,
if
we work both ways
during the process
all
that
is
for verification,
wanting
we
shall pick
for finding
up
sin'"0 cos'0,
THE UNEXPLAINED SYMBOL
</-!.
51
any value of m not exceeding 5, and sin cos"0, for any value
of n not exceeding 6. The conclusion which each step prepares
us for is written in abbreviation at the commencement.
5
for
c6
INTRODUCTION OF
52
becomes <p(xz) +
cases, it obviously
then
It is
<p(xz~*).
H00rs)+0(*z-')},
which can be reduced to a
a sin 00 +
real form.
+ a^y? sin 20 +
ctjX sin
Similarly
is
...
{0 (xz)
(xz'
)}
-f-
^-
Before proceeding to some examples, it will be worth while

(seeing before us a field of such extent as the applying the
summation of any algebraical series to the summation of one
which the terms are severally multiplied by the sine or cosine
in
of the multiple of an angle), to consider the transformation of

(xz)
and
<fi(xz' ).
Let there be a function of â which, if *Ja had only one value,

would itself have only one value. This restriction of value may
be, if
we
shT'i.
for instance, sin~'5
are wholly unaffected
function of
show
such
is
x + y^/-l,
P+ Q <J-1,
or are rea l
x'
remembered, that any
+ y'^-l, &c., can always be reduced to
which
in
Q are wholly independent

In the second book I shall
and
quantities.
independently of all particular cases

must be content with induction. The proposition
this
we look
is
;
clear
and
enough
also
at its reduction to multiplication
x-y^-l
we
at present
of sums, differences, and products, however varied

division enters, if
-/ a into
by the change of
V F(- V) must be P - Q.â.

Now it is a proposition to be carefully
of V~l>
â
and
the form
we
suppose ourselves restricted to one value of

+ Q Ja,
then, F(*Ja) can be thrown into the form
if
If,
where
conventional
please,
a function,
when
by
y
'
As
to powers,
for in this
e"
for
lo e
'-*
e'^
we
we can
thus reduce the form (x +

p+ *'
see (re*''
>
p
cos (q log r + p0) + e
'
we have
e*
cosy +
or
lo * r - q9
sin (q log
sin
y.-J-l
for
+ pO)
V~l
log (x + y <J-\)
we have
If
we extend our notion
ponential forms in
p.
42 as
of cosine and sine, taking the exdefinitions,
we have
(x+y V-l) =
sin
1 -*
{e"-
l {e
^
.
sin
a;
cos
x y-1
.
We may reduce
If,
cos (# + y -/-I) and tan (a: + y V~l) ^ n like manner.

with alike extension, we take siiT'^ + y V~l)i we may make
the reductions as follows
-0^/-l = log(cos0-sm0.^-l),
sin'
sin'
(a:
= V-1. log (cos0- sin0. V-l),
= V-l . log (V(l
a;
+ y V~l) = V~*
-*)-* V~l}.
lo g (V(l - ** + y* - 2*y V~l) - * V~l +
the second side of which,
y}.
processes, can be reduced
by preceding
as required.
in every case, <p(x +
If,
y V~l) can be reduced
to
P and Q are real, then, by our first remark,

can be reduced to P - Q V~l> whence
in
which
P + QV~1>
ff)(x-y V~l)
|{0O+y V-l)+0(*-yV-l)} and JV-1 {0(*+y V-l)-0(*-W-l)}

are real, being
and - Q.
"We have now to consider

cos0 + x
(a;
sin6>
<fi(xz)
and 0(s" ), or
(* cos^
V~l) an d
A few principal examples will here be sufficient.

Let
<j>x
(1
+ x}
n
,
the w' h power of which

rt
(l+2a; cos 0+
sxin
2
)3"
f
<i
is
.
cos
n tan
(a;z)
+
2
yv
a;
sin
sin Q
,
1
(tfz" )
'
,,
= (1
4-
- <& (xz~ l ')

.,
= (1
+
Q ,,
2
V-l
d> (xz)
2x cos
_
2a;
and these are the expressions

2
cos0 +
a;
2t
cos
- + sm n tan'
. V~l
4
v
l+a:cos0
l+a;cos0~
+ a;*)*" cos n tan

_
cos
,.j
n
2
5"
-f a; )
sin
n tan'
a;
'
-)-
sine
T
\
>
cos
sin
a;
+ x cos
for
20+
...,
nx sin0 + w
a;*
sin 20 +
F3
...
INTRODUCTION OF
54
The
verification of such results will
Now
cos 2 tan" 1 a =cos* tan" 1
The
S1 "
+ 2* cos
+ x cos 9
1
tan" a =
+ x* cos 20.
(1-tan
a)
+ (l + tan*
a).
then
is
and change x into - #. Show that cos (- tan" - o)

a + V(l + a*)> an l
)j and that sin {- tan" (- a)} is
1
1,
s
-i/(l
a- sin*
side of the above
first
Let n = is
8
+ x ) cos 2 tan"
2* cos
(1 +
For
be useful practice.
asserted above that
it is
instance,
then show that the above expressions give
1 - x cos 9
=
- 2x cos + x*
- =
1 -
a;
cos
s
8
+ z cos 20 + x cos 30 +
sin
-f
2x cos 9 + #8
x3
Verify these by the whole method,
show the
being
(fix
+ (1 -
...
Also
x).
following,
, Cos6
C(lStf
e*
^c
e*
20 + a? cos 30 +
sin
...
cos
cosff
C(IS(/
sin 0) = 1 +
(a;
sin
/i\
sm
(a;
0)
x* cos
x cos
^sn
i
sin
20
-+
-f
y? cos
30
Z.O
- +
...,
20
- +
Let 0o; = log (1

log (1
+ x
-f
+ x
cos
-l og
z
|log(l+2a: cos 0+a;
Then
x).
sin
V~l)
(1
.2,
cos
= ^ cos0-
cos
20+
2i
tan"
If
there
be
a;
is
sin
+ x cos
>-
and <+
series,
which
of
It
it
all
-- sin 20+ x
a;
1,
-4
x*
sm 30 -.
cos 40+...,
sin 40+...
both these series are convergent, and
in the first: but there
is
in the second.
when
convergent, has one definite value

the values which the first side may bear?
must be the angle which
when x
cos 30
no ambiguity
The second
is
sm
=x
+ tan-
lies
between -
\TT
and +
\TT
for
passes from negative to positive through 0, the series
does the same.
When x
is
greater than unity, these series
become divergent,

and the student should avoid founding
series,
as the
of
question
their
results
upon divergent
is
legitimacy
65
disputed upon
grounds to which no answer commanding anything like general

assent has yet been given. But they may be used as means of
discovery, provided that their results be verified by other means
before they are considered as established.
If
x=
we have
1,
/.
cos
log
6\
cos 29
O
-)
(2
29
sin
and 6 must, in the second,
vergency
is
by 9
sin
and +
ir
49
These
TT.
series
they are convergent, but their cou-
Their extreme cases often
we
If
algebraical peculiarity.
second
39
sin
not easily established.
present some
of the
cos 49
between -
lie
belong to a peculiar class
cos 39
divide
and diminish 9 without
both sides
we have
limit,
J = l-l + l-l-... (Algebra, p. 197). This is not the place, nor

even the work, in which to discuss the peculiar character of
these series.
Let 9 =
The
ir.
first
of the equations becomes

+ z
Mog (1
as well
4
iz +
. .
But the second becomes
known.
tan"
x-x-
2C
series,
~ Ou? +
Off
o
a remarkable
l-r
both for
its
simplicity,
and
for
the
use
has been put. It is convergent when x > - 1, and

not > + 1; and thus may be made effective when tan" a; > - -JTT,
to
which
it
and not >
When x =
$TT.
TT
4
being the
first
But
=1
1,
*=
111
-3
calculable
tan"
5-7
form
in
JTT,
we have
...... '
which
TT
has been directly
this series,
though convergent, is very slowly

and
would require that we should cal(Algebra, page 184)
culate 500 terms before we could be sure of three decimal places.
presented.
so,
The following
is
more convergent, derived from ^
111111
INTRODUCTION OF
56
But
it is
best to resolve
TT
or
some known
fraction of
two or more angles whose tangents are known.

^ = $TT,
tan-'i + tan-
it,
into
Thus,
(page 39), gives
+
2
!_!/!_3 + 1\
3
3 \2
+ 1/1.5 +
5 \2
i\_
3V
"Write
which may be easily calculated, as follows.
for
and $ (divide by 4 and 9 at every step)
:
p =
p =
9
-00195312500
= -33333333333
q = -03703703704
= -00411522634
q*
7
q = -00045724737
g
q = -00005080526
11
-00048828125
13
-00012207031
= -00000062723
n = -00000006969
-50000000000
-12500000000
p* = -03125000000
-00781250000
p =
p =
p =
p =
1
p" = -00003051758
p" = -00000762940
M
p =
n
p =
K
p =
p* =
-00000190735
-00000047684
n = -00000564503
}3
q" = -00000000774
q" = -00000000086
q" = -00000000009
-00000011921
-00000002980
p" = -00000000745
p* = -00000000186
31
p = -00000000047
33
p = -00000000012
p* = -00000000003
3
Now
be denoted by r n .
(p + q") 4r t = -83333333333
let
p and

The
series for tan~
x may be
number of forms which may
57
deduced from one among
easily
best be considered together
as
follows.
We have seen a remarkable connexion between exponential*

forms on the one hand, and trigonometrical forms on the other.
Every trigonometrical function has an imaginary exponential one
for its equivalent,
and every exponential function an imaginary

Many imaginary forms of one kind are real
trigonometrical one.
ones of the other; and the following is such recapitulation and

addition as will put all the most useful transformations together.
sin 9
=
2 V-l
__
COS0 =
ton
f)
_
-
sin'
a;
cos-'x
e-*"-
'
e^TT
= Iog(cos0 - sin6>.V-l).V-l = - Iog(cos0 + sin&

= log{V(l - **) -x^-\}^-\ = - log(V(l - x*) + x*
2
2
=
+ V(^ V( - 1 )}. V- 1 = log [x
1 )}
log {x
=
log {x + V(*' + 1)1
Sin
= cos (zV-1) -
Many
_
~
sin 0. V-l
-^^V-i
e*
__
1
V-l e^' +
V-l
2 = cos-'^V
log {x + V(*
1)}
+ tan0.V-l
l-tan0.V-l
+ X\/-\
sin (ar^-l
)V-1,
log a;
= 2^-1
tan' 1
\l +
a?
of these transformations are hardly ever used in operation
but unless the student has them before his mind, he

often
V- 1
at a loss to see the connexion of results
will
which stand
be
in
the closest relation.
The multiplicity of value of logo; (or rather \x, which might

have been used throughout, as in page 47) is closely connected
with that of sin"' x, &c. But the connexion was not
very soon
*
Exponential;
for the logarithm
of the exponential one.
is
only the inverse function
INTRODUCTION OF
58
noticed: and the following

tan" 1 a;
was consequently
mode
of investigating the series for
faulty.
Take the logarithm of both
sides of e
-l
+ tan
-
a result evidently absurd, for while the

to oo
side increases
from
the second side goes through recurring periods.
For
first
taking periods of convergency, while

passes from
2?r - ^TT to 2?r + -J-7T, the series repeats itself for the period
- ^TT to JTT. The error lies here,
during which 9 passes from
instance,
2 ""'" 1
not any logarithm we please of e

some one logarithm; some one case of 20<J-1 + 2i7T/-l.
2{tan0.i/-l +
...}
is
but
When
LB
LA
= B, therefore
=
(page 48) we are correct
only (except in the case of one isolated relation between the
we say
real
and imaginary parts of A and B) on the supposition that

the same system, and pair the proper logarithms of
we take
and
in that system.
(any given logarithim of
And
the equation
A=B
only gives
A) = (the proper logarithm of
in the
same system). If we do not know the proper logarithm of B,

we must take the general case, and let the conditions of the
problem determine its specific meaning.
Accordingly, instead
of 20V-1, we must write 26V- 1 4- 2rmr\/-\, and thus we have
which can be made true; and

or negative, as will
The following
make
+ rmr
must be such
fall
investigation requires
theory of equations
supposes a student
and the
rest
integer, positive
between -
TT and + \ TT.
one theorem from the
of this chapter,
who has read more than
is
generally
supposed
in
what precedes.
- e^' 1 and x - e"^" 1 ;
Multiply together the two factors x
have x* 2cos#.a: + 1.
Or thus, x - cosO - sin0.V-l and
we
x - cos0 + sin0.V-l, give the product
x* - 2 cos 9.x +
1.
xn +
*c
is
satisfied
Now
(x
cos#)* + sin*0,
observe that
= 2 cos20,
or
- 2*n cos20 + 1 =
0,
by
+ x' = 2 cos(20 v n),

1
or x*
- 2 cos
26
.x
0,
or

or the roots of the second equation are
26 be changed
If
first.
among
the roots of the
20 + 2^, no change
into
made
is
/20
+
equation, and the second becomes a? 2 cos
first
59
27T\
the roots of which are therefore
Now
x* -
two equations
a root in
or x =
common
ax +
for then
we go
the second degree,
the roots of the
among
x* - bx +
0,
we have obtained n
we have got 2n distinct roots
all.
all
values of x,
- 2 cos20.xn +
l,
\n
z*-2 cos0.a:+
\n
*
A
*l
*\
t
in ^=48in*-.4sin'(- + -
2 (1
is
a .4sm *l
+
n]
\n
-cos0) or 4
smG=
On
the
first
and
second and
the
last,
is
sin
- +
\n
...
but one, &c.
last
But
if
be odd, this pairing will leave one in the middle, and

being odd, the middle number is %n, whence the middle
factor
as
'
(6
(n-l)7T\
sin - + i
n
\n
/
.
sines.
- 1
n-
sin
7T\
so that
2 ""\
*l
(n-l)ir\
'
]...4sm* - + }.
n )
n
\n
/
- sm
- + 27T\
+ - sm (0
n
\n
\n
n)
n/
(0
-
^-,
the second side there are n sines, or, exclusive of the first,
If n - 1 be an even number we may pair these,
n -I
2"
sin
Extract the square root of both sides, and divide by 2

'
have, for
(n-l)27r\
-\
2 cos (20 + -}jf+l>.
<x*I
When
for the first
......
x=
equations of
we
Consequently, by the theory of equations,
of
first.
cannot have
0,
until
on,
= 0.
would be determined by ax = bx,

and there can be no such root.
it
would give the root
If therefore
,x + 1
\n
in the
is
or cos -
diminished without
f
sin < TT
I
the last but one
is,
2n/
--
- I"
\n
which, observe, approaches unity
Moreover, the
limit.
6 \\
-
or
>
similarly, sin
\n
--n
ing just alluded to gives
---e \
sm ("
n/j
},
n/
last
one
is
n)
&c.
Hence the
pair-
INTRODUCTION OF
60
6
sm0=2'M sm.
ITT
- + 6\
-
sin
\n
nj
the
last,
ITT
0\
\n
n/
sin
sm [lir + Q\
.
llir
sin
n/
0\
-
...
n/
factors in
all,
a single one, being cos
Divide both sides by sin (0
odd.
limit.
The
limit of the first side
sin#-sinsin
TT
4-
i 5)
ITT
sm2
.
.
sin
n-
be
ornxl4-l,
n/
.
one for each
Now
has the limit unity.
22
- cos
= (sin a + sin It)
a -I
-
pair,
observe that
22
a+b
a-b
n .
2 sin
cos
- sin
6)
(sin a
Substitute from this theorem, divide
we
4-
sin
sm (a - o) = 2,.
if
and diminish 6 without
3?r
n), if there,
then that of
and cos (0
sm (a
'
n},
is
x (sin#4-0)4- (sin-
or
n=2
4-
= sin2 a - sin 2 b.
sin0 above by n, and
have, dividing both sides by 6, and transferring n,
n
with the factor cos (0
second side
4-
always
we increase n without
sin
n) at the end if
sin<?
is
Sin
sin
n
(see p. 18).
This
is
8
(
ATT
If then
3
nl
*>
or
sin
0,
we
'
be odd.
.,
,.
.,
This
be.
If
0*
has the limit -^- 2
increase n without limit,
Whatever
may
we have
be, the successive factors
approach to unity, and therefore produce

large
a remarkable converging product from which sin#
might be calculated.
n -
however great n may
limit,
n
2
4-
number
= kw, and we
less
and
less
of factors will give a close approximation.

have the convenient form
effect.
Let
77-3153563
TT
it.
64
36
16
'
100
"
'
'
15' 35
63
"99
of approximating to the
proceeds too slowly for that purpose, but
we take n
If
another.
_ 4
~
mode
This was once suggested as a

value of
a-
~2'4'16'36'64'"
we
factors,
answers
it
the numerator the
in
see
square of the product of the first n even numbers, but not the
corresponding square of the product of odd numbers in the de-
One odd number more is repeated once

we have 3.15.35 or
nominator.
the larger n
Accordingly,
thus in
the denominator, taking 3 factors,
made, the more nearly
is
1 .3 .5 .7.
is
this
equation true,
2n
/2.4.6...
(l.8.6...2n-ir
,.7r
2
(2n + 1)
In
2.4...
i
1.3...2n-l=
for (w-f|)7r
and mr have nearly the same square
very great.
This, in
mean
that
it
common language, is true

may be made as nearly true
V(M7r) '
roots, if
n be
if
we
as
n be
infinite
please,
if
n be large enough.
were absolutely true,
If this last equation
next one would
this
follow, as I shall show,
But
as
the premise
it
let
0n be
is
only approaches
1.2.3...
We have then
nf
1.3.5
Dividing,
as
1.2.3...
increases,
n = n"<fon,
or
".
1.2.3.4
truth
Assume
also with the conclusion.
so
to
...
............
2n = (2n)2n
2n =
..... 2n -
(2n),
2V0n.
= (2)"
<f>n
2.4.6...
Dmdmg
again,
Hence we
/?i
0(2)
get
viô
standing for <jm
then
2w
^^^^
-f
(Yrw)"
Consequently, Y'"
is
= (0n)
((fmf
= V(njr)
or
/(2n) =
>
Let (/)" be i^,

and (f 2)* = (fn)s " or ^ 2
V(2w).
either
a constant,
or
if
y-
a function of
INTRODUCTION OF
62
when n
does not change
changed into
is
%TT
or any function of
(lo2T
log
except an inverse trigonometrical one.
If,
n increases very little when n

For and about one large value of
a constant; and, assuming
it
it
2/
great, log
units.
Such functions
In.
M\
is
n, tyn is
we
constant,
however, n be very
increased by a few
then nearly
be able to show
shall
way of determining that constant gives the same thing,

whatever the value of n may be. But this assumption of ^n
that the
= constant, say c, renders the proof imperfect, and a more perfect one is beyond those who may be expected to read this
work. Take tyn = c, then
fn = c", $n = V( 27
For n write n +
1,
and
c ">
= V( 27r
i- 2 - 3
and divide by the former
result,
<>""
which gives
n
..
^(wn)
be very great,
If
...
n =
would give
this
= e"
(Algebra, p. 225), or c
1.2.3
1\
= \l//.1 + .c.
^(l-n-n)
/.
l\
+ -
x c x e very nearly
so that
e""
n" nearly, as asserted.
This formula succeeds very well, on
and the
trial,
first
side
found greater than the second in about the proportion of

12w + 1 to 12;?.
is
Returning now to the form

2k, and we have
But
sin for
for
= &7r
sin&/7-
(1
)...,
/..
4&*\
/,,
T)
for
k write
JX
\1
_)(!-_)...
a corresponding expression for the cosine. From these factorial
expressions it is in our power to find series for the logarithms of
trigonometrical functions.
Let
Sn
r" + 2-"4-3-" +
It
is
easily seen that
Sn = Ior
1-"
...
ad
inf.
2-"
we have
5^ +
+ 2^
3-'
3^ + 5^ + 7^ +
represent the series
4-"
...
...
{1
+
(1
3-"
2-")
Sn
+
.
..}
THE UNEXPLAINED SYMBOL V

Values of
Expand
= log
k-n-
+ log (1 -
k^ =
- SJc2 log kir
convergent when
is
St
method
log cos
k^ = -
--
7c \
...
and we have
first,
k6
ks
. . .
need never be greater.

and we have
Apply
to the expression for cos kir,

(2*
1)
SJP
convergent when k is
From these series we get
which
k*
+ log
k<\, and very convergent when k < -J,
and, for purposes of calculation, it

the same
is
(2
less
1)
than
-y2t
(2
- 1) flUr o
It will
= logA7r+(28
-2)^
T(2
...,
logtanA;7r
Dif-
k*)
the several logarithms, after the
log sin
which
JCTT
my
in
Now
ferential Calculus, p. 554.
log sin
may be found
a sufficient extent
S, t to
63
-1.
-2)^|
+(2 -2)
...
be observed, that &,-!, S^-l, &c. diminish very rapidly.

advantage of this by throwing the series into the form
We take
log sin
k-n-
"We have seen that trigonometrical language affords a brief

of expressing, in language derived from obvious geome-
mode
The following
trical ideas, complicated algebraical relations.

a striking instance:
#
#
= 2 cos - sin.
sin
a;
sin
x - 2"
=2 cos
- cos -
sin
xl
- n
(2 cos
cos
xl n
x I
x
-(2 cos -...1 2 cos
cos
cos
. . .
cos
is
sin
Increase n without limit, and

sin
a;
x
x
x
x
x
= cos - cos - cos - cos
cos
>lu
4
o
Let x = %7r, and show that

of the following,
2
= V2 V(2 + V2)
v~
...
ad
inf.
this
is
then only an abbreviated form
INTRODUCTION OF
64
The student who
is acquainted with the theory of equations

enabled to express the logarithmic series in another form.
The rest of this chapter is briefly given, and may be looked on
may be
as a succession of exercises.
that sin ATT
is
It appears
formed from
TT,
4-
. . .
may be
con-
equation of infinite dimension whose roots are
sidered as an
TT,
manner of
radical factors after the
its
an algebraical expression, so that
from
27T,
Write k
&c.
2?r,
A+
k*
2^3
for
+
2.3.4.5.6.7
2
Tr
k*
2.3.4.5
an equation whose roots are

get the following theorems
k2 and we have in
...
Hence we
* P.m*.n*
2.3.4.5.6.7
(27r)
(3/T-)
easily
m .w
2
2.3'
where in 2(1
-f
2.3.4.5'
P.m*.ns ), we understand that there
is
,&c.
a term of
the series for every possible combination of a product of three

different integers.
And by the known theorem for the reciprocals
of powers of roots of an equation,
Vl
~23
and so
and so
~2i
21-
Now Vn
on.
denoted by
is
3,
b,
will
'
2.3.4.5.6*42'
2 1.2.3... 2
R-i
*5~41!' -"7~"30>
*J
"-'
- i xn-ooj. R -i
~66> 'll~273O) -"l3~~6
be found by continuing the above process. These

to follow no law, which exhibited as rational
numbers appear
;
2T77
&c., so that
n_i_i
P-i
3~3Oi x
fractions
27^5
S^TT^" (page 62), and the fractions
*"~
which
+
2^3
standing for
which are called Bernoulli's numbers, and are
B v JB
JJ
2.3.4 '30'
1.2'6'
belong to a set
all
^~
'
2. 3.4.5
Vn
have,
Calculation of a few of these results will give
on.
F2
'
we
but when exhibited under a law, as in

1.2.3.. .2n
fill

it
60
would be thought very unlikely that they should be
rational
fractions.
Substitution, and writing
for
2B
logsma; = losx-
JCTT,
21B
a:
x"
1.2.3.4.5.6 3
1.2.3.4 2
----- - -- - 4
gives
3
-
1.2
logcosa;
now
2
(2
1.2
~ 1)21B x4
S
-
(2
*
1.2.3.4
-l)2
'
J9 5
1.2.3.4.5.6 3
Next,
we have
log cos (a;
A)
-f
= log (cos A - tana;,
log cos re
sin h)
= log cos h + log(l - tana; tanA),

.
log sin (a;
A)
-f-
= log (cos A
log sin a;
= log cosh + log(l +
From
the series
limit with h.
log(l +
has
P tan A)
it is
for its limit
obvious that log cos A
it is
Also
cota:
h,
4-
cot a:
sin h)
tank).
-f
h diminishes without
easily deduced from page 17, that

or P(tanA + A) - (P2 tan% v 2A) +
when
diminished without
is
limit.
..
Hence,
tana: and
by h, the limits are
cota:.
Perform the same process on each term of the series for
log cos a: and logsina;: that is, change x into x + k; subtract the
dividing the preceding equations
term unaltered, and divide by

thus deduce the equations
cota:
retaining only the limit;
h,
1.2
1.2.3.4
3
a;
a;
2a:
a:
45
945
1.2.3.4.5.6
2x9
4725
3
93555
"
1,2.3.4
1.2
17a:
315
15
p*V-l
_(_
1.2.3.4.5.6
62*9
2835
p-*V-l
Take
and thence, writing -x\j-\
-
for
a:,
show that
2.3.4
2.3.4.5.6
63
and
CHAPTER
VI.
ON THE CONNEXION OF COMMON AND HYPERBOLIC

TRIGONOMETRY.
THE
system of trigonometry, from the
moment
that -J- 1
is
introduced, always presents an incomplete and one-sided appearance, unless the student have in his
it is
rarely or never
wanted
for
what
mind
is
for
comparison (though
called use),, another system
which the there-called sines and cosines are real algebraical

This other system will serve to explain the connexion
quantities.
in
between logarithmic and trigonometrical functions.

In the ordinary system, a given revolving line, of a unit length,
has one extremity in a circle and on that circle every radius has
;
its
projections connected
take
all
by the equation
x*
-f
1
y =
1.
Suppose we
possible points so placed that the projections of their
values of r are connected
by the equation x*-y*= 1.
Those points
that are in a curve of the
following form, called the

curve
equilateral hyperbola, (a
corresponding, among hyperbolas,
to the circle among ellipses
in fact the circle ought to be called
are
all
the equilateral
ellipse).
The two
lines
towards which the branches
of the curve approach without end, but which they never meet
COMMON AND HYPERBOLIC TRIGONOMETRY.

(called asymptotes), are at right angles to each other,
between the principal axes. From any point

= v,
pendicular to an asymptote. Let
x = v cos 45
easily seen that
y = v
sin
-f
cos 45 = f
- \ \J1 (v - w)
+ w)* - \(v - wf =
w sin 45
45 -
i-
(v
and midway
draw
KP = w.
OK
V2
67
PK
per-
Then
it
is
+ w), and that
whence
or
Ivw =
1.
Now
it,
take one of the asymptotes and the curve that falls above
and take two portions of the area standing on bases which are
to one another as their initial distances from the centre

let
OK KL
n equal
into
parts,
??*
th
But
rectangle
is
-^
sum
of
rect-
each subdivision
is
2 (v +
r
)
and the area of the
m th
all
rectangle of the
is
all
the same as in the
first is
first
equal to that of the second
the rectangles of the
first
is
last,
LQ
without
equal to the
KPQL
the rectangles of the second. Now the area

of the rectangles, and of curvilinear triangles
put together,
subdivision of
over
m th
there-
composed
these
the
is
and the sum of
is
is,
KL, K'L'
from the centre, so that the altitude
in the second area
fore the
that
in the figure.
rectangle
and draw perpendiculars and inscribed
subdivision ends at v +
of the
Divide each of the bases
K'L'.
KP = w, KL = t;
OK=v,
Let
manner shewn
angles in the
?n th
OK
::
KL
limit,
the
sum
is,
short of a rectangle having the
for its base,
for its altitude.
without limit: that
fall
and the fixed excess of
KP
Therefore, as the subdivision diminishes

of the curvilinear triangles
the curvilinear area
is
diminishes
the limit of the
ON THE CONNEXION OF COMMON
68
sum
And
of the rectangles.
as the limits of equal quantities
KPQL
are equal, the curvilinear areas
The area
Next,
KPQL,
OK
be A, and
ADKP
equal to
APDK (A
the area
v, let
being
in the first figure)
QLEF
and K'P'OJL are equal.

OL and OK.
then, depends only on the ratio of
let v
A) and
(or
ADLQ
let
A + B. Then, ADKP and

we have OD OK OL OK
Let OZ) = n, and this is m <pA
0J?
that
ADEF
::
or w =
^^
me 4 whence
c,
whence (Algebra
equal,
observe that
if
Also,
or
= me*
04
p. 204),
determined.
m = |V2.
whence
To determine
(A + 5),
: :
c is to be
/_AOD = 45,
so
B;
be
QZ.EF being
is
being the vertex
Put on an area
(A).
OA
1,
and
Hence ^=(logw- log|V2)-^ log c.

we increase v by h, the increase
and a curvilinear
of the area consists of a rectangle
triangle
and, h diminishing without limit, the ratio of the curvilinear

without limit. So that the
triangle to the rectangle diminishes
ratio (increase of curvilinear area
limit unity.
Now
-f-
inscribed rectangle) has the
the increase of the area
log(o+A)-logV2
v - log
_ log
h/2
is
J_
or
and the area of the rectangle
the ratio therefore
+
2(v
*-=
is
is
2 (v + h)
1
h)
2 u2
log c \v
h\
v/
h1
(h
.=
ft
bw
logc
logc
logc
+ ...,
/
and the limit of this is 2 -f log c, which must be 1 therefore

The logarithms used
logc = 2, Accordingly A = %\og(-j2.v).
;
as is always supposed when nothing to the contrary is

and they
mentioned, the Naperian, or hyperbolic logarithms
got the second name from their connexion with the hyperbola,
are,
the fact that
all
other systems are equally connected with the
hyperbola not being seen when the name was given.

We can now find the curvilinear area APN.
DKPNA
and
or
is
is
made up
of the rectilinear areas
DK (DA + KP)
therefore
(v
-]
i\/2)
V2
(v
v'2
w)
4-
tc)
ÂN.PN;
+
l-(x
\xy
The area
DKPA and APN,

l)y
y=
xy
AND HYPERBOLIC TRIGONOMETRY.

since
2vw =
1,
and \ \;2
(v
to)
That
y.
ONP,
DKPNA
APN,
and there remains the sector
(Hog
S=
I-
x+y=
e'"'
= 2S.
or
we
0,
But now,
in the hyperbola,
x and y
we choose
not
:1
to call the
numbers representing
have,
number of square
2$
(which
being
c"
4.
c"
Sin6>
may be deduced
it
ti
c~"
Cos6>=-^
words sine and
letters in the
this
we
derived from an angle), and the difference of system
being marked by capital
From
1,
x = cos0, y = sin#,
the hyperbolic cosine and sine of the
now
being
_-2,$V-l
JJ.SV-1
y=
'
be the area of
radius
66
~2V
_-2,$V-l
units in twice the sectorial area;

is
1)}-
if
(r being =1),
4-6
2
If,
e'~
the
have,
and we have
,-S-J-l
and
to the circle,
is
angle
V(X -
we now turn back
x-y
DKPA
and we have
= i log (z +
log (x + y)
log (V2.o) =
the sector whose
and the area
APO,
Call the former S,
Accordingly we have
If
the rectilinear areas
is,
take from both the curvilinear area
are equal;
(V2.v)}, equal.
69
p~"
"
cosine,
O
c"
p~"
that in order to convert a formula
trigonometry into one of hyperbolic trigonometry,

when no inverse functions enter, we have but to change cos#
of
circular
into Cos#,
and sin0 into V-l Sin0.
of the results
Cos 2 6> - Sin8
Cos2
~
2
Si n "0
2
+ Sin ^ = Cos 20,
Cos"0 =
-^
Z
The following
are a few
Cos (0
9)
= Cos0 Cos0 + Sin0 Sin0
Sin (0
0)
= Sin0 CosO
- 2) Q + n
(Cosn(9 + nCos(n
(_
{CosnO + nCos(w 2)9 +
Sin"0=-^ {Sin0
4-
M Sin (w- 2)0
i-
^- Cos(
2
Cos0 Sin6
- 4)0 + ..A
...... }
(n even)
...... }
(n odd)
COMMON AND HYPERBOLIC TRIGONOMETRY.
70
This
to illustrate the analogy
is sufficient
which
the two systems.
The advanced student may
connexion
conjugate
in
of
the
we now take
tan#=-
five
with the trigonometry

2
Sin*0 - Cos 6> = 1.
hyperbola
which the fundamental equation

If
between
exists
investigate the
is
independent equations from page 11, say
tan#cot0 =
COS0
cos
sin0 cosecfl =
cos0sec<?=l,
l,
sin
1,
it is plain that the first four may be considered as equations

of definition or introduction for tan#, cot6>, sec#, cosec6>; and
speaking of
that,
its
is
operations merely, trigonometry
ment of the equation #2 +
1.
Now
the treat-
as this equation
might
be supposed to arise from many different sources, it may be
worth while to inquire how much of what precedes is due to
this form, and how much to the application of this form to the
or to angular revolution.
circle,
If
/*
we take
the two following equations,
we
are not
we take
And
one,
bound
to
we must
we
of sin
and cos
on the meaning of
by assuming
y?
-f
y*
but
accept the other, as will appear on
then we shall find that
follow, as soon as
2V-1
either,
all
if
trial.
the direct formulae of trigonometry
require that
x and y
shall take the
names
the inverse forms depend in some measure

a.
Let a take the form
regain the application of angular revolution.
v~
,
and we then
CHAPTER
VII.
ON THE TRIGONOMETRICAL TABLES.
THE
usual trigonometrical tables are given in conjunction with
tables of logarithms
and they more frequently give logarithms

When logarithms were in-
only than cosines, &c. themselves.
vented, they were called artificial numbers
and the
originals,
which logarithms were computed, were accordingly called

natural numbers. Thus, in speaking of a table of sines, to exfor
press that
it is
not the logarithms of sines which are given, but

would be called a table of natural
sines themselves, that table

sines
of
and the logarithms of these would be
sines,
but logarithmic*
called,
not logarithms
sines.
All trigonometrical tables with which the student
is
likely to
meet, natural or logarithmic, are constructed as follows

1. They include only the first right angle, or from
to 90.
or sin 6 in the
If cos 96 be wanted, - sin 6 must be found
:
table
must have
sign changed.
If cos 96
be wanted in mul-
must be used, and the
&c., the logarithm of sin 6
tiplication,
effect of
its
the negative sign must be properly attended to in
tlie
final result.
always what may be called semi-quaonly as far as 45, and that for the
remaining half of the right angle is seen by turning the table
upside down, or reading from the bottom of the page instead
2.
The arrangement
drantal:
of the top.
in
is
page
is
the table goes
There
17, in
is
which
an imitation of
y'3,
which
is
this
in the
both cos 30
arrangement
and sin 60,
read as the former by the top and the right, as the latter by
left.
Open the table so as to get tangent
the bottom and the
* This leads to confusion in the minds of

students, who learn
some notion of mysterious identity between a number or fraction
and its logarithm and write down '30103 = 2. The phrase is as incorrect as royal country would be for king of the country, or con;
stabulary pariah for constable of the parish.
72
of 37
15',
and there
be seen, reading from the top and downbut reading from the bottom and
will
wards, tangent of 37
15';
upwards, cotangent of 52 45'. It would perhaps have been better

the sines had run on to 90, and then all the cosines W ould have
if
been
in reverse readings
but the present mode
is
too firmly estab-
lished to be shaken.
In consulting the table inversely, for example, in searching

which has 9-61723 for the logarithm of its sine,
the student must not distinguish sine from cosine, nor tangent
for the angle
from cotangent, but must consider sines and cosines as one table,
tangents and cotangents as one table, and must cast an eye on
both, and get to 9-61723 as fast as he can.
For want of
some beginners will turn over page

they come to 45, and then back again, perhaps
that was first opened.
after page,
caution,
The trigonometrical
3.
this
until
to the very page
tables in use were constructed on the
system described in page 18, the radius being 10' or ten thousand millions. Hence the logarithm of the radius was 10, and
that of most sines used 9 and a fraction, 8,
7,
and even 6 occurring
towards the beginning or end of some tables.
been altered; and the consequence

the tables
is
sin
is
This has never
that every logarithm in
is too great by ten for us.

For that which we
10 10 of the tables. Hence, in all cases,
Real Logarithm = Tabular Logarithm -
call sin 9,
10.
Thus, where the tables say 9-61628, we must* take out T.61628,
or 9-61628 - 10: where they give 12-61628, we must take 2-61628.
Some
tables only increase
negative
When
and give 9
for 1,
the process
is
by 10 where the
but do not
inverse, the logarithm should be
tabular before entering the table with
angle whose sine
is
characteristics are
alter 0, 1, 2, &c.
2-41729,
made
it.
Thus, for finding the
we should
enter the table with
8-41729.
Many
calculators prefer
to
consider the actual tables as
if
formed upon the fiction of always avoiding negative characteristics

by increasing each of them by 10 and actually use the tables,
making corrections in the results. For myself, I feel assured that
the student should be taught by real logarithms, and left to find his
own way to the other practice, which I much doubt his doing.
;

The
five,
numbers of decimal places
tables* adopt various
Five-figure tables are exact
or seven.
six,
73
usually
enough
for or-
dinary use they may be considered as calculated to give results

within the 10 th part of a minute, or 6". Those for whom five:
figure tables are not sufficient, should
use seven-figure tables
the six-figure tables are best for those
who have much
to
do
which five figures is hardly correct enough.

In every table we use the words argument, interval, function,
and difference. The argument is a technical term for that with
for
which we enter a
and opposite to which we expect
table,
to find
Thus, in one table
the value of a function of that argument.
if we have
angles and the logarithms of their sines are paired
a specimen of either, and want to find the corresponding one of
:
the other kind, that with which

the other
its
function.
The
we
enter
the argument, and
is
interval of the tables
is
the difference
between the successive values of the principal argument, which

values are always equidistant. Usually, one minute is the tabular
interval
of angle
that
is,
the tables
functions (or their logarithms) for
which
I should describe
table being really in
The
(10")
being of the class
two halves, one of which
reading of the other.

scriptions
as
furnish trigonometrical
0, 0!', 02'...1, 11'...2...90:
45,
But there
45;
(!')
the
only the reverse
are tables of the following de(1") 3
45,
(1")
is
(!')
45, &c.
differences of a table are the successive differences of the
functions belonging to the equidistant arguments.
9+
6 +
differences are q - p, r - q,
site to 0,
6 +
h,
2h,
3h,
&c.
we have
p,
Thus,
q,
r,
s,
if
oppo-
&c., the
s - r, &c., and q -p is technically

called the difference of p, r
q the difference of q, &c.
The use of these differences lies in what is technically called
which is the mode of solving this question Given

the tabular function for Q, d + h, 6 + 2 h, &c., required the proper
If the several differences
function for 6 + a given fraction of h.
interpolation,
be equal, or very nearly equal, as
q-p = r-q-s-r,
actly or nearly, the differences only are wanted,
of the differences, &c.
Of ordinary
tables,
may be
neglected.
and the
&c. ex-
differences
In this case we
Hutton's (which have gone through
editions) are the best of seven
many
Farley's, of six figures

Walton), of five figures.
figures
Lalande's (reprinted by Taylor and
may
74
be said to use interpolation of the jirst order

will be wanted here.
The success of interpolation of the

the following theorem
If
(fix
ing upon fix for
sin (x + k)
tan (x
-t-
its
k) = tan
x
(1
when k
(or k at least) are in arcual units
sin
+ cos
x
!
A,
x-
cosec(a;
-t-
small,
sin
+ k) = cotaj-
is
cos (a; + k) = cos
k,
cot(ar
sin
OAH
a;
x+
+ k) = sec
is
0'a; is
establish the following theorems, all nearly true
and the angles
and k a small
x,
(x + k)
very nearly
another function of x, dependform and character. I leave the student to
where
k,
<p/x
this is all that
order depends upon
first
be a function of
quantity, then, for every function of x,
equal to fix +
and
k) = cosec
cos a:
x-
But the second and

is
third are not approximately true when cos a:

nor
the
fifth
and sixth when sin a: is small.
small,
k be a minute or a fraction of a minute, the angle in arcual
units
is
sin (x
-t-
expressed by k sin
sufficiently*
k) = sin
x + cos x
1':
The mode of interpolation is the same

(x + k) = (fix + fix k, very nearly
that
given
and
let
fraction.
tabular difference
it
as to all tables.
interval,
let
Say
h be the tabular
be required to find
(x -f
=
have then
+
0a:
A)
(a;
We
is
and then we have
sin 1'. k, 6cc.
fix. A, very nearly.
/tA),
-f
/t
fix
being a
^, or
the
But fi(x+îh) = fixifi'x.fj.h,
/t x tab. diff. is to be annexed, with its proper sign, to 0a:. Were

not for calling attention to this theorem, which is often wanted,
the interpolation might be more simply explained.
Take the
or
it
18' and 3 19'; we find S'76015 and 8-76234, giving

= -00219: the table calls it 219, implying that thi
number and its results are to be applied in the last places. And
log. sine of 3
tab.
diff.
this difference, or
one very near
it,
runs on.
We may
then oon-
Since small angles, arcually expressed, are very nearly equal

x (arcual expression of one minute) and k sin 1',
to their sines, k
In astroare very nearly the same, if k minutes be a small angle.

nomical books, n sin 1', n sin 1", &c. are very common substitutes
It may be worth while just to notice that, as to
for n n" &c.
trigonometrical functions, it matters nothing how the angles are
expressed: sinl (arcual unit) and sin 57 17' 44" -8. are the same.
.
OX THE TRIGONOMETRICAL TABLES.

sider the last places as
augmenting
Accordingly, for half a minute
at the rate of
we say
75
219 per minute.
ths of a minute
120, for 7-10
And it is very important to notice that sines,

have
positive tabular differences, while co-sines,
tangents, secants,
If we want to find
co-tangents, co-secants, have negative ones.
153,
and so
log cos 81
on.
we must,
13'-6,
for the
augment of
subtract 6-tenths of the tabular difference.
more
causes
the angle.
0'-6 to
Neglect of this caution
error to beginners than anything else in their use
of the tables.
The
of the
state
tabular difference shows what degree
accuracy the tables are prepared to yield.

the
places,
unit in the
smallest
fifth
In a table of
change which the table can indicate
Now
place of decimals.
at sin 3
18',
of
five
is
there are
219 such units in the tabular difference; and each one belongs
to the 219 th part of a minute, about the fourth of a
When
the answer
is
about 3
18',
to be determined
by
second.
its sine,
the problem may be solved by five-figure tables within one 219 th

of a minute. Accordingly, when there is choice, it is best to
go
to those parts of the table at
shun
which the differences are largest
small angles, and sines for angles near to a

Again, at the beginning of the sines, the end of
cosines
for
right angle.
the cosines, and both the beginning and end of the tangents, the
differences change very rapidly, and the differences of the differences
become of importance.
The use of the ordinary
table
is
generally avoided in these cases, and in the following manner.
is
1. Generally speaking, a table of sines with smaller interval

annexed, extending over all or great part of the first degree.
And the tangents and sines are very nearly equal up to half
a degree there is no practical separation.
2. At the end of the tangents, the best way is to use the
tangent of the complement, which is very small, and has very
:
nearly the same logarithm as the sine of the complement. For

instance, I want to find with accuracy to five figures the tangent
of 89 46' -18, using the English reprint of Lalande.
This
is
the
of 13'-82, the tangent of which cannot be distinguished
complement
from its sine.
I
Looking
(tabular interval O'-l).

to O'-l
into the second small table at the end,
7-60360 and 7-60674
find
for 0'-02 I
for
log sin 13' -8 and log sin 13' -9
The tabular
difference
must take 2-10 th * of
is
314, belonging
this, or 63, which
added
76
to the last places of 7-60360, give
This
is
7*60423; or really, 3-60423.
the real logarithm of the cotangent
is
The tangent then
2-39577.
is
that of the tangent
248-74.
I want to find the angle whose tangent is 3174.

Its logarithm
3-50161; that of the tangent (which confound with the sine)
is
of the complement
4-49839
is
in the tables 6-49839.
In the
first
of the small tables appended to the English reprint of Lalande,
6-49175 and 6-49849 (with difference 674) belong to 1'4" and 1'5".
But our unattained part* is 664 and 674 for the whole second
;
gives 664 for 664
the
of
674, or -985 of a second.

is
required
angle
89 58' 55"
4-
then
4" -985,
1'
The complement
or
the
angle
is
-01 5.
Nothing but actual practice can give expertness

I should
of the tables.
recommend a student
to begin
in the use
by
verify-
For instance (page 29) the sum of the

ing some formulae.
tangents of the three angles of a triangle is equal to their product,
since tan 180 = 0.
Choose three angles which make 180, find
the tangents from their logarithms, and add
and
find the natural
number
to that
sum
add the logarithms,
the two results ought
Choose a, b at pleasure, and calculate (a + 6) f (ab - 1).

Find the angles to which these three are tangents: their sum
ought to be 180.
to agree.
On
the construction of trigonometrical tables I shall say no
more than
to show the student that such a thing is possible

without any impracticable amount of calculation. If tables were
now to be constructed, methods derived from the calculus of
which I cannot here describe, would take the place

But even these last are much more
differences,
of those which I mention.
we owe
easy than those to which

If
we
really
wanted
the tables in use.
to find the sine
and cosine of one minute,
which, arcually expressed,

-0002908882, we should easily find
4- 2.3.4.5.6.7 has no
significant figure in the first twenty
decimal places.
If twenty places were enough, the following
is
7
that O
would be quite
sufficient
which I use for the excess of what we want

below it which we can find. Thus if the
tangent of the angle I want to find be 10-37466, and the nearest
This
is
a phrase
to find over the nearest

log.
underneath
it
in the tables
is
10-37461, the unattained part
is 5.
Next, we have
cose + sin0 = Vtcos'e + sin'e + 2 sine cose) = V(l + sin
20),
cose - sin0 = V(cos*e + sin 2 6> - 2 sine cose) = V(l - sin 20),
when e <
we have
both square roots must be taken positively; and
JTT,
cose = | V(l + sin 20) + | vt 1 - sin 26)

sine = f V(l + sin 2e) -
So
the
either
that,
- sin
25)
V(*
cos 9 =
= VI
sin
(1 + cos 20),
- cos
2^).
or cosine of an angle being given.
sine
both the sine and cosine of
half can be
its
found
two
by
extractions of the square root.
Now
we may assume
(page 26)
and cosine of 3, 6, 9,
we have (proceeding
cos
30 =
as directed in
(V3 +
Hence the
sines
be calculated
first,
termined sin
V and
sin (x +
1')
sin
and cosines of
the table
1)
sin
x
2',
(Vo-1) + (V3 +
V2
and cosines of
cos
cos
3',
1'
1',
it
1)
V(5 + V5)
8
the multiples of 3
all
up
now
is
+ cos x
&c.,
Thus
page 26),
sin
cosines,
marked, from the calculus of
may
Having
&c., to calculate the sines
1',
45; which
complete*
from which the tangents, &c.

before
as
introduced,
differences.
above labour might be considerably reduced.
\
0),
tan (45 + 0) = 2 tan 2e + tan (45 - 0),
cosectf =
sec
re-
But even from common
leave the student to prove the following formulae
- sin
(30
de-
possible, by the formulae
to 2700' or
may be calculated by division.

Much shorter methods might be
sin(30+ 0) = cos
with the sine
start
as verifications of the process.
of sines and
formulae, the
we
that
fully expressed for calculation.
tan0 +
*>/
cote,
- fY,
= tane + tan
^45
\
2/
cosece = cote i tan
78
From which we
30
gather that
when
all sines
and cosines up
to
are calculated, the rest can be found, the sines
by simple
by one multiplication only that when
the tangents are found up to 45, the rest can be found by simple
addition and that all the secants and cosecants can be found by
subtraction, the cosines
addition only, from the tangents and cotangents.
The student may

often cited as a
mode
also prove the following formula,
of verifying the tables,
by
which
is
instances selected
at hazard,
cos (36
+ 0) + cos (36 - 6) = cos0 + sin (18 + 0) + sin (18 -
6).
CHAPTER
VIII.
ON THE SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES.

THIS
subject,
trigonometry was
matics,
is
matics.
for the
now
of
which
in
first
in
(and
spherical
trigonometry)
constituted a distinct branch of mathe-
importance in a general course of mathemainly in the finding of convenient formulae
little
It consists
answer to the different cases of the following question

This is called
rest.
:
Given some parts of a triangle, to find the

the solution of a triangle.
But, in truth, the method given
a solution of the problem, but a reduction of
And
it
is
not
to the solution
tables it is
who
solves the right-angled triangle, rather than the user of them.
The
of a right-angled triangle.
the
maker of the
former registers, for every acute angle which consists of an exact
number
of minutes, all the proportions of the sides of a right-
angled triangle which has that angle for one of its angles and
thus gives all the factors necessary to convert any known side
;
into
another before unknown.
The
latter
makes use of the
register, calls himself the sole solver of the triangle,
and learns
an inaccurate conception of what he has been doing.

Let the sides of a triangle contain a, b, c linear units; and
let
the opposite angles, gradually measured, be A, B, C.
be a right angle.
alluded
to, we have
just
first, let
- = sinA =
cosl?,
a = c sinA = c cosB,
cotJB,
a = 6tan-4 = b cot-B,
T = t&nA =
o
By
But the following formulae should be remembered

side
side
in words.
= hypothenuse into sine of opposite angle,

- hypothenuse into cosine of adjacent angle,
side by sine of opposite angle,

=
side
by cosine of adjacent angle,
hypothenuse
= other side into tangent of opposite angle,
side
= other side by tangent of adjacent angle.
side
hypothenuse
And
the formation of the register
80
The following
of solution
Given
are the
cases
which occur, and the formulas
ON THE SOLUTION OF TKIANGLES.

ments, and have the same sines.
,.
bsmA,
or b
Therefore, in all cases,
sin^4
sm
81
or-;
= -
smA
ora:b::sinA:sinB.
smls
one another as the sines of their opposite
Sides, then, are to
The angles then being given (or rather, two of them

being given, and the third found), the proportions of the sides
angles.
are found, being those of the sines.
make
I shall
the fundamental formula from which
this
all
others are deduced, namely
sin
Show
(j).
sinC
sin_B
that each of these three, a -sin A, &c.,
is
the diameter of
found in Euc.
the circle circumscribing the triangle,
IV. 5.
than two right

completions (page 10, note) cannot both be
but supplements can, that is, one may
angles of any triangle
be an angle of one triangle, and the other of another. When,
The angles of a
angles, opponents and
being each
triangle
less
therefore, an angle is determined

is
is
its
by
cosine or tangent, there
but one such angle belonging to the solution but when it

determined by its sine, there are two angles which may belong
:
to the solution;
Now take
that
is,
there
may be two
the expanded form of sin
distinct solutions.
(A + B), square both

2
of the equation, and substitute values for cos ^t
and
sides
cos'jB; this
gives
sin (^4f B) = sin ^4(l - sin
2
=sinM
+ ( 1 - sin ^4 ) sin .B + 2 sin

2
.Z?)
-f
sin !? + 2 sin
A sin.B cos(A
-f
A sin_Z? cos A cosS
),
be the angles of a triangle, we have

=
.5
180 -C, sin (A + ) = sin C, cos(A + B) =- cosC;
+
2
2
whence
sin
cos C;
sin C = &in*A + sin .B - 2 sin
if
A, B,
divide* both sides by

write a +
c,
and
c,
8
sin* C,
for sin
-=
sin
and
sin
B + sin C,
and then multiply by c2 This gives

= a2 + 6s - lab cosC ..................... (2).
.
* This
process supplies the want of a theorem with which the
student ought to be acquainted in its general form.
Prove that
if an equation be homogeneous with respect to a set of letters
p,
q, r,
and p,
and as
&c., that equation remains true if p,

q',
r'
r, &c.
to
r,
&c.
q,
substituted, provided that p'
r,
is
&c. be erased,
to
as
q'
to q,
82
Show
that this proposition
Euclid
II.
the arithmetical representative of
is
and that the introduction of the
12, 13;
distinction
of positive and negative quantity prevents our needing two propositions.
As
page 39, we may express the above thus
in
The formula
- Ma-tysectaiT
a + b
(2)
may be proved
each side of a triangle
two upon
a = b cos
Now
sum
C+ c
cos B, b = c cos
(c cos
Af +
- a cos
(b
C)"
<?
-I-
From
n
C=
cos
C=
2 2
c
(a + J)
-.
'-
b-
+ c =
substitution
cos.g =
2s,
= 2(s-c),
= a cos
B+b
Thus
cos A.
"*
2ab cos
-f
a*.
f~
2ab
(4)
cos
C = (a
+ b +
sin*
c) (a
+ b -
c)
-
4a6
C = (b
-f
- a)
(c + a
4ab
b)
.
then
b +
c-a
= 2(s-a),
+ a - b = 2(s -
b).
we have
-
n .g
06
acute or obtuse.
is
Cf = V -
sin
,
,
2ab
2ab
a +
be seen that
Af
+ (a
Let a +
the vertex of
will
we have
it
n = c*-(a-by
C
^r-j
- cos
it
of the projections of the other
A + a cos C,
(c sin
cos
often useful.
From
cases
...(3).
a-b
provided each projection be called positive or nega-
it,
The form
By
all
according as the angle of projection
tive,
is
the
is
thus
In
a.
"
draw a perpendicular upon
_(-)(-)
06
s(s-c)
...(5).
s(s
be
Let p = \l -
shown
is
Show
be
which
s (s
it
will
-b)
- a)
presently be
the radius of the inscribed circle (Euc. IV.
4).
that
ten
^'
^2-%
tan
6'
<
6 >>

-
cos
and similar forms

If
sm^ =
gives
for sin
and
>J.s(s-ct)(s-b)(s-c)...(l),
sin C.
be the perpendiculars
from the opposite
vertices,
83
fall
let
upon
a,
b,
c,
we have
= bs'mA...;
p=csmA = asinC,p=asmB
r
=5 sinC=c sinB,
p
"a
* b
and the area of the triangle
is
expressed by any one of the
following seven equivalent forms:
apa
ab sin
cp c
bpi
T' T' T'

V{s
_.
The formula
b
--
sin
sin
*
v.
(s
1 1
a) (s
gives
A
b) (s
a -
circles
ca sin
a + b
sin
---.
sin
B
'
'
or ps
c)}
A
A
(8).
sin
-.
+ sin
B
B
(A-B)=
which touch the three
ab cot-C
or tan
There are four
be sin
~~2
'
+o
...(9X
lines of a triangle
one, the inscribed circle of Euclid, touches the three sides; of
and the other two
the others, each touches one side
Let p be the radius of the
duced.
of the other three.

or ps
mula
(
whence
used,
is
V-s (s
P- =
Let
pb + pc)
pac
/a a
a) or
a) (s
b) (s
c)
>
CCL.
Pb
+ - =
PC
denote the projection of a on
b,
with
its
proper sign,
Then
a t - a cos C, &c.,
We
can
now
Of two given
there
those
1111
that
$ (pa
(p a b +
is
s- a
Pa
&c.
triangle
whence
'
Show
is
the same as p of the preceding for-
Again, the area of the triangle
(6).
a) p a
p,
now
first,
The area of the
sides pro-
and p a p ti pc
is
= aa +
c 4 , &c.,
and we have
treat all the cases of oblique-angled triangles.
sides or angles, let the greater of the two,
one, be denoted
by the prior
letter of the
alphabet
when
84
Given the three sides to find the angles.
1.
If one angle only be wanted, say
ls(s- a)
preferring the
first
--
l(s-V) (s-c)
for the greatest angle, the second for the least.
If all the three angles
be wanted (or even two), take
P = V{(s
a)
tan
A, take
much
= (a
from which determine a b and
b) (s
-=-
(s
-^
c)
s}
%C= p
tan
V),
Â+^-B
which verify each other, since

This method was once
\B = p
tan
\A -p^r(s-a\
(s
^C-
-f
(s
c),
90.
Since
used.
+
--
c) (a
c)'
and then use
cb,
Given two sides and the included angle (a, b, C), to find
If all be wanted, calculate the angles by means of
their half sum and half difference, thus,
2.
the rest.
- |C,
\A 4 *B = 90
Lastly,
sin
= a
sin
tan
(7
C - sin
b - ,
sin
(\A - \B} =
tan (90 - JC),
which ought to agree.
If only the side c be wanted, take either
= (a +
6) cos
sm
'
2 -Jab cos i(7
= (a -
6)
-r
cos tan
.,'
'/aft
sin
a-o
-(-o
iC
;
say, for reference,
(a + b) cos
Or
Sc and
b a = 6 cos (7,
thus,
ca
= a -b a
(a
pa =
tan -B =
^
c
which
is
triangles.
6)
--
cos
b sin (7,
c.
which
^=,
cos
find
a direct reduction of the solution to that of right-angled
85

Given one side
3.
and two angles, required the other
(c)
Calculate the third angle, and then use
sides.
a = c
sin
^
C
-:
sin
but
if
be obtuse, use
A B
sin I?
c
sm -^
C
instead of
4-
Or, in
C.
any
case,
A+B
90
may be used, taking the cosine of the excess above
when
and
+
without
found
ink)
is
excess
pen
easily
(which
A B
is
obtuse.
When
4.
two
sides
B), required the
(a, b,
First calculate
B > b,
If a sin
then sin -4 =
and an angle not included are given,

rest.
from
sin
a sin
B
.
=-
A > 1, and there is no solution. If a sin B - b,

its supplement:
and A is a right angle, as
sin
is
1,
one solution only, and c = a cos B, C= 90 - B.

< b, sinî<l, and there are two solutions,
But when a sin
there
this
is
Let these be
one acute and one obtuse.

C" and C",
angle and side
sin
So
far it
ever a sin
b sin C'
sin
seems as
B<
and A"
and
let
c",
a sin C"
___
fj
be the corresponding values of the third

- A, C" = 180 - A", and
then C' = 180 -
and
c'
b.
But
if
in
'
we were
a sin C"
sin
b sin
sin
('''
sure of two solutions, when-
trigonometry we are often
made
to
observe what meets us so frequently in ordinary Algebra, namely,

that in constructing the conditions of a problem, we are comthose of cognate problems. If we have not
with such a circumstance in this present chapter,
because in mere solution of triangles, we have not introduced
pelled to take in
until
it is
now met
into this isolated subject our conventions as to the
measurement
which would, as in page 10, oblige us to consider

completions and opponents of Euclid's angles as among the angles
of a triangle, and each cosine and tanyent as belonging to two
of angles,
But each of two supplements may

possible angles of a triangle.
be the angle of a triangle and when, in our construction, we
have to use the sine of a yiven angle, we conjoin with our
:
problem that one

angle
is
in
which the supplement of the first given

Let B' and B" be the acute
angle.
made the given
86
then all we are entitled to say is that

preceding solutions belong, each of them, to one or the
and obtuse supplements

the
other of the triangles (a,
B)
b,
(a, b,
B").
suppose the given angle to be opposite the lesser of

the given sides (b < a).
Then
< A, and there cannot be any
obtuse value of B: that is, both solutions belong to the acute
First,
value
B.
of
Secondly,
then
180 -
A - A",
= A, and
straight line,
is
the given sides be equal
let
must be
One
0.
and the other
and 180 -
acute,
(b
of the solutions vanishes
an isosceles triangle.
is
a)
- A", or
into
Thirdly, let
the given angle be opposite the greater of the given sides (b > a).
Then
values
B > A,
of B
there cannot be any obtuse value of
may
The following diagram
value.
A, but both
be used, and one solution belongs to each

will explain these cases.
as might be supposed, indicative

is,
of
the
one
second degree. We have
of the problem being
solution
This double
Here a
sin
a* - lac cos
is
B,
pc and
= a cos
-j(tf
J(W
- o 2 sin 8
B)
- a* sin2
B).
is bc
with
its sign,
on
the supposition that c is measured positively on the side of the

acute value of B a cos B is a c and the above equation is only
;
= ac +
of this
bc
in
which
c has
problem, and of
its
proper sign. The consideration

connexion with Euclid vi. 7, will
its
be a useful exercise.
The following
table shews
the parts of a triangle and
all
their logarithms for exercise.
M828710
- 1-0939117
a = 15-236 loga =
b = 12-414 log&
c
s
9-018 logc = 0-9551102

= 18-334 logs = 1-2632572
- a = 3-098
a) = 0-4910814
log(s
- b = 5-920
b) = 0-7723217
log(
s-c
Ps
= 9-316 log(
c)
= 0-9692295
= 55-96866 logps = 1-7479449
a f b = 27-650 log(a + b) = 1-4416951 a - b = 2-822 log(a - b)

6
a
+c = 21-432
.
c -
log (b
24-254 log(a
-f
-f
c)
= 1-3310627 b -
3'396'log(6
c)
= 0-4505570
= 0-5309677
= 1-3847834 a - c = 6-218 log(a - c) = 0-7936507

c)

log. sin.
8.
Ta
TO
87
88
be drawn, the angle of the radii
If the circumscribed circle
drawn
which
an
the
to
is
extremities of a,
the
circumference.
360 - 2 A, the third side being
a.
2r = a
is,
4-
sin
The three
A.
and
^C
which
2r sin C;
the formulae become trigonometrical identities,
all
for sin
sides of the triangle are then
2r sin B,
2r sin A,
be substituted
is
Shew
a,
b,
(sin.5 + sinC*- sin A) (sin (74-
always true
when
that the line
the side a
is
sin
A B + C=
8
i
*J{\(V + c )
-a)(s-
b)
sinA -
sinJB)
A
180.
-h
drawn from the vertex of

2
that the line bisecting the angle

that
16s (s
these
if
Thus, substitution in the formulae
c.
gives us
C ~_
2~
for
then,
is,
Consequently,
a = 2r sin (A or 180 - A)
that
There
which r and r include either 2A, or
in
isosceles triangle,
the angle at the centre to
is
angle at the
(s-c) =
or
26V
bisecting
z
V{6 + c + 26c cos A}.
2
is
2bc cos
+ 2c 2 o +
\A
2aW
4-
(6
4-
c).
Also
Shew
- a 4 - 6 4 - c4
BOOK
II.
DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
CHAPTER
I.
DESCRIPTION OF A SYMBOLIC CALCULUS.
THE
object of this
book
is
the construction of Algebra upon
a basis which will enable us to give a meaning to every symbol

and combination of symbols before it is used, and consequently
to dispense, first, with all unintelligible combination, secondly,
with
all
search after interpretation of combinations subsequently
to their first appearance.
In arithmetic and in ordinary algebra we use symbols of prefrom which meaning, by self-evident
viously assigned meaning,
The
notions of number, &c., are derived rules of operation.
student must understand by symbols, the peculiar symbols of
arithmetic and algebra
strictly speaking, the written or spoken

words by which meaning is conveyed are themselves symbols.
And symbols must be explained by other symbols, except when
:
they denote external objects or actions, in which case the symbol

may be explained by pointing to the object present or the
action taking place.
Language
itself
is
a science
of symbols
are described in the
(namely, words) having meanings (which

dictionary by words of the same or another language) and rules
of combination (laid
No
in
down
in
its
grammar}.
science of symbols can be fully presented to the mind,
such
peculiar
state
as
to
demand
symbols, their meanings,
are all stated.
assent
or
and the
dissent,
rules
until
its
of operation,
In this case we have but to ascertain
first,
whether the peculiar symbols be distinguishable from each other

secondly, whether the meanings are capable of being distinctly
;
apprehended, each symbol having either one only,- or an attainable and intelligible choice; thirdly, whether the given rules
13
A SYMBOLIC CALCULUS.
DESCRIPTION OF
90
of operation be necessary consequences

as
applied
as
many
of the given
If these
the given symbols.
to
meanings
affirmative answers, the basis of the science
and
unobjectionable;
from a correct and

are true.
But yet
First, it
may be
use of the rules
intelligible
may
is
so
far
conclusions which are drawn
all intelligible
it
produce
inquiries
of operation,
be imperfect.
incomplete in
its
peculiar symbols.
There may
be a want of symbols which those already in use suggest, but

which are not made to appear. This is not the incompleteness to
which algebra
is
most
combinations growing
which they
it
may be
may be
it
more from its symbolic

than the ordinary language in
suffers
faster
are, if possible, to
Secondly,
it
liable
much
be occasionally expressed.
incomplete in
its
meanings.
subjects than its actual
meanings take
one possible
Another, of a much
This
in.
incompleteness, of a very obvious character.

less
is
obvious character, and which probably nothing but actual

it would have
suggested, is this
symbols, defined
experience of
in a
For example,
capable of applying, with the same symbols, to more
manner which makes them separately

in
unintelligible
combination
their
intelligible,
separate
may be
may
definitions
involve what, in the attempt* to combine them, produces con-
* The student
may be surprised at my saying that we should
never have imagined such a result in algebra without actual experience of it for it may strike
immediately that in ordinary
language AVG may have not merely unmeaning, but contradictory,
Mm
combinations.
But the answer
is
that
we
are so accustomed to
combinations, used in some emphatic sense, that

it even happens that they express
they are recognised idioms
more and better meaning while they are fresh, and before use
contradictory
makes the contradiction wear off, than afterwards. When General

Wolfe first used the expression choice of difficulties ', which was
'
contradiction, choice then meaning voluntary election, he made

those to whom he wrote see his position with much more effect
than could have been produced a second time by the same words.
Ordinary language has methods of instantaneously assigning meaning
and thus it has stronger analogies with
to contradictory phrases
:
which there are precontradictory symbols as they

arise, than with one in which a single instance of them demands
an immediate revision of the whole dictionary.
an algebra
(if
there were such a thing) in
organized rules for explaining
new

The second
tradiction.
or
not
may
it
case
is
diction in one combination creates
Thirdly,
it
incompleteness
it
may be incomplete in
may amount either
or only to the
results,
arise
first,
from
possible in the case thought of, or
of meaning which
every extension
that
may
or
abolition of contradiction
else
combinations
and may cease to be contradictory under

it
may happen, either that no such
limitation of meaning,
extended meanings
a consequence of the
may be
contradictory
91
imposition
destroys contra-
in another.
This
its
rides of operation.
to
an absolute privation of
of
more trouble than, with
Every rule the want of which
completeness, would be requisite.
would be a privation of results, may be called primary : all

which might be dispensed with, except for the trouble that
the want of
them would
give,
sequences of the primary rules,
Each
of the three
may be
and
treated merely as con-
called secondary.
great objects
of
consideration, peculiar
symbols, assigned meanings, and rules of operation, may then

be defective, independently of the rest. Can we carry the defect
more of them
so far as to imagine one or
The
cases of absolute deficiency,
to be entirely wanting
which
it
may be worth
while
to notice here, principally to accustom the student to the idea
of the separation, are as follows

1.
Meaning* and
tionably algebra
without peculiar symbols.
rides
might be
deprived of
ordinary words taking their places.
more meaning, and no more
There
possibility of
its
peculiar
is
no more
Unquessymbols,
truth,
drawing consequences
- 62 = a +
(a
b)
)
(a
no
in
'
than in
multiplied
gives the
b,
the difference of the products of two numbers,
by
sum
each
divided by the difference of those numbers,

for a quotient.'
Before the time of Vieta, algebra
itself,
had always been much retarded by the want of a
sufficient use
of peculiar symbols.
2. Peculiar symbols, and meanings, without rules of operation.
In this case the only process must be one of unassisted reason,
thinking on the objects which the symbols represent; as in
geometry,
a
line
which has
its
joining two points
peculiar
named
symbols (as
AB,
But no
and
).
signifying
science
92
and these geometry
of calculation* can proceed without rules;
doesf not
possess.
Peculiar symbols, and rules of operation, without assigned

meanings. Nothing can be clearer than the possibility of dic3.
symbols with which to proceed, and the mode of

using them, without any information whatever on the meaning
of the former, or the purpose of the latter.
corresponding
tating the
process takes place in every
manual
art in
which an assistant
obeys directions, without understanding them. The use of such

a process, as an exercise of mind, must depend much (but not
altogether)
upon the value of the meanings which we suppose
are to be ultimately assigned.

to put together a
map
person
who should
learn
how
of Europe dissected before the paper
is
pasted on, would have symbols, various shaped pieces of wood,

and rules of operation, directions to put them together so as
make the edges fit, and the whole form an oblong figure.
Let him go on until he can do this with any degree of expertness, and he has no consciousness of having learnt anything:
but paste on the engraved paper, and he is soon made sensible
to
that he has
become master of the forms and
relative situations
of the European countries and seas.
As soon
as the idea of acquiring symbols and laws of comwithout

bination,
given meaning, has become familiar, the student has the notion of what I will call a symbolic calculus ;
which, with certain symbols and certain laws of combination,

is symbolic algebra :
an art, not a science and an apparently
;
A calculus, or science of calculation, in the modern sense, is

one which, has organized processes by which passage is made,
or may be made, mechanically, from one result to another.
calculus always contains something which it would be possible
*
to do
by machinery.
who introduce algebraical symbols into elementary geometry, destroy the peculiar character of the latter to every student
who has any mechanical associations connected with those symbols
t Those
that
is,
algebra.
each
is
its
who has
previously used them in ordinary

Geometrical reasoning, and arithmetical process, have
to every student
own
office
to
mix the two
in
elementary instruction,
injurious to the proper acquisition of both.

useless
except as
art,
The
of a science.
it
may
afterwards furnish the
93
grammar
symbolic calculus would naturally demand a supply of meaning.

Suppose him left without
the power of obtaining it from without his teacher is dead, and
proficient in a
he must invent meanings for himself. His problem is, Given symbols and laws of combination, required meanings for the symbols
of which the right to make those combinations shall be a logical
He
consequence.
tries,
and succeeds; he invents a set of meanHas he then supplied what
ings which satisfy the conditions.

his
teacher would have given,
ticular,
certainly
one.
significant
the
he had lived?
if
In one par-
he has turned his symbolic calculus into a

But it does not follow that he has done it in
had he
way which his teacher would have taught him,
lived.
It is possible that
when attached
We
sequences.
many*
to the symbols,
may
different sets of
make
try this in a small
meanings may,
the rules necessary con-
way with
three symbols,
Given symbols M, N, -f, and one

is the same
sole relation of combination, namely that
+
is a symHere
result (be it of what kind soever) as
M.
+
and one rule of connexion.
M N
bolic calculus
following ways,
how
can
among
it
be made a significant one ? In the

1.
and
may be magnitudes,
others.
and
2.
+ the sign of addition of the second to the first.
may be numbers, and + the sign of multiplying the first by the
second.
3.
M and N may be
M N
lines,
and + a direction to make
a rectangle with the antecedent for a base, and the consequent

for an altitude.
4.
and
may be men, and + the assertion
that the antecedent
may be
a battle
We
is
the brother of the consequent.
5.
M and N
and + the sign of the consequent having fought

with the antecedent: and so on.
nations,
may
also illustrate the
manner
in
which too limited or
too extensive a meaning interferes with the formation
most complete
significant calculus.
In
of the
(1), limitation to
mag-
* Most inverse
questions lead to multiplicity of answers. But
the student does not fully expect this when he asks an inverse
question, unless he be familiar with the logical character of the
predicate of a proposition.
answer,
always gives
always, and, for aught that appears,
many
what gives
other things.
94
nitude
not necessary, unless ratio and number be signified

In (2), if
(only) were allowed to signify
is
under the term.
N M would
number,
-f
intelligible
be
intelligible,
an impossible symbol of
'
signifying the rectangle,
(M + N)
but
M + N would be un-
this calculus.
In
would be
(3),
(M +N)
unintelligible
further examination would show that the explanation

not complete and that the proper extension is that
+
+
should signify the formation of the right solid (rectangular paralwill
But
+
+
-f Q
lelepiped) with the sides M, N, P.
at first:
is
M N
M N
be always unintelligible, as space has not four dimensions. In

and
to signify human beings, would
(4), the extension of
spoil the applicability of the rule, unless the
at the
same time extended to
antecedent was brother or
sister
signify the
meaning of + were
assertion that
the
(as the case might be) of the
consequent.
But when the symbols
are many, and laws of combination

be thought possible such a number of coincidences should occur, as that the same symbolic combinato
it
is
various,
number) which express truths under one set

Could two
of meanings, express other truths under another?
different languages be contrived, having the same words and
tions (unlimited in
in which the words have different meanings, in

such manner that any sentence which has a true meaning in
the first, should also have a true, but a different, meaning in
grammar, but
the second?
This last question
may
almost certainly be an-
swered in the negative the thousands of arbitrary terms which

a language presents, and the hundreds of grammatical junctions,
present a possible variety of combinations of which it would be
:
number
hopeless to expect an equal
of coincidences of the kind
But Algebra has few symbols and few combinations,

more explanations than one are
compared with a language
practicable, and many more than have yet been discovered may
required.
And
exist.
the student,
if
he should hereafter inquire into the

who contend for what each of
of different writers,
assertions
them considers
as the explanation of -/-I, will
do well to sub-
stitute the indefinite article.
We
must
can
ask,
now form some
first,
what are the
idea of the object in view; and

steps through
we
which we have gone,

arrive
to
at
algebra as
who commences
this
stands
it
book.
They
very briefly, as follows:
which every
number has one meaning, we have invented
symbol of
and investigated
An
of operation.
rules
to general or universal arithmetic, in
number
mind of the student
in the
are,
in
specific or particular arithmetic,
Beginning with
95
easy ascent
signs,
made
is
which general symbols of
are invented, the letters of the alphabet being applied
to stand for
numbers, each
having a numerical meaning,
letter
unknown, on each occasion of its use. And thus,

omitting many circumstances which have no particular reference
to our present subject, we arrive at a calculus in which the
kndwn
or
actual performance of computations
when
to the time
is
deferred until
we come
the values of the letters are found or assigned.
Accordingly, whereas in particular arithmetic every computation

is completed as it arises, or declared impossible, in universal
arithmetic
we have
a calculus of forms of computation, in
each numerical computation
is
which
only signified, and not performed;
the proviso, if possible, being annexed by a reasoner to every

step of every process in which a chance of impossibility occurs.
Out of a few
appears at
first
cases of difficulty, there
sight destined always to
is
which
selected one,
make
the proviso above
mentioned an essential part of most processes of universal

metic.
in
say
It is the impossible subtraction; the constant
problems of a demand to take the greater from the

how
units there are in 6 - 20, for instance.
less,
An
many
this,
that their producing cause
that either in the statement of the problem, or in
ment, some one quantity
is
is
it
or universal,
which
distinction
magnitude.
line:
the
fails
command
and Co.
is
to
it
par-
show any acknowledgment of a
strikes us in almost every notion of concrete
Measure 10
is
feet
from a givon point oa a given

until we are told which of
ambiguous
two directions to take.
treat-
ought to be.
Simple number, the subject of abstract arithmetic, be

ticular
always
its
supposed to be of a kind diametri-
which
cally opposite to that
to
ex-
under which such phenomena
amination of the circumstances

occur shows, inductively,
arith-
appearance
sum
of
money
in the concerns
of
incapable of being entered in their books until
we know whether
it
be gain or
loss.
weight
is
generally
96
of one kind, but not always: the weight of a balloon
rather, the
is
or
word weight being by usage not allowed a double
we
signification,
which
a ten-
is
opposite to that of most weights
dency in the direction
say a balloon has no weight, but something

of weight.
time, one extreme
the direct opposite
epoch of which
mentioned,
is
we know whether
it
is
is
not sufficiently described until
all before,
or
all
after,
the epoch.
And
In every one of these cases, the numerical quantity
so
on.
of
a concrete magnitude,
described
by means of a standard
not a sufficient description; it is necessary to specify

to which of two opposite kinds it belongs.
This specification
unit,
is
must be made by something not numerical: number
is
wholly
inadequate.
The
first
suggestion would be,
signs of distinction
it might be thought, to invent

but universal arithmetic makes a sugges-
tion which forces attention,

is
before the necessity for distinction
Should we ever suppose that

gain, or distance in one direction,
more than barely perceived.
the result of a problem
is
or time after an epoch, &c.,

distance
or of
in
the
when
opposite
it
is
in reality, say 4 of loss.
or
direction,
of time
before
the epoch, &c., the answer always presents itself as 0-4, or

+ 4), or as some version of the attempt to take away
m-(m
4 more than there are to be taken away. It is then judged convenient (that the convenience amounts to a necessity is hardly
seen at that period) to make - 4 the symbol of 4 units of a kind
+ 4. And this
directly opposite to those imagined in 4, or
is
the
first
of the steps by which universal arithmetic
common, or single
for more detail.
This word
algebra.
becomes
See Algebra, pp. 12-19 and 44-66,
single, as applied to algebra, is
of one dimension, or length, in which
it is
derived from space
always possible to re-
present the effect of every intelligible operation of single algebra,

and the interpretation of every result which admits of any
When we reckon time, gain and loss, &c.,

all.
always possible to translate our reckoning into terms of
interpretation at
it
is
length, as follows
A SYMBOLIC CALCULUS.
DESCRIPTION OF
97
Take any point O, in a straight line, which call the zero-point,

from which all measurement is to begin. Let
represent the
unit of any particular magnitude, and let magnitudes of one
OU
kind, say gains, be measured towards
Successive gains and losses

exhibited,
one kind,
A, and
may be taken
off,
losses towards
and the
final
B.
balance
by the compasses. As long as the result is always of

so that an assumption to that effect would never
render the processes of pure arithmetic unintelligible, the successive results always appear on one side of O: but the moment
a result of the contrary kind appears, (which, unless the arithmetical computer were aware of it, and had provided accordingly, would leave him with an attempt at impossible subtraction
on his hands,) it is indicated on the opposite side of O.

The convention as to the meaning of
1 and - 1, namely,
-j-
that they shall represent units of diametrically opposite kinds,

is
a very bold one
not merely because
it
takes up signs which
are originally intended for nothing but addition

tion,
and
tive,
and the
and subtrac-
another signification on them but because it still

employs them to connect quantities, and ly a new kind of
connexion.
The signs in fact are used in two senses, the direcfixes
are talking
we
and by virtue of
tells us,
-f
( )
by
conjunctive signs,
we speak
of;
What
are to join
_3 +
)
:
and - means removal.
on
actions
Thus,
the
loss,
(+S)-(-7) + (-4)-(+3)?
A man
of a loss
the removal of a
these
what
+ means junction,
is
the following
the removal
what we
virtue of -,
how we
+ and - in the directive sense indicate gain and
question,
is
As
talk of to the rest.
or putting on what
if
+ (- 3)
conjunctive.
of,
of
loses 3,
7,
gain of 3
his
what
is
previous property
accession of a gain of 5,
The mere beginner
and gets a gain of
8,
with
the accession of a loss of 4, and
+ (+
the united effect of
all
The answer
the
is,
5).
allowed to slide into single algebra

from universal arithmetic in a manner which leads him to underis
I do not see that it can

magnitude of the change.
be otherwise but, at this period, my reader may be made to
rate the
we shall pass from single to

the surest and most demonstrative
(perhaps
observe that the process by which
double algebra,
is
98
mode
of passing from universal arithmetic

not until he can drop all meanings,
collect the laws of combination of the symbols, and so form
the only demonstrative)

to single algebra.
It is
purely symbolic calculus, and then proceed to furnish that
calculus with extended meanings, that he becomes fully master
of the change.
But the
close resemblances,
which make the
above referred to so easy, might make it doubtful whether

he would be fit to take proper note of this case of reduction
slide
same
he has seen a more striking form of the

process, namely, that which is exhibited in the transition
from
single to double algebra.
and
restoration* until
When
the earlier algebraists first began to occupy themselves

with questions expressed in general terms, the difficulties of
subtraction soon became obvious, inasmuch as the greater would
sometimes demand to be subtracted from the

has been brought to
The
first
faculties,
less.
The
science
present state through three distinct steps.

was tacitly to contend for the principle that human
its
at the outset
extent to which
its
of any science,
results can
are judges both of the

be carried, and of the form in
which they are to be expressed. Ignorance, the necessary predecessor of knowledge, was called nature ; and all conceptions
which were declared unintelligible by the former, were supposed

The first who used
to have been made impossible by the latter.
in
algebraical symbols
subtraction was a
a general
and
sense,
Vieta,
concluded that
that
expressions containing it
Vitium ncyui
should be in every possible manner avoided.
was his phrase.
Nothing could make a more easy pillow for
defect,
the mind, than the rejection of
but
if
all
which could give any trouble
Euclid had altogether dispensed with the
Algebra, al jebr
e al
vitiitm paral-
mokabala, restoration and reduction, got
Arabic name, I have no doubt, from the restoration of the term

which completes the square, and reduction of the equation by ex-
its
The solution of a quadratic equation

Alter the
was the most prominent part of the Arabic algebra.
order of the words, and the phrase may well represent the final
mode of establishing algebra reduction of universal arithmetic to
tracting the square root.
symbolic calculus, followed by restoration to significance under

extended meanings.

telorum, his geometry
propositions of the
would have been confined to twenty-six

book.
first
The next and second

fault,
99
step,
though not without considerable
yet avoided the error of supposing that the learner was
a competent
critic.
as necessarily true,
It consisted in treating the results of algebra
and as representing some
relation or other,
however inconsistent they might be with the suppositions from

which they were deduced. So soon as it was shewn that a
particular result
by
no
it
had no existence
as a quantity,
it
was permitted,
have an existence of another kind, into which

particular inquiry was made, because the rules under which
was found that the new symbols would give true results, did
not
definition, to
difier
from those previously applied to the old ones.
symbol, the result of
operations
upon symbols,
either
quantity, or nothing at all; but in the latter case
new kind
ceived to be a certain
meant
was con"
it
of quantity, and admitted as
a subject of operation, though not one of distinct conception.

Thus, 1-2, and a - (a + b), appeared under the name of negative
These phrases, inquantities, or quantities less than nothing.
congruous as they always were, maintained their ground, because

they always produced a true result, whenever they produced any
result at all
which was
intelligible:
that
is,
the quantity less
than nothing, in defiance of the common notion that all conceivable quantities are greater than nothing, and the square
root of the negative quantity, an absurdity constructed
absurdity, always led to truths
all,
or
when
when they
upon an
led back to arithmetic at
the inconsistent suppositions destroyed each other.
This ought to have been the most startling part of the whole process.
That contradictions might occur, was no wonder but that
;
contradictions should uniformly,
truth in algebra, and in no
and without exception, lead to
other species of mental occupation
name of a mystery.
the
could
practical result that theorem!
prevail against
Nothing
and at last, when the interpretation of
so produced were true
whatsoever, was a circumstance worthy the
the abstract negative quantity shewed that a part at least of

the difficulty admitted of rational solution, the remaining part,
namely that of the square root of a negative quantity, was

and its results admitted, with increased confidence.
received,
100
The

single algebra,
when
complete, leads to an unintelligible
combination of symbols, V~l
-1 when
it
first
presented
itself;
more
unintelligible than
for there are
was
no degrees of
The use of ^/-l,

absurdity in absolute contradiction of terms.
to a variety of truths (page 41), points out that it
which leads
"must have a
logic" (page 41, note).
to collect the symbols
now proceed
(page 92)
and laws of combination of algebra, or
to describe Symbolic Algebra.
CHAPTER
II.
ON .SYMBOLIC ALGEBRA.
IN abandoning the meanings of symbols, we also abandon
Thus addition is to
those of the words which describe them.
a sound void of sense.
be, for the present,
combination represented by
when +
It is a
mode
of
receives its meaning, so
It is most important that tht

student should bear in mind that, with one exception, no word
nor sign of arithmetic or algebra has one atom of meaning
also
will
the
word
this
throughout
addition.
chapter,
the
their laws of combination,
object of which
is
symbols,
giving a symbolic algebra
and
(page 92)
which may hereafter become the grammar of a hundred distinct

If any one were to assert that -f and significant algebras.
might mean reward and punishment, and A, B, C, &c. might

stand for virtues and vices, the reader might believe him, or
contradict him, as he pleases
but not out of
this chapter.
The one exception above noted, which has some share of

meaning,
is
the sign = placed between two symbols, as in
A = B.
two symbols have the same resulting meanwhatever

different
That A and JB, if
ing, by
steps attained.
that if operations,
quantities, are the same amount of quantity
It indicates that the
they are of the same effect, &c.

The following laws are not all unconnected
metrical character of the
but the unsym-
exponential operation, and the want
of the connecting process of + and x, pointed out in the last

chapter, renders
I.
it
The fundamental symbols of algebra

0,
In
necessary to state them separately.
( )
there
is
I,
+, -, x,
the best
-f,
(), and
mode
are
letters.
of expressing the peculiar case
s
which the symbol consists in position
as in A
in which
the distinctive symbolical force of the form lies in writing B
in
over A.
K3
ON SYMBOLIC ALGEBRA.
102
It is usual to call
II.
down
laying
+ and -
signs,
and them only
but in
the laws of symbolic algebra, the close connexion
and - on the one hand, and x and
existing between +
on the
-f
Let
other, requires that the latter should also be called signs.
the former be called term-signs, the latter factor-signs.
on
insist
this
connexion that I do not
common synonymes
the more
for
It
to
is
(for a while) introduce
AxB and A^B,
namely
AB
,A
and-.
III.
factor.
symbol preceded by + or
In A*>
the base,
is
pression consists of terms, let
a term; by x or
is
When
the exponent.
them be
called co-terms
4-
an ex-
when
of
factors, co-factors.
IV.
and
Let
be a co-term and co-factor of every symbol,
+ and x being the connecting signs of the symbol, but either

or -, either x or -f, those of
and 1. As seen in
Thus
and
are a kind of initial or starting symbols, the
4-
first
of terms, the second of factors.

It is seen that +
it
A
+A
and
V.
is
is
and
placed before a symbol, do not alter

to 1 understood, as in 1 x
x,
A, having reference
A, having reference
to
understood, as in
Co-terms and co-factors which
and
equivalent to term
factor
A-A
The more usual form of the
0,
differ
Of A.
only in sign, are
1.
A v A = l.
x A
A=
last is 1
-f-
The
I.
starting
symbol
frequently used in factors, but rarely in terms. The
and - A, in abbreviation of
student is well accustomed to +
and - A but not to x A and 4- A for 1 x
and 1 -f A.
+
is
But he must use the
latter a little, if
he would see the complete
analogy of the term and factor signs.

VI.
when
A
it is
symbol is said to be distributive over terms or factors

the same thing whether we combine that symbol with
each of the terms or
factors,
or whether
we make
it
apply to
the
compound term
we
see the
VII.
Thus, looking at
or factor.
A BCD
*
of the
103
and
ABCD,
distributed in the second.
first
Term-signs are distributive over terms, and factor-signs
over factors: as in
+ (0
at full length
*A -) =
=
l^-(lxA^B)
VIII.
to
The tenn-signs
+ (0 +
^) + (0
B),
l~(lxA)^(l^B).
of factors
may
belong, each one of them,
any factor of the compound, or to the compound.

-
A x - B = - (- A) x B = - (-)
(A
x B).
IX. Like term-signs in combination produce +; unlike, -.

Like factor-signs in combination produce x; unlike, -f. As in
(-A)=-A, -(-A) = +A, x(-rA)=-rA, +(rA)=xA.
X. Terms and factors are convertible in order, terms with
As
terms, factors with factors.
XL
in
Factors are distributive over the terms of any cofactor

x.
factors can be
(The corresponding law for
with the sign
-=-
deduced, and
is
and x (B - C)
XII.
The
ponents, are
4-
A=B A
is
-f
C~
as fundamental).
1,
As
in
A.
and
relations of the starting symbols
A" =
XIII. The exponent

case of v
down
not to be set
ex-
distributive over factors with x
(the
1,
= A.
is
As
deducible).
in
XIV. The operations of x and the exponential operation ( )( \

same base, are reducible to the
successively repeated with the
lower operations + and x performed with the exponents.
A*
A^
c
,
B c
)
= A**
c
.
As
in
104
Any system of symbols which obeys these rules and no others,

except they be formed by combinations of these rules and
which uses the preceding symbols and no others except they
be new symbols invented in abbreviation of combinations of these
is
symbols
make
and
Ordinary algebra contains
symbolic algebra.
symbols and
these rules, but
all
these
assigned meanings do not

I now proceed to combined symbols,
all results significant.
amount of proof by
to a sufficient
all
its
instance, that one
admits these rules admits, as consequences,
all
who
the combinations
of ordinary algebra.
Let
and
so
be abbreviated into 2
Now
on.
4 B, namely,
AB
and
or 2.4.
(A-B)(C-D)
x (x 4 4
is
into 4,
and
is
or
-f
Ix447x.4,
(A-B)C-(A-B)D,
or
or
or, (xi) again,
AC-BC-(+AD)
(vn),
.4x447,
-(-
BD\
AC- BC-AD + BD;
or (ix),
A = AC
^TTT, for x
.oG
(x), x
7),
(xi)
AC-BC-(AD-BD),
Jo
AxB
A + A is x A + lx A
A A + A = 3A. Again,
for (iv),
Similarly,
1x4x^4-7
f.4: for (x),
is
3+
A + A - 2A
"We have then
or (VII), (VIII),
into 3
Jo
or (xi) (1 + 1) .4
4.447
2 +
introduce the abbreviations of
A Bx
-4
.4x0
A x C 4 (B x C)
(74 C, or (v), x
= 0; for(v)
which (v)
^4x0
is
is
(vn).
4 B, or
(+
B - B),
xAxC+B^C,
or
jQ
or (xi)
4-
AB - AB,
0.
is
From what
precedes
Jj
+ C
is
This
Jj
is
an instance
2*2
of the deducible part of (xi)
The complete
is
this:
rule XI, in all

factor
with
may be
it is
its
xA (B+ C) = +
-f
parts,
fundamental and deducible,
distributed
over the terms of
its
factor-sign or the contrary, according as the

receiving eofactor is x or v. Thus
eofactor,
^
-g
^ has
its
-f
(B
-t-
C)
is
been shewn to be
V (A x
B+A
AD CB
x C)
or (xi)
+ BC
AD
- .-.
*
is
(xiv)
So that A-* =
A
^3
^4
is
1+1
,
^ B+(
B)
A
1
gives
(^ty =
x - .B
is
(VIII)
^4
x (x
(BC)
is
and
A A\
or
^f 1
^B
or (ix)
or
^4 (xn),
-(-)A
Bx
(7),
or (IX)
or (v)
105
A\
^ B ^- c = ^ B
or
or (xn)
AAA,
&c.
A* A* A*
= -4
is
1.
x ^, or + yf-B, or ^45;
or (vn)
x (x
5)
x (x C),
AxSxC.
In this way the student must examine narrowly a large

of fundamental operations, satisfying himself that he
number
could produce them from the rules alone, independently of every

notion of meaning. The question is this, Might a machine,
which could, when guided, make introductions and alterations

by the preceding rules and no others, be made to turn one of
the alleged equivalent combinations into the other.
It will
be exceedingly convenient to reserve the small
letters
&c. most strictly to signify pure combinations of the

unit-symbol 1, with any term or factor-signs, as +2, -f, &c.:
a, b,
and
c,
to use the capitals
exception of
A, B, C, &c. for other cases. With the

Greek letters only for angles.
I shall use
106
CHAPTER
III.
ON AREAS AND SOLIDS.

I
MAKE
the
example of
first
significant
algebra to be an
application of symbolic algebra to the geometry of right areas
and right
(rectangles)
cause the application
solids (rectangular* parallelepipeds), be-
is
useful,
and abounds
in instances of the
between symbols which become significant under the

meanings given, and those which are not significant.
distinction
However
clearly a
student
may
see that the ordinary arith-
book of Euclid
metical proofs of the propositions in the second
are not sound, except for lines which are commensurable with
one another,
yet,
considering that every proposition which can

(as
may be
may
be sus-
be proved by such arithmetical proof must be true\

otherwise established)
.for
all
lines whatsoever, it
mechanism of the arithmetical proof is

the mechanism of some sound and general proof. And
pected that the
turns out, namely, that one
of the significant algebras
really
so
is
it
the
method of proof desired.

f and - are simple addition and subtraction; A, B, &c. are
lines, if not otherwise specified, and it is easy to confine them
Again, x in
A and
under
angle
to lines.
AxB
;
symbol mean the right

0, 1, 2,
makes the symbol mean the rectA x B x C makes the
the second x in
solid
under A, B, C.
&c. are as in arithmetic
thus
2AB
is
The symbols
twice a rect-
* The
length of this phrase is intolerable and I am in the habit
As a right
of using the following extension of the word right.
line is formed by the simplest and most direct motion of a point,
:
so the term right area might be applied to that formed by the most
direct motion of a right line, and right solid to the solid formed by
the most direct motion of a right area.
Accordingly, the rectangle
and the rectangular parallelepiped would be the right area and right
solid.
f The perfect confidence which a mathematician puts in these

proofs does not arise, as he knows, from their proving that their
conclusions are true, but from their proving that they can (otherwise) be proved to be true.
ON AREAS AND
SOLIDS.
angle; *, after a symbol derived from
Exponents, save only
tiplication.
put together
meaning common mul2, and 3,
I,
(understood, xn.)
Heterogeneous terms are insignificant when

+ C, the area of a rectangle added to
need not appear.

thus
1,
107
AS
as an area, the length is nothing.

Again,
merely the ratio of the two lines all the rules become
true under this meaning, joined with the others.
C is the
a length,
A S
-f
unmeaning
is
is
AB^
other side
(C being
one) of the rectangle equal to the rect-
and B.
angle under
the
altitude)
(D being
And
C.
A, B,
being the base.
AAA
ABC^D
of a right
ABC^DE
is
And A*
AA
the cube on
is
And
or
the area of the base
is
solid
equal to that under
the altitude
is
the
of the same,
square on
A;
DE
3
or
A.
be veiy easy now to establish that these meanings

have significance to see the followgive truth to all rules which
It
will
ing for instance.

=
A (B
C}
AB -AC,
or,
between the same
of two bases
rectangle under the difference
ference of the rectangles under those bases.
is
parallels, the
equal to the
dif-
ABC=ACxB,
or the remaining side (C

being one)
and B, is equal
of the rectangle equal to the rectangle under
to the proportion of B, which is expressed by the numerical ratio
of
A
As
to C.
far as
-f
and - are concerned,
And A*,
arithmetic.
ABCD
sions), are unintelligible.
are significant,
ABCD E
-f
system
that of pure
is
(space not having four dimen-
And we
have instances of forms which
while equivalent forms are insignificant. Thus

unintelligible; there is no solid of four dimen-
AÊx BCD
BCD as
the equivalent form of symbolic algebra,

it is such proportion of the right solid
significant
sions.
is
is
this
But
is
of E.
Shall
we then
say
A^Bx BCD = ABCDÊ?

Shall
we
say, in
common
6
_
" L + _?L
2^4
Both questions are

in
common
~
'" _e"-
be answered
+e-'"-
or,
if
2
alike.
algebra, find a square root of
to find a fourth
ABCD:
to
algebra,
Those who can,

be at no loss
will
ABC
dimension of space in which

may become
they cannot find it, they have but to imagine
ON AREAS AND
108
it,
and
of the
an impossible dimension, subject to
call it
we
three
find
all
algebra, gives
SOLIDS.
its
possible.
And
just as V~l>
all
the laws
significant combinations true, so
common
would
it
be with any number of dimensions of space which the speculator might choose to call into impossible existence.
The
rules having been proved true, so far as significant, all
produced by none but significant steps are pure geo-
results
metry.
Thus (A + B)2 = A 9 +
2AB + B*
is
Euclid
metical representation, but the proposition
And
_<4
that the
II.
4: not an arith-
itself.
AB + B*,
A > B,
when
significant
means
JL>
base of a right solid which equals
the
difference of
two cubes, the difference of their sides being the altitude, is

equal to the sum of the squares on the sides and their rectangle.
The student must not call this significant phase of algebra

modern, though in its separated form it may be so. The suover Greek arithmetic, in means
periority of the Greek geometry
of expression and demonstration,
on which the former
much
caused
founded to find
is
its
way
of the notion
into the latter.
mixture that we get the terms square and cube,

as applied to a x a and a x a x a (numbers).
Vieta, who so
materially improved the symbolic language of algebra as to be
It is
from
rightfully
this
considered the founder of
its
modern form, was so
thoroughly possessed with the idea of linear, areal, and solid

would have written such an equation as
representation, that he
XXX + A XX + BX = under the idiom

XXX + AXX + B planum X = Csolidum,
C,
he had used exactly our symbols. To have done otherwise,

and C to be the same species of magnitude
have allowed
and A, would have appeared to him like asserting that
as
if
to
two
I
well,
solids
and an area could make a
should recommend
and,
the
student
line.
to
consider
when he meets with any circumstance
this
algebra
of ordinary
algebra in which significance is difficult to conceive or absolutely

unattainable, to try if he can imagine the corresponding case
of the subject of this chapter.
109
CHAPTER
IV.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON DOUBLE ALGEBRA.

IF,
taking the rules of symbolic algebra,
we were
to
ask
an assignment of meaning to (-1)^ which would make all

those rules true of it, we should naturally be led to select for
for
consideration the rule (XIT.) on which the symbolic character
most depends.
It is
= (-1)W = (-l)' = _i,
(-1)4 (-1)4
or - 1
Consequently,
= V-l x {V-l x
V~l must
successively applied to + 1
be)
satisfy
this
1}.
condition,
it has the effect of changing

There may be many significant algebras
done.
that
twice
by the process of x (whatsoever that

+ 1 into - 1.
in
which
But the demand made by common consent
this
is,
is
that
our completely significant algebra shall be an extension of the

defective system with which we commence
meaning, that so
far as that system goes, significantly, it shall be a part of the
:
new
It
system.
matics
now
would not help
established,
if
us,
fifty
with reference to the mathe-
completely significant
systems
were produced, unless in one or more of them the same story

were told as in the old algebra, so far as this last tells any story
We
at
all.
is
possible),
same
must have,
all
if
possible (and I
we do understand
that
am
still
to
show that
it.
understood in the
with such enlargement of meaning as will give

which we do not now understand. Ac-
sense,
significance to symbols
cordingly, +
and -
are
still
to signify diametrically opposite
units.
in
Let us then examine one of the usual systems of explanation,

distinct conception of two diametrically op-
which we have a
posed directions of measurement, and of no more. Let it be time.

Can we form any notion of an operation upon time (+ 1 being
an hour future measured from a certain aera) which being
twice repeated, shall produce an hour past, (-1)?
The answer
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
110
seems obvious
But a
little
go back an hour, and then go back an hour.

show that this process cannot
consideration will
be represented by V-l.
For then </-l.l would mean 1-1,
or 0, and ^/-1{^-1.1} would be *j-\ {0}, which (page 104) must
be 0. Besides, this operation, go back an hour, is - 1
and
1-1-1 is - 1, as required. Moreover, since by the laws of
;
algebra V-l
as
be any positive or negative quantity, it

say that *J-\ 1 could be so interpreted
cannot
would be absurd
to
mean any time
to
positive quantity,
which
future, all
or any time past,
already taken up by
is
all
which
is
taken up by
negative quantity. And we have not any other notion of time :

there is nothing (except 0, which will not do, as seen) intermediate
between time future and time

that
when +
this algebra, significant as to all
must remain
Next
We
past.
may
then safely assert
- 1 of
time,
past time,
and
positive
negative quantity,
means a unit of future
insignificant as to \'-l.
simple notion of gain and loss. If we could

1
of otherwise
imagine a commercial event, which changed
certain gain into something of an intermediate character, not
try the
truly described either as
the event happen again,

into
we might be prepared
of certain loss
significant
but such that, should

gain or loss
would convert the intermediate state
it
algebra on this basis.
basis of significance
is
been produced, though
to
this subject, as a suggestion, for
for a
will
impossible
it has been before those
;
hope
not say that such a

but only that it has never
more than
who
think on
forty* years.
When
any one shall succeed in producing such an intermediate state

between gain and loss, then the symbolic algebra will become
on a system of gain and loss.
what notion we may, which presents the two diametrically opposite states (page 95), we find
significant
At
present, however, take
ourselves at a loss to
except in
one
case.
make
a notion of anything intermediate,
Length and
direction
in
a plane f
offers
* See Phil. Trans., M. Buee "Memoire sur les Quantites Imaalso the first edition of Dr. Peacock's
read in 1805
ginaires,"
Algebra, pp. 366, 367.

f I dismiss, without anything more than such allusion as will
prevent my being supposed to denyjthem, all the bases of significance
ON DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
Ill
We
an immediate solution of the question.
can pass from a
not only along the line, but also by supposing

The condition at the beginning of this
the line to turn round.
is
satisfied
by supposing V~l x to be a revolution through
chapter
a right angle for a repetition of the process turns a line through
line to its opposite,
a second right angle, opposes

at
first,
and
satisfies
the
observation contains the
its
direction to that
equation
1 =-\/-l
which
x {V~l x
it
had
This
1}.
thought which led to the inquiry
first
into the question whether a completely significant algebra could
be constructed on definitions involving, not only opposite lengths,
And hence it is frequently

but lengths in other directions.
stated that this result is derived from assuming *J-\ as the symbol
of perpendicularity.
But this statement does not give a fair
representation
that
a unit of length perpen
represents
-y'-l
dicular to that represented
by +
is
a consequence,
not an as-
sumption: and a consequence of assumptions of a much more

simple character.
In inventing such a system, we obviously found an algebra
on a geometrical
Because,
we nowhere
this
limitation
find the varieties of
before seen,
any one
result,
and
is
Why
of significance.
conception which will afford meaning to our symbols.

we are not bound to this system. The moment
distinct
As
basis
except in geometry,
shall afford us a distinct notion of time, or of mercantile
intermediate between past and future, or between gain
loss, in
manner analogous to
between the two
intermediate
that
pendicular,
moment
that in which a perpendicular

sides
of
its
correlative
the system of symbolic algebra
ready to apply itself to time, or to gain

geometrical ideas on which
it
will
and
loss, as
now
peris
as
to those
presently be established in
significance.
B OA
If
OA
stand for a pound of receipt, and
OS
for
one of
which may be found in length considered in three dimensions, or

on other than plane surfaces, or in lengths which are not rectilinear.. The number of such bases is, I have not a doubt, quite
unlimited.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
112
it would be perfectly easy to keep a cash account

with a pair of compasses, on the line - + indefinitely extended.
Measure off the amount in hand at the beginning, and set oft
expenditure,
all receipts (at
OA
towards the
left,
would never
fail
towards the right, and all out-goings

touched by the compasses
to show the balance in hand.
But what money
for
1)
and the
last point
OC
does
OA
OB
to represent the first

represent?
Again, with
the first year before,
year after the Christian sera, and
a pair of compasses -will assign its place to every stated event
that ever did happen, or that we can imagine to have hap-
But what event happened
pened.
and what adverb
is
we may
we do not
OC"...the
at
Christian aBra:
proper to take the place of before or after

of
will
which
(neither
do) in the blank.
By such considerations
. .
to geometry, but
with ample means of representing all the
have, and introducing others for which most notions
see that
extend ourselves to
notions
we
of magnitude
propriety of
it
afford
restrict ourselves
And we may
no analogues.
us
extending the
meaning
of
is
this
see
the
geometrical term,
and calling time, loss and gain, &c., magnitudes of one dimension.
But then arises the following question Granting that we help
:
ourselves
in
geometry,
or loss
and
in
of
geometry,
use
algebra
out of
which have data derived from time,
problems
gain, &c.
what
To put
this question properly,
be resolved into two, as follows
it
should
Suppose the problem is 'at what time after a certain

an event take place which... [here describe the conditions
of the problem]...' Suppose the answer to be, that the event
1.
epoch
will
must happen at 4 4- 3^/- 1 hours

mean? It means that it is
this
after
the
epoch
and
really
truly
what does
impossible*
that an event should happen, under the prescribed conditions,

and that the assertion
at any imaginable moment, past or future
:
can happen contains the assertions that what

that a whole is no greater than its part, &c.
that
it
is,
is
not,
* The word
impossible has been so misused in algebra, in the
sense of inexplicable, that the impossible of ordinary life, which
"can't be and never, never comes to pass," requires some additional epithet to express
it
in
an algebraical work.
ON DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
As
113
" the
long as the meanings of symbols* remain unextended,
essential
of imaginary expressions
character
is
to
denote im-
and nothing can deprive them of this signification.

Nothing like a geometrical construction can be applied to them
possibility:
they are indications of the impossibility of any such construction,

or of anything that can be exhibited to the senses."
Suppose that to the above problem we obtain an answer
2.
that the event takes place, say in 4 hours from the epoch, and
that
our solution
obtained by aid of V~l> which however

How are we free from the imputation
is
disappears in the result.
applying reasoning to contradictory terms, seeing we do

not profess that, when time is the basis of significance, ^-l
has any meaning. I answer that, if time continue to be our
of
we are unanswerably open to that impuwe translate the terms of our problem, that
geometrical ones, and work a geometrical answer,
basis
of significance,
tation
is,
but that,
substitute
if
our whole process is intelligible; and so many units of length

as our geometrical answer contains, so many units of time does
the answer
to
the
original
problem
contain.
Algebra takes
cognizance only of units, not of what units they are, whether

of length or time, &c.
Each of its transformations is made
in one way, Avhatever
units represented
in terms of one
may be
the magnitudes from which the
symbols are derived. A problem given

magnitude may be solved in terms of another,
by
its
provided that every condition of the problem be faithfully preserved.
* The
quotation which follows the words in italics is from the
review of M. Buee's memoir on Imaginary Quantities, in vol. xn.
The earlier writers on this
(1808) of the Edinburgh Review.
much given to supposing the explanations of V 1

be absolute, and to be a demonstrable part of ordinary algebra
the extension of meaning, or of the field of significance, was not
subject were
to
Hence,
distinctly announced, and I imagine, indistinctly conceived.
as against M. Buee, there is an amount of propriety in the reviewer's
remark. But, nevertheless, it is a striking instance of the confusion between ignorance and nature, alluded to in page 98. There-viewer ought to have seen that in pure arithmetic every part
of his dictum, applies to negative quantities.
L3
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
114
This
is
illustration.
are aged 6
a point which, to the beginner,
Suppose, then,
and 16 years
may
some
require
we have this question

Two youths
when will one be twice as old as
:
Now propose it thus: Two

Answer, in 4 years.
youths have 6 and 16 apples when will one have twice as many
the other?
apples as the other
The data of the question
are insufficient
no connexion expressed or implied between the number

of apples one may get, and that which the other may get.
But
there was a connexion between their increments of age, implied
there
is
mention of time, and capable of being expressed. I did

not say
Two youths are aged 6 and 16 years, and for each
year which one advances in age, the other advances a year also,
in the
'
required, &c.'
to the
because the words in
Now
mention of age.
add
italics are necessarily
to the second
due
problem the
condition that for each apple which either gets, the second gets
also, and we have the first problem, in which each 1 is
derived from a year, faithfully rendered into another in which
each 1 is derived from an apple and the answer is, When each
one
'
has got four apples'.

It is a true method of finding the half of ten apples, or the
half of ten years, to describe an equilateral triangle upon a line
of ten inches, to bisect the vertical angle (Euclid
I.
11),
and
to
show that each of the segments of the base is 5 inches. The

student must take care, in applying a complete significant double
algebra to questions of non-geometrical magnitude, that he does
not fall into an error analogous to that of supposing the equilateral triangle to
be described upon the ten years, or the ten
apples.
The separation of
essential
from non-essential notions
is
who would think upon matheIn the first problem we see that the answer
matical subjects.
is what it is, not because it is time of which we spoke, except
very important process
to
all
so far, that between any two moments,
received the same accession.

in the
The
same carriage would have done
of symbolic algebra itself
is
all
person's ages have
distance run over

as well.
by persons
The formation
a separation of the essential con-
ditions of operation from the non-essential
the rejection of
meaning over and above the points of meaning on which

formations depend.
all
trans-
ON DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
There
which
115
another instance of separation of essential notions

be necessary to use.
In thinking of a process
is
will
it
of arithmetic, for instance, there
the subject-matter of the
is
and the mode of operation: these two things are disto those who can separate them.
But there may be a
science,
tinct,
in doing this
is it
possible, for example, that we
could think of addition without thinking of number or magniThe
This point we shall try.
tude, or thinking of more ?
:
difficulty
subject-matter of arithmetic
is
number
its
primary operation
This counting proceeds from 0,

which represents, and must represent, the state of the mind
with respect to the number attained, before the counting begins.
is
numeration.
or
counting
modes of expression)
(and, for high numbers, reductive
Memory
save us from counting every time
we produce number
for use.
one who had forgotten seven must begin as children do,

first with none at all, put on one, put on another and say two,
&c. until he comes to seven.
Now let us suppose that he is
Any
to
add seven
to three,
He must
the total.
and that he has forgotten both seven and

proceed first by counting seven, and then
by repeating the process of counting seven, with no

except substituting 3 in place of 0,
to
from.
start
alteration
Thus we
have
ln
ing
}
sevTn.
Ina
add one
>
e Ven
See
}'
>
>
6; add one,
add another, 2;
!;
add one, 4; add another, 5;
7.
9; add one, 10.
Accordingly, a and b being two integers, the direction given in
proceed from a, first

to form &.'
you proceed from
Now if a and b stand for numbers, we must of course think
of number in doing this.
Nevertheless the description of the
forming the arithmetical symbol a + b

formed, in the
same manner
is
'
as
operation contains no numerical idea, except
matter
to
is
make
numerical.
Z,'
abounds with
algebra
for
It is only
art,
It
is
so that in
the subject-
did with
on any subject whatever,
this species of direction.

is
X as you
'Do with
and every book of
w hen
seen in our symbolic
it
is
seen that
only takes the place of 0.
Again,
let
us think of arithmetical multiplication.
separation of notion of operation from notion of

is
even more easily made.
"What
is
7 times 3
Here the
subject-matter
It is a
number
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
116
which has a 3
then
+
is,
for every unit
Accordingly, a x b
in the formation of
unity in forming
and
in
which there
is
in 7.
Substitute 3 for 1 in the formation of
x B,
b.
write
0+3
7.
The
direction
In place of
+ 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3.
always the result of substituting a for 1

b, or of proceeding with a as we proceed with
This is seen in the symbols for B is 1 x
is
takes the place of
1.
CHAPTER
V.
SIGNIFICATION OF SYMBOLS IN DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
Tins particular mode of giving

is
named from
its
two dimensions (or
significance to symbolic algebra
meanings requiring us to consider space of

area), whereas (page 111) all that ordinary
algebra requires can be represented in space of one dimension

(or
of
the
name be adopted, ordinary algebra must

commence with the mere description
If the
length).
be called
single.
symbols,
first
and
then proceed
to
establish
the rules
in
II.
Chapter
All the symbols which in single algebra denote numbers or

magnitudes, in double algebra denote lines, and not merely
the lengths of lines, but their directions. Thus two lines of the
same length, but in different directions, or two lines in the

direction, but of different lengths, must have different
same
Accordingly, each symbol is meant to convey a double

signification it describes the length, and direction, of its line.
symbols.
Two
lines
finite
parallel,
parallels.
have the same direction,
when they
are
and when they run in the same direction* on these

and BA are not
Thus, A and B being points,
AS
same symbol
entitled to the
and
A, B,
if
C,
be the points
AB and DC have the same symbol,

Thus AB = DC true AB = CD
not.
of a parallelogram in order,
but not
AB and
CD.
is
is
The symbol
has reference to one particular point, arbibut

chosen,
trarily
steadily kept to, which may be called the
= 0, we mean that
has no length it is the
on'i/in.
By
equal of a
origin.
and
line,
The
direction,
so
line 1,
to
is
speak,
which begins and ends
at
the
a line arbitrarily chosen as to length
but steadily kept
the origin, the line in which
it
to.
is,
When
is
drawn from
indefinitely extended both
* The word direction is used in two different senses. Thus

north and south are different directions on a line, and the line of
north and south is one direction among lines out of an infinite
number.
118
SIGNIFICATION OF SYMBOLS
we
designate the unit-line
perpendicular to
Since
AB
symbols of the form
reference to
if
Afterwards, and particularly with
called the unit-line,
is
ways,
it
as
O by
lengths in certain directions, let us
choose to
recal
properties
and the
progress over certain

describe the line
first
A, and then, proceeding from
call
be set
will
it
as the axis of direction.
are found from
and
the axis of length,
commencing from the completion of A.

if we take the
off,
we
extremity, let
its
Let the
third side of the triangle,
which commences at the completion of
A, or the diagonal of the parallelogram,

if we take the B which commences from O,
A + B.
be denoted by
Then the
is
strictly
a different subject-matter.
we put
And
place
applied to
To form
of
A + B,
in
+ B.
just as in arithmetic 11 + 7 tells us
when
is
the
in
operative
}
direction in page 115,
how
we
far
are from
A+B
7 has been counted from and after 11, so here
how
supposed to indicate
when
direction,
is
-t-
far
we
joined to A.
and
are from O,
And
since
A, annexing -
in
what
(A+B-B)
is
must be equivalent to going over a line equal and opposite to B.

And A- B
represents the length from O, and direction attained, by going
to
be
or
0,
^4,
or
A, and then an equal and opposite to B. And - B,

- B, or a line
standing alone, is
equal and opposite to B
over, first
from
If
itself.
and
as in single
rules.
or
2,
And
is
be
in the
same
direction,
A+B
two units of length in that line
length in the
and
A- B
are
algebra: this will appear by following the above

if we take the unit-line, it Avill appear that 1 + 1,
same; and so on.
represented by small letters (p. 105)
continued both ways

seen further.
It thus appears, that
2 + 1
three units of
All the symbols derived from
1,
are lines in the unit-line,
this partly appears already,
and
what we here denominate addition
will
is
be
truly
not addition of magnitude to produce magnitude, but junction

It is the process of the seaman,
of effects to produce joint effect.
when he
is,
on
his
made ten miles (that

when perhaps he has gone, on two tacks,
represents himself as having only
way
to port),
DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
IN
119
24 miles altogether; but his effective progress is only 10 miles.

In this sense, describing two sides of a triangle, of 12 miles
side
of no
may be
each,
more
useful effect than describing the third
Nor
is
of 10 miles.
there,
one sense,
in
and 12 make
objection to saying that 12
the slightest
10.
Let us now consider by what process 1 (OU) becotnes B.

is a
change both in length and direction: the change
There
of length
is
(or multiplying
the length of
units in
OU through
by turning
substitute
its
multiply
OU
accomplished by altering
to the length of
OU
in
by the
the ratio of
number
OU
of linear
The change of direction is made

made by B with OU. Now
JB).
the angle
in the place of 1
length by the num:
ber of units in B, and turn
it
through the angle made by

with OU. This process strictly
follows the direction in page 116,
and
shall
we agree
if
that the result
be denoted by
have the following
Ay.
we
The
the arithmetical product of the

lengths of
and B, expressed in units and the angle of
x
with the
length of
A x B,
rule.
is
A B
unit-line
is
the
sum
of the angles of
and B.
Before going further, the student must observe that we can

invent a method of representing the duplicity of our
symbols.
Let letters placed within parentheses have their meaning in single
and
algebra,
let (a, a)
signify
a line of
units of length inclined
an angle a to the unit-line. Thus 1 is (1, 0), 2 is (2, 0), <tc.;

-1 is (1, TT), and (a, a+2wz7/-)=(a, a). Let A=(a, a) and B=(b, /3),
at
then we have
AxB =
This transformation
with more
_L
difficulty.
B = <f v{
T?
/(
"
w
Since
>ince
-r
AxBfB
-f
as follows
a +
/3).
very easy: but addition

We have
is
o
i 2a
i
j,
A B
(at),
is
to
1 13
cos(/3
)},
tan
-i'
sma
is
expressed
& sin/31
a
cosa + icos/3/'
acosaicos/3J
be A, we have for the meaning of
120
or the division of this algehra consists in dividing the length
dividend hy the length of the divisor for the number
of the
of units of length in the quotient, and subtracting the angle

of the dividend from the angle of the divisor for the angle of
the quotient.
Observe that we need not, unless we please,
number
use any negative

is
(2,
a +
haps at
and
TT)
first
it
(2,
inside the
2?r
is (2,
a)
:
thus (- 2, a)
or (2, 4?r - a), &c.
Per-
parentheses
a),
be best to avoid negative quantities within
will
The following
these parentheses.
are
some examples
,,
3 x 4 =
(3, 0)
-3 x
(4, 0)
4 =
(3, TT)
- 3 x -4 =
(3, TT)
x (4,
Hence
it
(12, 0)
(4, 0)
TT)
(12,
(12, 27r)
appears that in the
TT)
==
unit-line,
0)
and
But
lines of the
TT),
= 12.
and
multiplication
division are precisely those of single algebra.
directions except
12,
(12, 0)
for all other
same direction
have not products in that or the opposite direction.

Let AA, AAA, AAAA, &c., without any reference to exponents, be called the second, third, fourth, &c. powers of A.
And
let
>JA,
V'A,
~J A,
&c.,
-J A
be
lines of
which the meaning
is
'*]
\J A, &c., being each equal
Â Â,
to A, and they may be called the second, third, fourth. &c.
roots of A.
Then we have immediately
defined by
AA = (aa,
2a),
AAA = (aaa, 3), AAAA

Â
(aaaa,
4),
= fa, ?
&c.,
&c.
As
explained in pages 43, 44, choice of values immediately commences, as soon as we have occasion to take a subdivision of
an angle.
Thus, since a + 2rmr
may
as in
infer,
whose angles
may
take the place of
the pages cited, that
differ
by
IT,
Â
half a revolution
directions, indicated by angles differing by

In fact that
lution; and so on.
is
f /"/
any one of V
\
+m
we
has two directions

that
VA
has three
a third of a revo-
2?T\
) ,
IN
where
is
any
DOUBLE ALGEBBA.
Thus -
integer.
V-l
either
(l,
being
121
(1, TT)
we have
for
or
(l,
^),
Ae square roots of unity are units* perpendicular to the unit

line.
If, to draw a distinction, we denote (1, |TT) by ^/~1, then
or
-V-l
As
unit
will
yet,
line,
be denoted by
(1,
f TT).
every symbol or combination of .symbols from the

in obeying the laws of double
algebra, obeys also
those of single algebra; the code of the latter being merely

a local chapter in the code of the former.
But, for symbols
in
general,
wider kind.
we
the theorems
of algebra are assertions of a

say in double algebra that
- 2 x
(7 x 7
2) = 7 + 2,
2) -f (7
much
When we
repeat in substance a proposition of arithmetic, the greatest
difference being that our additions
and subtractions are rather
carryings forwards and backwards with the compasses than numerical efforts of mind. But in establishing
(A A - SB) ~(A-S) =
we
shall establish nothing
less
than the following geometrical
theorem.
be two given lines inclined at given angles to a

and direction, and if to the standard and
each of them a third proportional be taken, and placed at an
If there
line of standard length
angle with the standard double of that made by the original

and if from the end of the first line so resulting, a line be
drawn equal, parallel, and opposite to the second: and if the
:
line joining the
common
intersection of the standard
and given
found extremity of this last line be called

a first result: and if from the extremity of the first given line
two lines be drawn equal and parallel to the second line, in
lines
with the
last
the same and opposite directions:
common
intersection before
and
named with
be called second and third results
if the lines
joining the
the last found extremities
then the second result
fourth proportional to the third result, the standard,
is
and the
* Whatever
may have been suggested by the considerations in
page 109, the reader will see that double algebra is far from being
founded on the assumption that V~ 1 denotes perpendicularity. If
suggestion be foundation, it is more nearly founded on the separation
of operation and quantity in arithmetical addition and multiplication.
122
first
inclined to the standard at an angle equal to the
result,
excess of that of the
The student should

by
first
verify
actual drawing: this
result over that of the third result.
some general theorems of algebra
would give him practice
in the
meaning
of the terms.
The unit
the
line
produced both ways, might well be called

algebra ; and the positive side of it the
line,
of single
And it readily follows that all symbols

line of pure arithmetic.
of double algebra are capable of being expressed by symbols of
or V-l is the only peculiar
single algebra, combined with V~l
:
symbol of double algebra.
To show
or (a,
first
this,
observe that a V~l
is
(a, 0)
(1, f TT)
or a units of length perpendicular to the unit line.
|TT),
Let there be a
line
R, and
be projected upon the unit
let it
line
IV-l
and
its
The
perpendicular into projections of a and b units of length.

a: but
(a, 0) is properly represented by
first
projection
NM
is b; and R is a + 6 V-l, by the

V~l
Thus we have a representation of any line,
by means of symbols from the unit line and */-!.
Let R = (r, />), and let the projecting factors, by which a line
NP
is
(b, |TT)
definition
or b
at the angle
converted into
is
the unit line,
for
we
that
of +.
and
its
this
second until
a consequence of double algebra.
and
sin/j as
by
Remember
nothing out of
it
my
cos/)
first
has been proved again
We
may
consider cosp
of the projections of (1, />).

a = r cos p, b = r sin p, and
Accordingly, by similar triangles,

or (r, p) is r cosp + r sin/) V~l/))
be called cosp
definition, the lengths
(1,
projections,
the perpendicular.
here recommence trigonometry
book will be used in

as
sin/>
for
sin/)
V-l,
(r,
And
p)=r
eri
(cos/)
-f
we nave
sin/>
V~l)-
IN DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
I
defer the consideration of the symbol ()
shall
has been established that
the rules in Chapter
all
xil., XIII., xiv., are necessarily true
member
123
Re-
are strictly
),
and can even be made those of pure
those of single algebra,

:
it
except
of the above symbols.
that the symbols in parentheses, as (a,
arithmetic
until
II.,
and that those not
in parentheses are always symbols

Thus, at this moment, I have hardly a right
= 12: but in (3, 0) x (4, 0) = (3 x 4, 0), common
of double algebra.
to
3x4
say
3x4
arithmetic gives the right to say that
12
is
3x4
so that
All the symbols have been
I.
in the parentheses
12 of the double algebra.
(12, 0) or
is
made
significant,
except the
The new symbols, </> V, &c., though

exponential symbol ()
made significant, must be deferred till we treat of exponents.
.
II. III.
AxB
and
The student may now
In
IV.
-f-
freely
AB
use
and
for
-=
B.
we
see nothing but
A, or rather a case
of
A,
which may have an infinite number of positions, and

+ A is
In A
we only see
that one which begins at the origin.
injunction not to proceed from the second extremity of A in
either direction.
In
might be the
the first 7 which
common
alone,
last 7 in
is
is
arithmetic, 7, for instance, written
18 or any other number
counted from
and
is
but
+ 7
a direction
not to count beyond 7, either forwards or backwards. In 1 x

we have
described as the unit altered into the length of A,
:
in
and made to turn through the angle of
x 1 or
-f 1
we
see
to alter
is
its
described with further direction,

length, nor
unity altered into 7
its
and
Any
case of VII.
- to a
application of + or
we apply +
and therefore
unaltered.
may
easily
satisfy
it
their
is
a direction to
compound stands, which
appear from
if
But
is
if
each be changed into
common geometry
that the
them
let
Now
into the opposite line.
sign + to the compound.
The
be shown thus.
to each of the simple terms, each of
each simple term, or

will
not
1x7
arithmetic,
were constructed to
-f
compound term
the result stand, or to change
applying the
common
(1, 0),
A A
if
being
7xlor7-flis7
V. The definitions of - and

= 1.
= 0, and x
+ A -^
VI. VII.
In
angle.
stands,
to
equivalent
- be
applied to
its
opposite,
compound
is
it
also
124
changed into
its
opposite; so that the sign
is
applied to the
compound.
Again, in
-f-
(1 x
-f
JB)
we
see that the operations are
-?,
But
in 1
-f
(1 x .4)
4-
(1
-r
B) we
27r-(a-/3)}
have, since
as before.
The
VIII.
angle
of a term sign
unless the sign be -
affects
application
nor even
that,
the
only
in which case a
Now whether
is produced.
be made on a factor or on the whole compound,
revolution through two right angles

this alteration
matters nothing; for whether the factor sign be x or -f revotwo right angles is of the same effect whichever
,
lution through
way
made.
it is
IX. The
merely permanence, that of -, oppo+

A, for the line equal and opposite
A)
to the line equal and opposite to
itself: other
must be
cases may be proved with equal ease.
effect of
Thus, - (-
sition.
is
is
Again,
or
-1
-^
X.
(f
The
obvious
which +
A)
or 1
(- a) I
-f
JB
and f
(1
4-
A),
being
or (a, a), or 1 x
part of this rule,
first
-f
is
(a, a), is (1,
0)
f-
-J,
A.
that relating to
terms,
is
the diagonal of a certain parallelogram, of
S are
sides
and
4-
B+A
is
the same diagonal.
IN DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
125
Hence any two consecutive terms may be made
to change places
A + B + C - D + E = (A + B) + (+ C- D) + E
for
And
if in
any arrangement any two consecutive symbols may
be made to change places, it follows that, by change after
change, any one order may be converted into any other.
As
to the factors,
distinct
operations,
formed without the
and
plain that x
it is
which
of
either
4-
each indicates two
capable of being perThese operations are separately of
other.
is
the convertible character, and their joint result
is
the same
for
instance,
(a, a)
(b, j8)
a +
(db,
/3)
(Jo, ft
XI.
no
Thus
And
It
may
-f
is
is
Bx
A,
help us here, and elsewhere, to remark that there
essential distinction
A+B
A B
a)
.,
is
4-
between + and
A - (- B), or
A x (1 B).
(a, a)
a)
(6, TT
All cases of this rule
-f-
and
or between x
-,
(b, ft) is (a,
may
-K
ft).
then
be contained under
+ C) =
A(
If
any number
that the products
of lines be
make
a.
+ AC.
by A,
multiplied
it
is
obvious
the same angles with one another as
the originals, since each angle
creased by
made with
Again, the lengths are
the unit line
is
in-
increased in the same
all
all multiplied by a.
If then the
and diagonal B, C, B 4- (7, be all multiplied by A, we have
AB, AC, A(B + C), sides and diagonal of another parallel+ A C.
ogram. Therefore A (B + C) =
proportion, their units being

sides
AB
With the exception

now a right to affirm
of what relates to exponents,

that symbolic algebra
is
we have
truly rendered
and
that, so far, every
identical equation of ordinary algebra is also
an identical equa-
significant
by the preceding
tion of double algebra.
algebra
is
so
much
And
of the
definitions
further, that
ordinary or single
double algebra as relates to the
all
symbols of lines taken in the unit line or its continuation. These

consequences are inevitable, unless it can be shown, first, that
some indispensable rule of operation
is
omitted
in,
and cannot
113
126
be deduced from, the rules in Chapter II.; and secondly, that

such omitted rule, when brought forward, is found not to be
a necessary consequence of the definitions in this chapter.
But
consequences are not always easily credible
inevitable
particularly
when very
stand upon a
very
extensive and easily deduced consequences
small basis of
And
definition.
it
is
not
whole of trigonometry should be capable

of re -establishment as a consequence of these definitions, after
easily credible that the
throwing every part of the

nitions of co&9 and sin#.
examination of
close
first
all
book away except the
the
definitions
and of
defi-
all
the
demonstrations of the symbolic rules will show that nothing of

geometrical theorem
lines
and
is
assumed except
the doctrines
of parallel
Nevertheless, what amounts to an
similar triangles.
arithmetical demonstration of Euclid
I.
47, can be immediately
produced.
It is seen that (1, 0) x (1,
= cos#
-t-
-6) =
V~l and
9-6) =
1.
But
(1, 9)
(1,
product is
=
ingly r cos6> r cos9 + r sin0 r sin#
.
form of
(1,
- 9) - cos0 sinfl.y'-l, and their

cos<?cos# + sin(?sin#, which is therefore = 1. Accord-
sin0.
I.
Now
47.
it is
rr,
which
undeniable that
I.
is
47
the arithmetical
is
proved again
(without reasoning in a circle) from parallels and similar triangles
in VI. 31.
There must be then, in our definitions, and in the
operations which are performed in
(cos0
sin0 V~l) x (cos0 - s,m9*/-l),
-f
something which amounts to such a deduction as

And this, it may be shown, is the fact.
is
made
in
VI. 31.
Take the wider question

+ 6), we have
(1,
following.
From
(1,
0) x
(1, 9)
(cos0-f sin0.V~l) (cos0-f sin0.V-l) = cos(0+0) + sin (0 + 0).*/-l
(cos0cos6>
sin0 sin0) + (sin0 cos# + cos0
= cos(0 + 9) +
But a
and
-i-
b i/-l
parallel lines
cos (0+<?) =
Now
it
sin
-f
(0 + 9)
V y-1
^-\.
gives a
= d and b =
have equal projections.
COS0COS0
sin6>). -/-I
6',
since equal
Hence we have
sin0 sin0, sin(0+0) = sin0 cos# + cos0sin0.
can be shown that the steps of the preceding multipli-
IN
DOUBLE ALGEBRA.
127
cation are, in significance, the steps, not merely of a proof of
commonly given. Let OM be

OM the unit, <AOM= 9, <BOM=$, <BOC=0,
these theorems, but of one very
the unit
line,
<COM=<fi
and
0,
and construct the obvious
figure.
Accordingly,
OP =
OQ =
cos0,
OR = cos(0 + 0),
cos0,
OR = OX + XR = O X + (- R X) = OX + (Now,
OB
FT),
as to lengths only,
OT::
OQ OX
or
cos0
::
cos0
OX= cos0cos0,
VT = sin0 sintf,
OB:BQ::CT:TV
OB: BQ:: OT: TX
TX = sin0 cos6>,
O^ :OQ::TC: VC
VC = cos0 sin^.
Therefore, using the geometrical designations as symbols of

double algebra,
OX= (cos6cos0, 0)
= (cos0, 0)
VT= (sin0 sine,
TT)
= (sin0,
\TT}
= (sin0,
I-TT)
= (cos0, 0)
XT=(sm<t)COse,
FC = (cos
sin 0,
x (cos0, 0)
=
=
ATT)
x (sin6,
^TT)
x (cos0, 0)
x (sin0,
^TT)
|TT)
OQ x OP,
QB x PA,
QB x OP,
OQ x P^4,
OAxOB = (OP + P^t) (OQ + Q.B)

=
OP.OQ
OX + (- VT) + XT+
OR + RC= OC.
=
Here,
first,
or (1, 6) x (1,
4-
Q5.P^4 +
we have formed OC,
or (1,
OP.QB
OQ.PA,
VC,
+ 0) from
OA x
O.B,
0) with an account of the actual geometrical trans-
SIGNIFICATION OF SYMBOLS.
128
formation which goes on at each step
secondly, in so doing
we
have been led to
OR= OP.OQ+QB.PA,
or cos(0 + 0) =
COS0COS0 + (sin0. >J= cos cos 6 - sin0 sin#,
RC =
OP.QB
or
And by
OQ.PA,
= (sin0.^-l) cosO
sin(0 + 0). <J-\
this
and
similar instances
we may
-t-
satisfy ourselves that
the mechanical operations of double algebra are,
when
the
mind
takes cognizance of their significance, true proof of their results,

just as
is
notions.
the case
The
when they
represent no
great difference
much more familiar with the

learn to make mere operation
is,
more than arithmetical
that in the latter case
subject-matter,
we
are
and more readily
carry conviction.
129
CHAPTER
VI.
ON THE EXPONENTIAL SYMBOL.

IN proceeding to treat of exponents, it is necessary to assume
the knowledge of some one system of arithmetical logarithms.
cannot therefore (or certainly not at first) allow the word
We
logarithm to be divested of
its
meaning, and to pass into double

Now since our system,
algebra to receive an extended meaning.
dealing in lines, gives results by measurement, the word logometer

suggests itself as a convenient variation of the
Let the logometer of
\A) be
(denoted by
some convenient operation on
result of
word
logarithm,
defined as the
which has the follow-
ing property,
\A
-f
\S =
X (AB).
An
infinite variety of such operations may at once be given.

For, since the angle enters in multiplication and division with
the properties of a logarithm (as in
sum
the
with respect to
(r, p),
symbols whatever, has
Mlogr + Np,
all
\R
If
A.
{RR
or
(rr',
p+
p')}
=
=
as
we wish
symbols,
we
is
shall find that,
M and N being
any fixed
M logr + Np, we
R being
M
+ N
+ p)
have,
logrr'
- AR
all unit-line
&c.),
the property required.
= Mlogr +
Now
the angle of the product
of the angles of the factors,
-t-
(r', //),
(p
Np
+ Mlogr' +
Np
\R.
to preserve the single algebra intact as to
we must make
M=
for otherwise \(r, 0)
would not be logr. As to N, the most convenient assumption

is the form &V-1, which would
But
give \R = logr + kp.^-l.
it does not limit us if we make & = 1
for neither the base of
:
the logarithms nor the
of choosing an angular unit
is
yet
and the power of changing the value of k

supplied by that of changing the unit in which the angle is
settled (in this book),

is
mode
130
Our
expressed.
\R
definition of
\R
now
is
contained in
- logr + p*J-\,
or the logometer of any line has the logarithm of the length

for its projection
of as
on the unit
and the angle (meaning a
line,
linear units as the angle has
many
line
of angular units) for
projection on the perpendicular. And this is the connexion

of the two axes with length and direction from which the terms
its
suggested in page 118 are derived. Thus we have, it appears,

on each axis or a symbol which
a species of logarithm to
is augmented by addition in multiplication, &c.
In this symbol, \R, occurs, for the
meanings
and that choice
is
unlimited.
2m7r without altering the meaning of

a distinct logometer to R.
p
of
m we have
of
time, a choice of
first
For p we may write
but for each value
And
all
the logometers
standing on one base, logr,

- ZTT, p - 4?r, &c.
&c.,
are diagonals of rectangles
with altitudes
p,
p+
But though every
27T,
line
p + 4?r,
have an
infinite
number
of logometers,
For
yet every logometer has only one primitive line.
if
+ &</-!
be a logometer, its primitive can have no length except the

number whose logarithm is a, and can be in no direction except
by the angle b. Consequently, if two primitives

be equal, we can only say that any logometer of the first is one
of the logometers of the second but if two logometers be equal,
we can assert that the primitive of the first is equal to the
that indicated
primitive of the second.
AB
Now
Let
take the following as the definition of the symbol

that is, let it mean the line whose
logometer be B\A
its
logometer
is
\A.
letter \, so that
we may
Let
an angle
to
If
\A
we
use, for a little while, the inverted
shall signify the line
we use A*
whose logometer
is
A,
an abbreviation of \(S\A).
be the base of the arithmetical logarithms used in the
state that
unit line: and
is,
remember that
to the unit line;
as
is
for a base of logarithms, or in
denote a line at
strictly to
it is (e,
0),
and
(E,
77-),
or
(f,
4?r)
connexion with logometers,
be distinguished from (E, 0).

Also, observe that in like
as we have abandoned (till we recover it) the mode
manner
of measuring angles, so
we do not
base of the Naperian logarithms:
yet say that

let
it
e is
the peculiar
be any which
it
can

we show
be,
until
We
have then
\R =
one base to another.
cause for preferring
\J2 = (number whose log.
=
(a 4 &V-1)
(a
2
VClog r +
V-1 =
r 4
lo
is
tai
r sin /a),
r cos p,
ilog (a 4
131
4 taiP - .J-l,
4 &V~1) = (number whose logarithm
is a,
).
Having shown that the fundamental formulae of trigonometryare deducible from the double algebra, I now use the first book
in every point
of this treatise,
mode of
except specifying the
taking an angular unit.

are the proofs that, under the above definition
The following
of A*, the laws of symbolic algebra are true.
A\ we
In
XII.
are to see \(Ox\A), or -y/(0 + OV-l), or

In A", we have \(1 x X^4), or \\A, or A.
(1, 0), or 1.
We
prove two symbols identical in meaning, if we

one
logometer of the first equal to any one of the
prove any
XIII.
definition, the
second.
Now, by
or
C(\A
4 XJ?), or
\A
that
\B
we
or
C\A
C\B.
on both
sides.
that
Since
is,
Therefore
(B 4 C)\A, which
C
)
is
\A B
C$AB)
is
J3
or
it
A C BC
provided
and the
sides,
B\A
ft
(A*) =
AB
4 2m?r
C\A,
or
follows that
we use the same logometer of A throughout.

B c
Again, X {(^ ) }= C\A* = CB\A, which is a logometer
Therefore
is
a 4 2.rmr and
A* +c
A*A C = A B+C
if
on both
\A C
a logometer of
is
(ABf A
=
the same cases of
\(A*A
(AB)
But the logometer of
C\S.
use the same logometers of
same of
XIV.
C\A
logometer of
of
A* c
be used on both sides.

provided the same logometer of
Next it is to be shown that when the exponent is a symbol
m the above
definitions of the exponent
,
of the unit line, as in
agree with those of ordinary algebra.
above
for
is
Am
or
A A\
1
or
This
AA
is
in fact, contained
is
such that
132
whence A*
is
Am =
from which
For
V'A
or
pressing
\A
-y
fi*'"
we have l-fO^-l
That
\A.
m
(#
ma),
>
6A
is,
or
Hence
1.
for
we have
must be our future way of exA

in ordinary algebra, A = e^
and we have, as
But
all,
ma V~l) =
the cases can be deduced.
all
Again, (1,0) has for

is
But, once for
(m\A) = y (m log a +
A,(e, 0),
\(A$
and so on.
its
+ 6^-1
logometer
cos0 + sin0.^-l
this is
therefore (1, 0)
therefore
Here again occurs the difficulty of page 126. We get this

fundamental equation on terms so cheap, that we suspect its goodness.
And
cannot be always true, while e and the angular

The second side does not depend for
numerical value upon what number
is, but only upon what
moreover,
it
unit are both unnamed.

its
it
angle
value
The
represents.
upon
first
side
those of e and 0.
is
If,
dependent for
for instance,
its
numerical
we choose
halve the angular unit, so that the angle now containing

contains 20 units, the second side is unaltered. But
cos 20 + sin 20.^-1
which
is
not
6 ^' 1
.
Nevertheless
it
e""'
is
will
to
units
be easy both to establish
some such equation must exist, and that a connexion exists

between the base to be taken for the logarithmic system and
that
the unit of angular measure.

Having established all the fundamental rules,
we may by
the
process in page 205 of the Algebra, interpreting the symbols as
show that any function which

=f(A + S) must be of the form
in the double system,
the property fA
is
of
0.
xfE
and cos0 +
Accordingly we must have
independent of
C9
This result only
sin 0.^-1 is
arbitrary,
determined.
where
from the former in that C, which
takes the place
Return to the
^' 1
such a function
= cos0 + sin0y-l.
differs
quite
possesses
CA
first,
- cos
of e^"
which
and observe that
+ sin !.</-!>
is
wholly un-
is
it
gives

which
the relation that must exist between the angular unit
is
and the base of the logarithms.
common
to
we were
If
and
in
this
appeal
equation to
time we should
of
process
make no
to
we should proceed with
algebra,
the above relation,
define
133
method of angular measurement

the base of the logarithms must be Naperian
that
arrive at the result that if the
be arcual,
is,
that
if
have an arc equal to the radius,
angle
But
as
I
us,
n-+o+-
unsatisfactory to leave such a point behind
may be
it
will
must be
establish
on the following
it
binomial
the
basis:
theorem with a positive integer exponent, and the theorems

that log (1
x) 4- x and tan x -f x both have the limit unity
-;-
when x
is
diminished without limit; with, of course, the ex-
And
plained symbols of double algebra.

to have 1 for
its
we assume
limit,
1\
(/
+
assuming tan x
in
^-)I
Its
is
logometer
-tt
or
-^
(l
J2
~^
sin/>.\/-l)
+
(l
^)
\l4A;sin/vJ
**) 4 tan'
-8/-
being (cosp +
1 \
+ X=r-l
--
say (k,
^] = ilog(l + 2&sin/j f
And,
is
(-
(page 119) (1,0) +
(r, p)
-r
(l {
H\[l
\
Now
-=-
the arcual unit.
k,
7
A;
V-l.
sm/j
we have
P + Q V-l,
where
- log(l
P = cos/j
,
2A;
log(l + 2k
sin/,
+ *) +
tan
A;
+ Asin/a
Now let the length of _R increase without limit,

diminish without limit. Then we have
loe(l + 2&
sin/>
-
~=
Z; )
log(l 4 2k
sin/; 4
or let k
-- (2
/,-*)
134
and, taking that angle which diminishes without limit with
its
we have
tangent,
&
_j
A;
and the
limit
_t
cos/>
+k
is
Hence
cosp.
cos/>.2 sin/)
has \
cos/)
+ k
sin/j
P+
If then the length of
cos/>
&
1 +
has for
cos/>
1
sin/>
+ &
'
sin/j
its limit
or
sin/> cosp,
+ cosp.cosp, or
sin/j.2 sin/>
and
sin/>
Qy'-l has V~l-
increase without limit, (1 +
V~l -
R
-R)
has for
its h'mit \(0+ 1 ^-1) or (1, 1),

provided that the logometer
used have an angle between - TT and + TT, and that the logarithms
used be of the system which gives log (1 + x) -f x the limit unity.
Let
R = n*J-\,
n being integer; then
\nV-l
1+(1
but,
as
limit 1
Ixnl^- 1
ff
or^l+/
L\
nj
has the limit
increases without limit,
+ i
-f ...
(1 + 1 +
(1
(Algebra, page 225).
11
-+
V- 1 =
cos
(1, 1)
...j
approaches the
Consequently we have
-f-
n)
+ sm 1-V-lj
or e has the value used for that letter in single algebra.
We
have now a completely significant system of algebra, and
the whole contents
demonstration,
The symbol
occurs
ings
if
Book
of
Chapter V. are established by
I.
that chapter be
\R
the
is
a property which
it
now
inserted here.
which multiplicity of meaning

s
All the meancommunicates to 22
first
in
of this last symbol, the distinction between the cases in
which their number
is
&c., will be best seen
infinite
by
and those in which
reducing JR
it
to another form.
is
finite,
Let

1
re^"
since
may
a)
-f
Here (page 46)

+ r sin 0.^- 1 or (r, 6).
be any angle with b ~ a for its tangent, in
r cos
is
tan" (b
135
which the cosine and sine have the sign of a and b
and
(a"
f b*f
taken with a positive sign.
is
First, it appears that
exponent
is
But even
absolutely unlimited.
is
when q
not =
that
0,
not a symbol of single algebra, the
is
rational fraction, the
number
for each unit of the
in
this
of directions
when
is,
number
when p
case,
the
of values
is
no more than one
is
denominator: and when
is only one direction (pages 43, 44).

Next, when q = 0, we have
?
f
61
2 2
p
p tan' (a + b V-l) = (a* + 6 )
an integer,
is
there
j>
<^
which has only one length, and as many directions as there are
If p be incommensurable, the
units in the denominator of p.
number of variations of direction is infinite. The case of b =
is
discussed in pages 45, 46.
The
of
%q
the term qt/-l in the exponent, is the addition

1
2
the angle, and the subtraction of q tan" (b 4- a)
6
+
) to
log (a*
effect of
from the logarithm of the length.
The student should

forms of J2
exercise himself in the reduction of different
to significance,
first,
by the complete
process,
next
For instance, ^/-l .

Here >j-\ is
by the formular result.
and
its
are
contained in
2nnr
of
case
+
^TT),
logometers
(1,
any
or (2rmr + |TT,
(2m?r + \TT)^-\,
for
it
not worth while
is
n and k being any
integers
to
we
Imr +
distinguish
please.
\TT).
and
Inir
This last
is
But
2nir + Ik-.
the logometer
of the result required; therefore
1
A
V- 1 = +
rVLl.
Otherwise
or V-l*"
...-3,
1,
is
1
1
1
V~l =
/
any power of e"^, whose exponent
5, 9,
is
in the series
&c.
The following
fallacy has before
now been
seriously proposed
as an argument against the introduction of imaginary quantities
136
into
therefore
'
J~
v"
27rV ' 1
~2
Since
ordinary algebra.
Or
1"=1,
which
1,
I/'
but
we have XI = 2imr V-l, V-l XI = - 2?7r, which is
~2
of
""r
.
we admit
Accordingly,
try
the logometer
v~ l
the
^'
we
If
absurd.
is
equation
~ 2m7r
be any integer, positive or negative, e

meaning
.
is one of the values of 1
And if m = 0, this is 1. But this
that
7rV "
not
last 1 is
How
if
the
1 is (1,
first
the second
0),
is (1,
2;r).
should give different logometrical results, double

makes
manifest enough. The logometric operation makes
algebra
differences of form and value both out of differences of form
these
ivithout difference
In the Rules
of value.
xm. and
xiv.
is
it
demanded
same
that the
logometers of each symbol shall be used throughout; otherwise
Does the neglect of any analogous

To try this, let us
?
the relations are not true.
regulation lead to errors in single algebra

see
if
may be
error
that
observe
AP
logometer in A*,
Ac
XQ
-I-
call it
means
P=
thus taken,
A B .A C = A* +c e ""^
2
Hence
A* and
A E+C
Qs
B
.
= A** c
+ Zrmr V-l, in
is
1
,
formed from the same logometer.

show
in
which
very simple instance of the truth of this equation will
that beginners
j?
C=
J,
n =
are
may commit
1.
ought to be +[A. This beginner's mistake

V4 = + 2, V* = - 2, therefore V 4 V 4 = - 4
different forms of .4* are
Unity,
logometer
when
formed from
exhibited in the form
+ 2tmr
V-l
Let
a mistake in ordinary algebra.
Ae^'
Then we have AÂ* =
is
it
two
and
Use a particular
\A
A^4, and another,
A*A C
The logometer of
A*.A C
First take
produced.
and
a,
2 ""
But
like the following
or + 4
>
= - A.
=-
The
4.
different logometers.
v~ 1
,
is
formed from the

m* "
is formed
exhibited as ae"
from the logometer loga + 2imr V-l. If we consider as primary

that form of a symbol which takes its angle from the first
positive revolution, or
-/
\
(1
from
inclusive to ITT exclusive,
denote the primary logometer thence formed, and
denote the logometer loga
-f (
+ 2imr) -/-I, and
A mB
and
if
if
mA
the value

of
A* formed
^
j
we have
it,
tii
*)Jn
'
V-^m-^n^
Ak
The following equation,
-n \C
,<
(A
V
the following equations:
2m7T B ^-l
B 2(m+n-p)7TB'/-l
^n = -^ E
B A B
-^m
from
137
BC
g{
; c p C
= **
-l
}'
TT,
y-i
m -")'rBV - 1
2(m+n-*-Z)rCV-l
>
lV - 1
2Cm- *) BC + 2 " c
^~
2t
very often
found
in
books of algebra, merely means, when brought to significance

by adoption into double algebra, that TT >/-! is one meaning
of
\ (-
1).
In former days, it was not

= - 1, on the
tion
.
-/-I
or A/1 or
But
reasoning, </a
<Ja is
it
â be
y'a.y'a, we
uncommon
or i a >
last is true, if
indefinite.
and
are not
if
in
both the
first
to object to the equa-
- 1)
ground that it should be V(- 1 x
was hardly seen that, on this mode of
*J-\
and second
all cases.
For then
bound
factor,
then
And moreover
it
to use the
â
this
has two values
same value
<Ja is
a,
4 a or -
in
a,
according as Ja and ^/a represent the same or different square

roots.
The two square roots of a are constructed on "different
logometers
one on log a + 2m7r</-l, the other on

loga + (2w + l)7ry-l.
138
CHAPTER
VII.
MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS AND APPLICATIONS.
THE
of logarithms
theory
and even
admits,
extension above what has been given to

the last chapter answers to the
of algebra;
rithm
It
to
we
are
now
of
logarithm
to the loga-
base.
any
when
at a future time,
will,
ordinary Naperian
examine what answers
to
an
requires,
The loyometer
it.
a significant algebra
made
is
the basis of elementary instruction, be a question whether the
symbol should not indicate the amount of revolution of a line

as well as its length and direction : whether, for instance, (a, a)
and
(a,
-f
of symbol.
meters,
it
2?r)
should not be distinguished by some difference
But even
will
be
at
in
present,
R may
R m may denote (r, p + 2i?r).
be the base
Let B or
cordingly
that relates to
all
logo-
Acconvenient to adopt this distinction.

and 2;r;
denote (r, p), p lying between
while
(b, (B)
X or
it is
required to find the logo-
X
by the equation ,B*B = ^Y.
The logometer of the last chapter has (t, 0) for its base. De= \X, or
noting A _AT simply by \X, we have \ B X.\B
meter of
(x,
to this base, defined
to
to be
The extension in page 48, supposes
be a symbol of the unit line, or = 2mr or (2
logo;
we have
That
XB
X = logx
(a + 6 y'-l)
log 6
log b
::
(e,
and
2m7r),
I)TT.
When
/3,
= log (base
must take the form
b) x.
+ q
<J-1, a
propo-
by a laborious induction in incomplete algebra,

now no more than was, in that algebra, the assertion that
sition collected
is
a real function
of a real
quantity
is
real
quantity.
For
every combination of symbols can be explained, and everything

explicable
is
a line of definite length and direction, and every
MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS.
139
such line can be represented by p + q <J-1.

Nor is it more
difficult to prove that if (f)x be a real, or, as we should now
y V-l) must be p q\>-l.

For the same operations, performed on the same lines, will
produce the same resulting lines, by whatever symbols they
are denoted.
Change the positive and negative directions on
call
it,
unit line, function of x, (>(x
the axis of direction, and also the positive and negative direc-
All the symbols of the unit line
tions of revolution.
still
repre-
what they did before; but the lines which were a + b V~l
and p -f q */-!, are now a- b 1/-1, and p - q -/-I. Therefore, the
sent
same operations on the same lines producing the same result,

~
- b
we have
should
(a
V~l) = P 1 V~l hut if the function
contain other double symbols, as a' + b i/-l, &c. and if
:
(a
then
It
(a
+
-
b V-l, a'+ i'V-1, &c.)

6
y~l,
would seem as
cable result
what
a + b^/-l? or what
is
is
if
a'
b'
there
-/-I, &c.)
is
still
the angle a +
/3
=p
=p
left
+ q </-!,
q V~l-
one source of inexpli-
*J-\ ?
what
is
the length
meant by the symbol (aib^-1, a + ^3^/-l)?
nothing here except such a confusion of symbols as

arithmetic when 7 + 4-5, for instance, is by mere
inadvertence of operation presented as 7 + (4 - 5). We have
There
is
arises
in
= (V(a8 +
e-/
tan'
-+
a
a),
a line of intelligible length and direction.

The suppositions
as
the
solution
of
a
which, assuming (r, p)
problem, end with
r - a + b^/-l, p = a + fi *J-1, are analogous to those which in ordinary
algebra introduce the impossible subtraction into the process of
when
it is not necessarily produced in the answer.

assumption of a length a, should lead to a + /3 V~l
as the requisite angle, it means that the length a will not do,
solution,
If the
but that ae'^ will do, with the angle a.

If we extend the definitions of cos# and sin0 so as to derive
them from the equations
MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS
140
we
when 6
have,
and when 6
is
a unit-line symbol, their meanings unaltered
is
still
not,
COS($V-1)~
1
Similarly sin"
an
Sin (^
'
V-l)-
V"l
Thus
intelligible signification.
&C
V-l), &c. can be interpreted.
(a;
The notion of continuity generally derived from ordinary

double system. If a unit symbol
from
gradually change
positive to negative, passing through 0,
there is at the moment of passing through 0, an instantaneous
is
algebra
corrected in the
accession of
TT
and ?rV-l
to the angle,
cordingly, the square
roots
are
to the logometer.
Aconce advanced by %TT, the
at
But we are apt to think only

-|TT; and so on.
of length, which, in the case in question, does change continucube roots by
The only
ously.
x= -
perfectly continuous
way
of passing from
x=+a
to TT, or from
by supposing 6 to change from
to - TT, in the formula x = a(cosO 4- sin#V~l)
an d the corresponding continuous passage from x = a to x = b is obtained
to
a,
is
by the same change made

x =
f (a + 6)
In this change
many
in
+ | (a -
cosd
b)
-f-
the roots also
all
parts of the integral
calculus,
1 (a
b) sin0.
V-l-
change continuously. In
which are inexpli-
results
cable on the supposition of change of length,
are at least in-
on the supposition of revolution of length, though the

connexion of the two is not yet elucidated.
telligible
When
the data of a problem are those of the significant

any one of the problems which are really impossible
while the terms are those of ordinary algebra, becomes possible
system,
as soon as the terms are allowed the extension of double algebra.
For instance, it is required to divide 2a into two parts with

the product b. The parts are a + V( 2 - &) and a - V( 2 - b). If
a and b be numbers, the problem is arithmetically soluble if
a8 - b be positive
parts required
if a* - b be
that
in the
is,
if
a and b be unit-line symbols, the
But
problem are also unit-line symbols.
negative, the parts are
V(&-a*-).V-l,
the product of these
is
(b,
or
JV&,
0)
or
b,
tan"
and
their
sum
is
a,
for
AND APPLICATIONS.
141
the parts are the sides of an equilateral parallelogram, of which

(a,
is
0)
But the parts are not now
the diagonal.
entitled- to
they are components, but

under a law of composition which is not merely addition of
that name,
arithmetically speaking
magnitude.
The following theorem, given by M, Cauchy for the determination of the number of imaginary roots of an equation, and
for the proof that every equation has as many roots as dimencan be established with clearness by the use of double
sions,
algebraical meanings.
Let x and y be the projections of

Let $Z =
of the extremity of Z.
z in (z,
or the coordinates
),
AZ n \ SZ n
'l
...
an integral
function of Z:
A, B, &c. being symbols each of which has only

one value, or at least, of which only one value is to be here em-
ployed.
Write x
where
and q are
y^J-\ for Z, and
4-
real,
(x + y^f-V) = p + q*J-l,
let
x and y and
x and y are such that
or unit-line, functions of
the unit-line symbols of A, B, &c.
When
(x
?/V~l) = 0, let the point of which they are coordinates
be called a radical point, single, double, triple, &c., according
-)-
x + y^-1. Let
bounded
contour
whatsoever
any
as there are one, two, three, &c. roots equal to
the extremity of
traverse
in the positive direction of revolution.
As
traverses, note the
it
7)
changes of sign in
at
which the passage
is
through
0,
neg-
which the fraction passes through oo.

changes
Let k be the number of times that there is a change from + to and I the number of times that there is a change from - to +.
lecting the
at
Then
| (k
1) is
the
number
of radical points within the contour,
on the supposition that each radical point counts as often

the root
it
First, if the
theorem be true for each of the contours into
which the figure of a larger contour

the whole.
in
as
indicates occurs.
For
if
all
these
is
divided,
it
the positive direction of revolution, each part,
external boundary,
will
is
true for
contours be severally described
be described
twice,
in
except the
two opposite
- or from -
Accordingly, every change from + to

on any part which is described twice, is met by another
change from - to -f or from + to - when the same line is
directions.
to +,
142
described in the opposite direction: and this for every thing
except the external contour.
we form k - I for each contour, and sum the results,

if we had formed it for the external contour
If then
it is
the same as
only.
Suppose the whole contour divided into as many as may be

necessary of smaller ones, each of which may be as small as we
In order that k - I may have any value on a contour,
please.
p and
vanish, p v q
both
For if neither
q must vanish on that contour.
does not change sign at all, and k - I is but 0-0.
If q only vanish, p-r q can only change sign in passing through oo ;
and such changes are not
all
to
be reckoned as part of k or
the changes of sign are
If
I.
made when p
q
be counted,
or k = I,
there must be as many from + to - as from - to 4
=
k I 0. To give value to k I there remains only the case
only vanish,
passes through 0, and are all counted
and
if
4-
all
in
which
p and
and so on,
again,
been
at
it
that
first)
Now
q both vanish.
described within those
first
taken,
must be
only
those
if
smaller contours be
and smaller within those
at last (whatever
contours
which
it
may have
have
radical
q vanishing on them. For

suppose we take one in which there is no radical point, and
points within them, have both
subdivide
it
perpetually,
on the contours of which
p and
and always find

p and q change
internal subdivisions,
sign.
We
may
pro-
ceed in this way until the extreme values of x, throughout and

within each contour, differ as little as we please, and also the
extreme values of
y.
That
is,
the values of
vanishes approach as nearly as
we
x and y
for
which
please to those for which q
vanishes, within the contour which has no radical point within

it:
or
0(# +
?/v'-l)
contour; which
is
ma y
absurd.
diminish without limit within that
AND APPLICATIONS.
It
143
points within them,

the possibility of k - I
then, to contours having radical
is,
and no
that
others,
we must look
for
having value. Let the subdivisions be so far increased in number

one possesses more than one radical point, single or
as
the case may be.
Consider one of them, containing
multiple
that no
a radical point P, to which s roots belong
symbol of OP.
be Z, and PQ,
H
=
=
0Z 0(^4 4 H) MR + NR'
0Z
because
We
It.
divisible
is
and
If be the
let
be a point on the contour, and

Then Z=
+ It, and we have
Let
by (Z
H)
or
+l
(A
OQ
let
..
If.
K) by
have then,
0Z = mr
cos(sp 4
/*)
4 nr
a*
cos{(s + 1) p
fl
(nir' sin (sp
p _m
cos (sp +
sin (sp
/<)
/LI)
+ nr"
4
p +
K}
sin{(s + 1) p +
w cos{(s 4
4 ,) 4
4-
...
} 4-
...
r cos{(s 4 1) p 4 "} +
...
1)
"}
Let the contour be made so small that the sign of
...] <*/-!,
this expres-
then it depends at last on that of

not afiected by r
cot (sp 4- /M).
In this, while the extremity of Z traverses the
contour,
passes through an interval of 2ir, and sp + v through
sion
is
In each of these, the cotangent changes sign
revolutions.
from + to
but the corresponding

twice
passing through
- to + is made in
change from
passing through oo, and must
not be regarded.
Hence k = 2s, 1 = 0; and * (k - 1) = s, the
number
-,
of roots which the radical point represents.
Since, then, the value of ^ (k
made up
sum
of the
subdivisions
no
since
contain a radical point,
point represents roots
Now we
whence
it
p
q
subdivision
when
az" cos(w
az" sin(ra
radius
of
radical
points
and
whole contour
is
the contours of the
anything except
yields
Z"' 1 +
many
it
units as that
+ q -/-I,
+ a) + bz"~ l cos{(w - 1)
a) 4- 6z" cos{(/t
1)
'
-t
Let the contour in question be a

centre,
all
yields as
it
follows that, if 0.Z be

__
for the
the theorem stated follows at once.
0Z = AZ"
have
I)
of the values for
so
great
in
circle,
4 /3}
-f
...
...
'
/S}
with the origin for
length as to contain
all
its
the
further, let z then increase without limit.
144
The sign
as
of
before,
ultimately always that of cot
is
shown
is
others in which
Hence k =
to
passes through 0, while

or ^ (k -
2n changes from + to
yield
=n
which,
a),
-,
and no
passes through
ITT.
that
2n,
0,
is,
I)
every integral
th
expression of the n
degree has neither more nor less than n
:
roots.
Algebraical paradoxes disappear under the application of our
The equation x^ =
symbols.
significant
dependently of x,
seems we
may
by
c (-
xf
do, since the equation
is
is
in-
satisfied
into - x, which
Change x
c (- l)i
now
identical,
it
and we
= <?x^ (have (- x^ = c (x)^.

Multiplication gives x* (- x)&
or c2 = 1.
But - c2 = 1.
a;)
Let (x, ) be the symbol

The explanation is as follows.
is a muldenoted by x in the above equation if it be real,
Then - x is (x, + TCTT)
but this matters nothing.
tiple of 77
where k is some odd number.
Accordingly, x being a positive
:
arithmetical symbol,
we have
2
which
is
satisfied
by
ktr\
0,
or (x,
into - x,
we may,
and then we have,
k'
is
satisfied
take a different value of
(A;
*'
c as before.
&'
Multiply
we have
'
and k and
k,
by the same value of
the equations together, and
change x
an odd number,
say,
like,
being also
=
which
we
if
When we
being odd numbers, k +
k' is
even, say 2&".
Un-
doubtedly, then,
one value of x* x one value of (-
(?
a;)
{one value of (- xfy (one value of a$)
but we are not now sure of any common factor by which to

And the double division is impossible. Let us make it
divide.
possible with respect to (- x$, which
k and
k'
both of the form
4m + 1,
must be done by taking
or both of the form
4m
3.
AND APPLICATIONS.
We
on both
have, then, the same form of (- x)'
then k +
case of the form
k' is in either
145
4m
'2,
But
sides.
therefore'
ancl
the division gives

*
which
is
always satisfied by
= -
1.
x be made by one con-
If the successive changes of sign in
tinuous method, say addition of
to the angle, then, starting
IT
with one particular form of x*>, say a, we pass successively through

~ a
-V~1> a & c If by addition of - TT, then we
V-1>
And similarly
a*J-l, -a, a*J-l, a, &c.
proceed through
The remembrance of the meanings of the
for other roots.
a,
>
symbols will save rules
whatever angle we add to
the wi th part of that angle to
The same
may be made
of which
But the
first
is
satisfied
<px
\x I}
x,
we add
root.
difficulty occurs in treating the
= c<px,
(- x)
all
m th
its
equations
c(px, &c.,
to appear to require
<?
1,
as above.
by
= xm
if (- l)'"
= c;
and the second by
x = (log*),
And
if
(-
1)'"
c.
is of the preceding kind in both cases.

a and b are unit-line symbols, and the length
than that of a, ^(a? - 6 2 ) is a unit-line symbol, as
Let OA and OB be a and b (the reader may supply
the explanation
As long
of b less
follows.
as
AC OB
=
on the limit line.
the diagram), and take
From O
draw a tangent to the circle having centre
and radius AC;
let
the point of contact be
=
part of the unit line
b
is
OP.
P, and take
Then
OQ is
8
2
of greater length than a, V(a - 5 )
on the
axis of direction
is
now
OQ
+ V(
is
All this
of
is
evident from geometry
modern geometry
is
on the
- &2
)-
positive
But when
the symbol of a line
within the
circle,
OR
and
if
the
+ V( fl2 - & 2 )and nothing in the higher
circle cut the positive axis of direction in _R,
parts
is
more remarkable than the con-
stant connexion of the shortest
semi-chord passing through a

point within a circle with the length of the tangent drawn from
a point without it.
MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS.
146
The student may
investigate
for
himself the difference of
meaning of the following theorem,
(the second term having the sign of b) in the cases in which

a~
is
positive,
and those
in
which
it is
negative.
147
CHAPTER
VIII.
ON THE ROOTS OF UNITY.
THE
roots of unity are really,
an intermediate
of
plete,
when algebra
character
made com-
is
between the
quantitative
symbols A, S, &c., and the directive symbols + and
-.
may be
Thus
is
[1,
given absolutely to either class of symbols.
we find
number
They
(1)"
),
I
k being any positive or negative integer: and thus

132) that (1)"
(p.
the unit of length inclined at any
is
No
of w th parts of a revolution.
question, then, that
But if, considering -f

is a perfect particular case of A'\
and - in their directive character, we had chosen* to designate
(1)"
!_
(+)" the prefixed sign of a
by
restore +
back to that form
change of direction which would

after
n performances of
its
opera-
tion
and by
change +
(-)" a sign of
into -
after
such change of direction as would

n such performances
we might
;
have established the laws of exponents over

\_
(+)"
and
(-)",
and
i^
(i)"A and (-)"A would have had +
and -
for particular
\_
cases.
But the (+)"A and (-)"A of the second view

i
lutely identical with (+ 1)" x
are abso-
and
(- 1)" x
of the
first.
The present chapter treats these roots of unity in a manner

which is by no means uncommon and which in itself involves
;
* The
only point in which I differ from the view taken by my
deceased friend, the late D. F. Gregory, one of the most profound
thinkers who has ever attended to the subject, lies hi this, that
he advocated
either the necessity or the unavoidable expediency

and I look upon the two as equally sound,
of the second view
and the choice

merely by usage.
as
question of convenience which
is
settled
148
The proand
a full half-leaning to the purely directive definition.
of
perties
these
established
are
roots
on the
definition
no knowledge of the algebraical forms is denothing else

manded, or established for use. The properties, for instance,
:
of the forms of (I) 5
and
their relations to one another,
to the
forms of (1)" for values of n other than

of the fact (unknown,
forms are
and
may
it
common
the whole of this
Accordingly,
</- 3).
\ (1
are quite independent
3,
perfectly well be) that their
chapter might be translated into an algebra of directive signs,

of which -f and- are mere instances.
Thus, that a is a directive
sign which repeated n times has the same meaning as
-f, might
= signifying identity of directive meanconsider the roots of + 1.
"
be expressed by
I first
ing.
-t-
LEMMA.
If
and n be integers prime to one another,
- na =
Turn
can
be
1.
found, a and b, such that mb
integers
m -f n into a continued fraction, and let the approximation preceding the final restoration be a -f b. Then, by the property of
mb - na
the successive approximations,
Every
1.
th
root
The
root
first
1T
is
For
integers whatsoever.
or
1, is
n m
(a ) =
(a'")"
1,
"
that
so
root,
root
is
an
is
an
also
th
'"
1,
n -
kri,
1,
an mth root be an w th
root: for
m' and
n'
w th root
as before,
and
8*
it
is
also a
and
being prime to one another.
k.
be both
Let
a~*
1,
or a* =
??z th
1.
roots are both 32 nd
and
For
?z th
& th
(x
"*
1,
(except 1)
where
m = km',
Let m'b-n'a=
root
instance,
and 40 th roots
mb
then a
1,
'
we see from
we now see
32 nd and
roots.
5.
if
root,
Let
n.
that the 8 th roots are the only ones which are both
40*
"=l.
This holds
root.
of
root,
common measure
mb -na =
(1) that the
then
1,
or o
1,
Find a and b so that mb - na = i 1 if then

we must have ('") 4- (")" = 1 or a" = 1, or a = 1.
the greatest
is
root.
a" =
If
4.
M*
an
n
)
m th
whether n be positive or negative.

3. If m and n be prime to one another, no
is
1.
and n being any
then (a
!,
or
a root of every order.
m th
Every power of an
2.
an (?nn)
"'
=
if
th
+1
either
is
There cannot be more than n
a) (x
/3)...a, (3
being
all
th
the roots.
roots.
As soon
For xn -
is
as n separate
becomes of the w th degree, and
roots are discovered, the product

n
then identical with x -
is
except for x since
nx
6.
If
tl ~ l
or
a,
&c.
/3,
0.
a,
than
less
k~ l
Z,
its
a'
up"/
a'/3Y>
But 7P = 7* =
root.
/3'
p'"^
1,
therefore
?H, being prime to each other,
-f-
4-
7 -
and
if
roots, &rc..
instance,
m th
take
roots,
and because
an (wm) th
p and
7' is
a jth root, or
is
7'
7' is
rest,
are
a'
/j""-/"",
h
= 7""", therefore
/3"" are n' roots, 7'""
and
the
two w th
For an
a'(B'~/'...
that
follows
it
all
Then because a and
three classes of roots.
both a
_pth
an d an (?n) th
which cannot be.
root,
n be not a prime number,

and let n = P v QiRr.
If
8.
prime
factors,
root,
And
all
7 any
root,
the
n th
n
7),
Pp Q
Pp P***
since
*h
root,
its
Pp th
*s
&c., a/37...
an nth
and no more.
since n is a multiple
Therefore 0/37... t's an n'h root.
no two such products can give the same th root,
and therefore a" =
Next, (by
P, Q, R, &c. be
if a be any
Then
roots can be thus found,
First, (/37...)" or a"(B ^"... is

,
let
. .
Q3th
any
ft
root.
are
greater than, and
is
(being a prime number, and prime to

l}l
root cannot be
multiples), and an n
=
impossible that 0/37...
of Pp
but n
m, n, p, &c. be each prime to

be two different TO* roots, /3 and
If
7.
and
/)th root.
a and
is
we have a
numbers except
a (k -
/3"
product cannot vanish

of these roots be equal,
n be a prime number, and a be one root (not 1).

a 2 ... a"" are n different roots.
For if a k and /
therefore prime to, k -
this
Nor can any
1.
has no root except
1, o,
being
it
And
then
all
149
1,
Ixlxl...,
&c.
&c. are prime to each other.

roots,
th
Thirdly, since there
roots, &c. the number of
nations of one out of each set
is
Pp Qq
...
or
n.
combi-
Therefore
the varieties of such products give n different n th roots, or
all
all
the n th roots and no more.
Accordingly the whole question of finding roots has been reduced to that of prime orders and power-of-prime orders. All
the 360 th roots, for instance, are found whence the 2 3 h 3 3th and
t
5 th
roots arc" found.

9.
order.
Every order has some roots which belong to no lower

If n be a prime number, this is the case with n - 1 ot
03
150
the roots
Pp P
n be of the form
If
being prime,
p~
lh root of a lower order than n must be
of
the P
any n
(7)
except
(all
1).
'
order:
P being prime, P* is the only form of common

Pp and lower numbers, k not exceeding p Hence
P" - P" or Pp (P - 1) of the Ppth roots which
lower kind. Next, if n be Pp Q R
and if we take
for,
measure of
1.
there
are
where a
is
must give
1,
(a/ty...)'"
a'" =
and '" being a
(/3-y. ..)""',
1
last is
(Q
P^
11
&c.,
cannot be
less
than
it
may be
{3'"
'"
-l
Pp Q
there
M^
is
&c.
1,
root, so
Now
&c.
root,
Pp
has
For
be not =
are
...
m =
since a
among
its
1,
But
(/*/...)""'.
prime
and
1,
factors;
Q among its factors and so on. Hence

p q
n, or P Q R ...; while it is obvious that
has
n.
'\.. x
(P
an n ih
1)
(Q
roots which are of no lower order

1)...
that
(Arithmetic, p. 196)
is,
than n and prime to it, (1 included)

root which is no lower root: and all the other
less
roots are lower roots.
Let those nth roots which are no lower

cipal*
w th
roots.
Then
there
than 12, and prime to
less
Grant one principal
For
if
1,
a,
a"
*,
it,
root,
'
be
are
all
which k
divided
by
n,
above follows immediately.
all
and
different,
k, 2k,
...
(n
we
in
the second series,
its
terms altered in order.
see nothing but
Thus,
if
we
if
('
select
a*,
M) * are all dif-
series in a different
1)
same remainder
But if Ik = I'n + r, aft =
gives the
(Arithmetic, p. 195).
* I
1,
for
1, 2, 7, 11.
is
For the succession
order.
12 th roots:
principal
we have
and
be called prin-
roots,
2
prime to n, then 1, a*, a *,
ferent, and embrace the whole of the first
in
is
Qq R
and PP and
1,
if a'"
every number
for
ft'"
Hence the number of n th

is
P^h
root,
and no lower
1,
since
th
..)
Therefore
to each other.
is
q R'.
no lower
root of no lower order.
th
an
m
a =
...
roots which are of
one of the P***
is
kind, &c. then apy...
this
are of no
cifi-/...
k with each term
no
in
ar
the
two
cases
and therefore,
first
series with
a be a principal 12 th root,
would have said primitive nth roots, but Gauss has used
word in connexion with the subject of roots. Moreover,
this last
it
is
not that these roots are primitive nth roots, so
'nth' \s the primitive ordinal of these roots.
much
as that

5
12 th roots are
the principal
a,
powers of these, dividing by

the 12 th roots,
and
",
whenever
we form
if
it
a*
5
a7
a*
a"
a"
a"
All the powers of an n th root are cyclical.
10.
the
we have
occurs,
of them, arranged in the following sequences
all
12
151
if
Thus,
be a principal root, we have cycle of n; for we have 1, a, ...

a""
be not a principal root,
a"(=l), a"' (= a), ...... But if
1
the cycle
n being
number sub-multiple
ro.ot, we have
in
is
The negative powers

wards
a~ l
thus
of
a6
12, a be a sixth
a"" 1 , a' 2
same
only the
are
a"" 2 ,
n.
for
If,
1,
instance,
a*
&c.
a*,
cycle repeated back-
c.
The most convenient way of considering the roots is by

arranging them in reciprocal couples, or from the beginning
and end of the
we
a"
and
',
12 roots into
2
or a and er a
6
a, not a and
lastly,
being a principal
Thus,
cycle.
the
distribute
a3
The
<T 4
a"
a",
~4
and
12"'
5
;
root,
"'
and
or
and
''';
and
and each must be -
6
,
and -
to couple + 1
1.
1.
cycles of couples have a reverse order, both in the couples
Thus the double
in their succession.
thus:
The student must remember not

and
and
~3
and
for
"*,
1,
a and a"
1
,
7
or -1, a and a"1
and
a"
which
a and
is
a"
th roots run
cycles of 12
3
a"
and
a4
and
a8
a"
a5
4
,
and
and
which
"
5
,
is
and a 4 &c.
,
we have had nothing to distinguish one

But when we consider the values of
[Hitherto
principal
root from another.
the roots
(page 45) we see one pair of roots, both principal, and principal
among principals. They are the ones which have the smallest
angles in the
'2-
cos
first
sm
and negative
revolution, positive
27T
/
.
J-l
and cos
--
27T\
\
-.
2?:-
contained in
cos
+ sin
2w
sin
namely,
--
27T\
-/-I,
n
1,
(2w\
short of
the
w*i
is
an equivalent of
(1,
0).
But they are distinguished
152
from
other principal roots, in that they,
all
by their powers,
furnish the simplest forms of all the other roots, namely, with
angles in the
We
11.
first
we show
and negative.
half-revolutions, positive
be called radical n th
to
ought
They
roots.]
show a mode of forming
all
the 12'h roots whenever
mode
of proceeding from number to number, in

such manner that by casting out 12 whenever it arises, we get
a
results 0, 1, 2,
Thus,
11, in any order whatever.
beginning with any number, and proceeding by additions of 1,
the
or 5, or
in
we
or 11,
7,
obtain
Can we now do
(9).
the succession 0,
all
by successive
this
Trial will give reason to announce,
1, ... 11,
as
multiplications f
any case we may take,
in
that, leaving* out

(and consequently a or 1), we can always
find a multiplier or multipliers which will succeed with a prime
number.
With
succeed:
2,
for
13,
choose 6 as
7,
(cycle complete) 4, 11,
venient,
,
Of
o!
we have
aK
and
its
5
,
1,
for the
this cycle
other, as a
the following multipliers will
11.
have the succession
shall
a9
ins'ance,
Take any number

a multiplier
throw out 13
6,
it
a*,
',
4,
11,
&c.
1,
6,
is
a 4 , a", a, &c.
it
Beginning with
and we
arises,
1,
12, 7, 3, 5,
most con-
as
13 13t h roots of unity, a, 6 a 10 a 8

11
a
which, with 1, complete the list.
,
only
made
That
is,
if for
a we write any
to begin in another place,
Thus
successions are uninterrupted.
5
&c., are a
as
10, 8, 9, 2,
immediately seen that
is
the cycle
to begin with, say 4;
5 8
5
,
5 10
we have a method
5 8
,
(a
of arrang-
ing the roots in recurring cycles such that the substitution of

one root for another only disturbs the commencement of the
I return
cycle, and not the order in which the roots occur.
to this subject again.
12. Every function of the n w th roots, or of any of them,
which admits of being expanded in integer powers, positive or
negative, of them all, is always reducible to the form
+ AJI +
a being a principal root.
A^? +
...
Aâ"'
For when the expansion
is
made, so
* That we must leave out

is obvious enough, after what we
have seen of it as a starting symbol of addition, as opposed to 1,
the starting symbol of multiplication.

every term
that
th
ap /39 7r
of the form
is
roots, substitution of the values of
will give a series of
powers of
a,
which
an+1 =
a" =
a, (3,
...,
7,
/3,
153
...
7,
being
in terms of a
...
reduced to the pre-
is
Observe, I here speak

a,
1,
ceding form,
of the form only: that form may not be fit for calculation,
for
v &c., or some of them, may be divergent series.
since
&c.
A A
,
sum of the products of

but the product of all is
even or odd. This follows from
The sum of the w th
13.
the
roots,
every two, of every three, &c.,
is
1 or + 1,
according as n is
n
the structure of x - 1, and the theory of equations.
is
m th
where m
The sum of the
14.
always
0,
except
or negative, and then
l
If TO
side
is
not =
be
n,
and
15.
a"'"
S,
Any
real, is
real
= \
1
is
-f
positive
a""*
-am
or a positive or negative multiple of
it,
the
first
In every other case, a is

whence the sum of the terms is 0.
or n.
...
were not that proofs of unexpected simplicity

Multiply the sum by a'", it undergoes no altera-
tion except transferring
sum be
aW
it,
if it
are suspicious.
the
roots of unity
n or a multiple of
For
m
+ a + a*"+... +
obviously
Better thus,
is
n.
it is
th
powers of the
1'"
from the beginning to the end.

S=am S, or S=0, unless a"* =
we have then
If
l.
th
roots, otherwise
symmetrical function of the n w
for every such symmetrical function is a real func-
tion of the sum, the products of every two, &c.

n
16.
If in
any function of -JA,
\'
^ C,
B,
&c.,
we multiply
-\/A separately by every m

root, &c.,
root, ^ B by every
and introduce every combination of these values into the function,
functions in all, and multiply the resulting funcgiving mnp
n th
th
. . .
tions together, the product will be a rational function of
For example, ^x +
&c.
of unity, let
1,
a,
(V*+Vy) (-V*fvV)
is
2
,
-Jy
and -
be the cube roots.
(V*^
?/)
are
A, B,
C,
the square roots
Then
I say that
(-V^ 8 Vy) (V^^Vy)
(-Vx+a*fyy)
a rational function of x and y.
rational
same value,
th
function
if for
root of unity.
Â
of
is
known by
be substituted in
it
its
presenting the
a V-4,
being any
154
If in the product preceding, which

B7
"/
of V.4, a v
^4,
substitute a k
4+1
V^,
"/
a"' l
yA
&c....a"
vA,
we have
for V-4>
+i ~ 1
of the
Hence the product
If a, ft 7,
17.
</>(a, ft
* (a,
is
is symmetrical, makes no difa real function of

and so
rest.
The product of the
into
we
the same function of a* ^/A,
V^4, or of the same quantities interchanged
in order, which, as the function
ference.
a symmetrical function
is
a being a principal w th root,
Ap +
ft y,
..)
be
...
or
all
be a function of
y, ...)
six factors in the
Aâ
...
2
,
1' 1
-,
a, ft y,
is
th
some of the
- x3
y~
and
roots,
if
capable of expansion
...
then
2
,
example
...)+...
(a"'
y-
/S"",
1
,
...)
= nA v
Returning to the mode of arrangement in (9), we see that

and m' be two numbers which, divided by p, leave remainders r and r say qp + r and q'p + r the remainder of the
if
product
we
mm'
that of rm'.
is
and then
get above p,
If then
we take
a8
a,
...
until
reject the multiple of p, take only
the remainder
r, go on with ra,
and
again,
proceed as before, we
ra*, ...
until
we
get above
really form the remainders of
successive powers of a.
Thus, if we want to know the
remainders of the powers of 2 divided by 11, we have but to
the
form the
series
2,
4,
8,
(16, reject 11)
5,
10, (20, reject 11)
9,
(18, reject 11) 7, (14, reject 11) 3, 6, (12, reject 11) 1, 2, 4, 8,
&c.
if
Now
it is
proved, in works on the theory of numbers, that
any prime number be
taken, n, there are
numbers
less
than n
which the powers, successively divided by n, yield all the

n - 1 possible remainders before any recur.
That one of these
for
should always
exist, is
enough
for our purpose
so
but, in truth,
many numbers (1 included) as are less than and prime to n-l,

so many numbers less than n are there for which the powers
yield all remainders before any recur.
Thus, calling such numsubordinates of n, and examining 19, a prime
number, we find that 18 has 6 numbers below it, and prime
to it.
There are then 6 primitive subordinates of 19, and they
bers primitive.*
* Gauss calls them

primitive roots of the integer n but
term would cause confusion, unless the analogies by which
justified were introduced.
:
this
it
is

are
all
yield different remainders
the numbers
19* root
is,
when
18, are
1, 2, 3, ...
a be a principal
18
taking 14, 14 , 14 ... 14
divided by 19; so that all
1
That
15.
14,
13,
10,
3,
2,
155
among
If then
those remainders.
of unity, all the 19'h roots, except
1,
are contained in the set
The advantage of this is, that if for a we

we only change the commencement of the cycle.
we only remove the first and second
Thus, if for a we write a
above to the end. This is not the case when we write one for
2
Remember paranother in the more natural cycle a, a ... a""
and no one
twice.
write another,
14
ticularly that the root 1 never enters this series.

all the (n-l) th roots be known, and
Let us consider the expression
Let
P=a
+ a
-f
let
w be one
of them.
.,
or
m being a primitive subordinate

We see that change of a into a"'
......
Remember
of n.
is
Hi""
w
+ a
that
u>"~
=l.
here equivalent to multipli-
change of a into a"' to multiplication by to" and

So that P"~ is not aifected by writing any other root
cation by
so on.
iv
Hence if P"" be really constructed by multiplication, it

be found independent of a, or a function of w only; say Q.
= Vfi can be expressed. Let the form of it emHence
1
for a.
will
3
ployed be called 0w. Do this for each root 1, w, w ...w"'*,
and let a^ a 2 a 3 ... be the
iv being a principal (n-l)th root:
successive w th roots a"', ... We have then, taking the obvious
,
equation
when
0w =
Oj
0a>
2
00)"-
From
al
1) a,
- 1)
(n
af
4-
ttj+
fl
-f
f/X
'2
w*^ +
+ a
which, by the property in (14),
(n- !)! =
(n
used for w,
is
-!+
we
find
0a- +
z
+ w"" 0'1 + t^ (n -^w +
=-
= -
0f
w"- 0w
2
:<
'
+
+ W8(n
0w
-
2)
OX THE ROOTS OF UNITY.
156
Whence
it
when n
appears that
a prime number, the n th
is
roots can be expressed in terms of the (n-l)th roots,
when
therefore algebraically determinable
and are
the latter are so.
Writers on this subject give methods of reducing the labour

but as my object* is to show the possibility
of the preceding
th roots when n is a
only of finding the w
prime number, and
th
the (n
roots are known, I shall content myself with giving
l)
at length the determination of the fifth roots
number and
5
is
2;
and the succession
root other than
az + a4 w +
aW +
w =
w =
that
1,
aw 3
tv,
is
Hence, a being a
1.
2, 4, 3,
5 being a prime
primitive subordinate of
independent of
fifth
the fourth power of
root,
Now, remembering
a.
&c., the square of the preceding is
4
(a + a + 2) + 2
is
and w a fourth
1,
One
the 4 th roots known.
3
+ a) w + (a +
z
+ 2) w + 2
a*
(n
2
)
w3
and the square of this will be found, remembering that

1
+ a + a*
a 3 + a 4 = 0,
-f
to be - 1 + 4u) + 14w* - 16aA

roots,
and
and
lt
uLet tc v w v
4
&c. the values of the preceding.
4
VQj = a* + a a>j + a?u<* + ait>*,
similarly for the rest.
If
we have Q! = - 15 + 20 V-l,
w l = V~l a 2 = '
25,
Q3 =
li
be the fourth
Then we have
w s = ~ V-l,
- 15 - 20
V-l,
H-\
1,
1.
We now proceed to discover which of the fourth roots is to

be used; nothing being known except that we are to take the
same form in all cases. With no restriction, there are 4x4*4x4,
One form
or 256 different systems of equations.
is
determined
V^ 4 must be - 1 for a* + a 4 4 a3 + a = - 1.
by the question
Hence the form of Vl required is that of a principal fourth
root moved through an odd number of right angles. Now in
:
the case of a + b V~l, each form of the fourth root has

properties
roots
is
of
a principal form
a square root.
And
to
responding forms are such as
for
no
a + I V~l
one
4-
of
all
& n(l a - b ^/-l

-
q V~l and
the
these fourth
cor-
q V-l, sym-
* The hint of this limitation of

object is taken from the late
Mr. Murphy's work on the Theory of Equations but I have not
thought it necessary to enter, even so far as Mr. Murphy has done,
into the methods of reduction.
:
157
Take
metrically disposed with respect to the axis of length.
such a pair at pleasure, and move them in the same direction
through an odd number of right angles, and we have a pair
such as - p + q V~l and p + q V~l> which are symmetrically disposed with respect to the axis of direction and such is the
pair which must be chosen.
Now if we extract the fourth roots of - 15 20
the
:
V~l hy
formula
-i
we
shall find
them
all
contained in
pq V-!>
using like signs in the
signs for
- 15 - 20
(f
and
two terms
V-L And
q V-l)
for
V-l>
-15 +
VM
20 V~l> and unlike

5 + V5), q = Vi( - V5).
Choosing a pair symmetrical with respect to the axis of direction, we form the following equations:
-p
p
Sum
cation
We
8
+ q V~l = a + * V~l - aa - a V"1|
- V<5 = a* - a4 + a3 - a,
+ q V-l =
- 1 =
a*
a*
a*
-f
a + a3
-f
a V~l,
a.
and then sum them
these as they stand,
- V-l, -1, V~l>

by
3
V~l - a +
1,
1,
1,
V"
after multipli-
1.
-1 - /-!
1.
thus obtain
2
= - i (V5 + 1) + I q V-l,
= -i(V5 + l)-i?v/-l,
a4 = i (V5 - 1) +
=i(V5-l)~
which are well-known values of the
fifth roots.
i^ V~l-
W-l,
Changes of sign
have no other effect except different apportionment of the above expressions among the roots a, a*, a3 a4 .
The extraction of the square root of a + 6 V~l i s an operation
in p, or q, or both,
to which Euclid's geometry
is
competent;
it
requires only the
and the determination of a mean propor2

2
!
to
obtain
6 ), tan" 6
+
+ &*)> tan" b -f a}.
tional,
(V(a
a} from {V(
Hence it follows that wherever n is a prime number, and
bisection of an angle,
-J
n- 1
is
a power of
2,
-f-
the formation of the nth roots of unity
a geometrical* operation, in the ancient sense.
is
Euclid mastered
* This is the
discovery of Gauss, and is the most remarkable
addition to the power of construction which the ancient geometry
has received since the time of Euclid.
158
the
n -
cases
n = 5; the next one
3,
is
n =
17,
and the next
n = 257.
roots of - 1
The theory of the

the roots
xn = -
of +
a:
follows that all
it
1,
2"
Since
1.
is
really contained in that of

n
solved both by x = 1 and

the nft roots of - 1 are among the
1
is
1
2n th roots of + 1. If a be a principal 2n^ root of + 1, \ve must

have a" = - 1, a 3" = - 1, &c., and the n n^ roots of - 1 are seen
a3 a5
a2 ""
1 only, we have
Speaking now of roots of
the following theorems, answering to some of those in page 148.
The student may make a complete list of analogous theorems.
th root is an
Every
{m(2n + l)}th root. Every odd power of
in a,
...
m
m th root is an m* root.
th root
another, no m
(except
an
for a 2wi th root of
and n be prime to one

both be odd) is an w th root:
would then be a 2n th root, which can only
If
1, if
happen as to a square root.

If a be a principal 2n th root of 1, it is a principal nth root
of - 1.
For in that case a, a3 ... a2 "" are all different, and
1
only a"
is
And
1.
n* h
there are no other principal
roots of
-1.
a3
are
...
all
a2
"" 1
are
root of -
M*
Let a be a principal
a,
Nor
different.
wth roots of-
is
as
if
is
Among
if
the uses which
a" = a2n
as
(*-'^
many
1, and no more.
wth roots of - 1 is always
The
a- k ,
term to the end: consequently

is
2w th roots of +
a multiple of w.
that is, except when k

n
multiple, the sum is
we have
Therefore there are
not altered by multiplying by
first
au = a2W ,
of the & th powers of the
except where k
Then
1.
,
The sum
or 2n th root of +
any one of the second for

or - 1 = + 1, which is absurd.
as
principal
1,
8
4
2"
multiply each by a, and a a ... a
can any one of the first set be the same
all different
it
series a*
-f
a3* +
..
-f
0,
at 2"- 1 )*
except by removing the

is
except
a multiple of n.
If
it
when
a- k
1,
be an even
an odd multiple, it is - n.
may be made of the roots of unity,
the following are remarkable.
An expression may be formed, which goes through recurring

is a function, takes sucperiods of changes while x, of which it
n
stand
for
Let
values.
cessive integer
}^ n
x
(* + ft? +
a,
ft,
&c., being all the
through
0,
1,2,...,
1,
n th roots of
&c.,
Sz
-f
1.
Then
changes through
I,
as
x changes
0,0, ...1,0,...
Thus fl^g represents the z fh payment of a rent of
a,
which

due only every fourth year, the year
is
This
of payment.
-
&
v,
next being a year
after
is
- 2) - + cos(2# - 4)
cos(:e
<^
it
159
- +
cos(3x
6)
- +
cos(4a;
8)
^ JI
^-
the coefficient of the imaginary part always vanishing in a
sum
of powers.
a
4
This
is
+ COSTTX - cos
TTX
-
Again, a/i x + a ln x_ l +
a./i j .. z
pression which takes the

passes through 0,
...
1,
. . .
- cos 37rx\
- 2 /
a^n^^
of
cycle
+ A^x 4
... a,
an ex-
as
n.
1,
Aj?
...
is
them
the signs, the third by restoring
av
1; and repeats the same while x

so that (fax = a r when r
... 2n - 1:
0# be
n-
an expression in which the second cycle

If
represents
values a
changes through n, n + 1,
is the remainder in the division of x by
If n be formed from the w th roots of -
all
the above represents
formed by changing
and so on.
or infinite series, the
finite
roots of unity enable us* to give a finite form to
A m + A nMlx + A nMtnx* +
First,
suppose in < n
for
write ax,
......
a being one of the
/* th
m
Do the same for
1, and multiply by """', forming a"" 0az.
each root and add the results. The theorem on the sums of
roots of
the powers of the roots then gives

~S,i"'
(hax
Divide by x
obtained.
f*.' 11
* T
as
For
nt+n
x +
T
I
^
/^''"
-"
L
nH--in
and the required
find
A^x
+A
result
a^
/t+;1
is
+...
terms as are requisite.

be used, we may in the same manner
first
...
instance, let
it
my
,>."*"*
\j x for x,
of the
* In
-"wj+ji 3'
m-pn + k(k<n);
say
many
If the n*h roots of find A. m
m and write
Ifm>n,
and subtract
be required to find
x3
x*
6?L8!9
6.7...12J3
Differential
Calculus,
6.777.16.17
gave this as
(to
me) new,
expressing a doubt that so apparently obvious a method should

never have struck any one. I have since found it given by Thomas
Simpson, in the Philosophical Transactions, as read Nov. 16, 1758.
160
Write
x*
for
and multiply by
x,
a?
and we have
1.2.3.4.5,
e*, each fourth one being taken, beginning

Begin at x, and we should obtain the whole
selected terms out of

at
xh
series
-f-
1.2.3.4.5.
from
HIV 4 (- D
Whence
is
3 *-*
+ (V-i)
^'
+ (- V-i)
^-
},
1.2.3.4.5
the value of the required series.
In using this method,
sponding roots,
it
be best to take a pair of corre-
will
of the form
cos6sm6^/-l, and work
in general terms, that part of the

arises
that
from that
nVrn
...
4-
is
required,
a = cos# + sin0
we have
(ax)
(1
out,
of the functions which
Suppose for instance,
pair.
A mxm + A x*n
sum
(f)x
being <
(1
n.
+ x) 4 and
,
If
-/-I,
+ x cos0 + x sin# V~l)*

.
n m
or by a" ", then change the sign of 0,
Multiply this by a
~
and add, and we have for the part of ~S,an m(pax which depends
'
on the two roots
(1
in cos#
4 2x cose + s?Y
sin#.'/-l,
2 cos
|&
tan'
^^
m0j
161
CHAPTER
IX.
SCALAR VIEW OP ALGEBRAICAL SYMBOLS.

IT will be admitted that the view of the extended meanings
A+B
of
and
AxB
given in pages 118, 119,
is
a very natural,
and even necessary, consequence of the separation of subject

matter and operative direction in pages 115, 116 and that it makes
:
the entrance of the extended subject-matter dictate the mode

of assigning significance to
and
x B. But the transition
+
A B
A3
to
appears destitute of sufficient obligation to previous sugThis chapter, which is above most elementary student^,
gestion.
is
intended to defend the
mode
of transition, and to
show
that
adverse judgment which may be given upon it is partly

to be compared to the opinion which a beginner forms upon
the
the
law of a series when he has expanded but one or two

and which he retracts when he sees those that follow
terms,
and partly due

In
A B
4-
take the
to a failure of consistency in algebraic notation.
and
hint
to
denote
we
and we
see convertible operations,
convertible
placed between the subjects:
thus
operation
AB,
by a
symbol
A*B, might
denote
other convertible operations performed with the instruments A,
Again, we
see also a character of ascent,
and a connexion
It.
namely,
the right of distribution of the higher operation over the ten/in,

or separate instruments, of the lower.
Let us continue on
this
and invent an operation which bears to A x B the -saim

relation as A x B to A + B
and another yet again above
the last; and so on.
Having symbols for the first two, \vt
hint,
keep them
and provide a notation indicative of the degrnas we retain the terms square and cube, ami
of ascent, just
then pass to third power, fourth power, &c.
Let A"' B, A'"B,
A"B,
indicate
the
successive
the ascent, ro that our equations of definition are
steps
of
SCALAR VIEW OF ALGEBRAICAL SYMBOLS.
162
AxB = BxA,
A"'(BxC) =
1x1 = 1
(A'"B)x(A'"C)
O 3"'O 3 = Q
Q '"Q = Q
'"C) = (A"B)'"(A"'C)
'"C) = (A
t'
B)
llf
(A*
(7)
&c.
&c.
Again, in
of which
A+B
it is
and
AxB
no instrument except the

third columns are formed
initial
symbol
symbols
1x1 =
is
used,
1,
and
that
when
nothing but
by obvious extension.
us denominate by the
let
initial
= 0,
The equations of the second and
the initial symbol results.
Now
we have
the property, as in
&c.
name
of scalar function or
operation the function which has this property, that its performance on the compound is equivalent to the next lower
of its performance on the separate terms: so that,
'
(n
be
the symbol of the scalar function connecting
X^ liH
M B, we have
and
compound
if
l}
It
might
be supposed that we could have different

but a moment's consideration
at first
scalar functions at every transition
show that the
perfect accordance of the different symbolic

relations would enable us to generalize the scalar system, so
as to make all its steps alike, if it should so happen that in
will
any one part of the system we found a scalar function of a

more general character than had theretofore appeared. The
utmost variety that we can admit is, that in one ascent one
particular case should be taken, and in another, another, of
the most general form which exists.
Nor is any argument against the above to be derived from
the fact of the sequence of operations having a commencement;
for there
is
The operation which
no commencement.
in truth
A B or A + B AB, satisfying
A + (BC) = (At B)(A +
l
precedes
is
C).
And, understanding any sign + or - in parentheses,

braical sense, we have
A
The
initial
(B
symbols
<-
C) = (A B)
may be
<-"
(A
in
an alge-
C), &c.
represented by
Q^,
fi^, &c.
163
The system of operations is then interminable in both direcLet X be the symbol of the scalar function, and let \
so that \\A = \\A = A, for one
represent its inverse function
tions.
Suppose, in order to assimilate our system to

that of algebra, that whatever forms \A may have, \A has but
value at least.
one form;
struct a
is A, though \\A may only have A

would be best, as in algebra, to con-
so that \\.A
for one of its forms.
It
main system upon one form of \A, and
results of other forms of
\A
to express the
In this
in terms of that system.
\ and X
having each only

and all the direct operations as having each only
It is now clear that if only one of the convertible
trunk-system, \ve
one form;
one form.
may
consider
as
operations be given, and the scalar function,
all
are given
and
we have
that
m
y (\A !)) = \\A =
= \D.
for
Om
and
this
A"
is
\Q nt whence
The symbols of ordinary
algebra, considering the various

they have attained their positions, have
have
+ B,
B,
great, but not perfect, consistency.
and the scalar function log^4 the last derived immediately, by
by which
accidents
Ax
We
A +B
Napier, from the connexion of

directly*
AB, and
and
not in-
from the exponential function, which he knew nothing
The exponential function is out of the system, strictly speakof.

for it will be found that the scale of operations having
ing
the indices ...... (- ll), (- l), 0, I, n, ill, IV, &c., is, in the ordi:
X being used
nary language,
......
X3 (V
"
X(Xa + X6)
X
The
(\ a +
initial
&6
or
"
v*(\*a +
or ab,
\3b)
X2 (e
),
for log.,
**
symbols are
+
X
\ &c
e* ),
2
X(e
6) or e
-1-
XaA *
a +
e ),
or a
Xi
b,
or 6
Xa
X30, X2 0,
XO, 0,
1,
e,
&c.
* So that
first
by going back to the sources, we find the logarithm

exhibited as the scalar function by Napier, its inventor, and
the trigonometrical system first appearing as founded on ratios, in

the writings of Rheticus, who first presented it complete.
164
AE
Accordingly, in
there
not scalar relation between
is
and B, but between \A and B.

And the preceding is not
merely justification, but even proof, of the necessity of making
y (\A.\ B) the definition of the next step to AJB, and of making
B
our symbolic departure from
\ (\A) the definition of
The
origin of
A B is
in the following.
connected
at
Looking
AVith a
notion which
and
not as the
is
developed
initial
symbols
of two distinct operations, but as the initial symbol of ah operation (+)
and
and the
Y->
scalar step of its subject, let successive operations,
be defined by the relation that
TH^
That
is,
let
1)=0(TM,
3).
the several definitions be derived from the solutions of

1)
1)
= .80-4
which gives <pA =

=
</>A
+ B,
(j)A
B^.
l) =
AB,
.....
B\
&c.
This last gives a function not capable of
finite
representation
under existing symbols, though we may commence with
01 =
02 =
a,
03 =
jg*
J5
CBaj
,
&c.
be expected nor desired that any substitute

B
but the more the mind accustoms
should be adopted for A
as
a
function rather of log
than of A,
to
consider
this
itself
It is neither
to
the better.
Any two
x and y,
convertible functions of
being given, as
(x,
two consecutive members of a
y) and ty (x, y)
scale, the follow-
ing condition of distribution must be satisfied,

(y
V' (*.
=)}
must
arid the scalar function
\yr
A.
(x,
be"
y)
x y)
>
V-^
(x, =)},
determined from
(A*, Ay),
being a functional symbol.
Every solution of
this
of an algebra, in which,
system
(x, y)
is
a chance for the invention
being denoted by
y
by xy, and \ (\x, Ay) by x^ or y
ordinary algebra remain good.
YT (x, y}
In double algebra, the scalar function, in

form,
all
its
is
\R
= (m
-f
n V-l) log r +
(/*
"V" 1 )
e>
+ y and
the laws
of
most general

X (r,
the condition
0)
= log
and unaltered inclusion of
And
will
it
which
r,
165
necessary to the complete
is
m = l,
single algebra, gives
n=
Q.
be found on inquiry*, that the adoption of

log r + (M + v v 1)
is
of
no
common
whatever, except what would in
effect
be called the choice of e (/wwv
lj
algebra
instead of
for a base
e"*'
of
angular exponentials.
If a moment's hesitation should arise on the retrograde symbols
of the scale, the reader
may
try the equation
ABC=(A + B)(A +
A 4 log (6 B
When
two successive operations have the required
formed from the scalar function.
if
fined as
distribu-
the next
that character necessarily attaches to
tive character,
one,
C),
A+B
Atc
C
+ 6
+ 6 ) = log (6
).
\ (\A
Thus,
A '"B
if
be de-
we have
x \B),
(BxC) = \ {\A x (\B + XC)} = \ (X^t x \JB + \A x

But P x Q = \(XP XQ) or \(P Q) = \P x \Q so
'"
-f
4-
A'"(B xC) =
and so on
When
\(\Ax \S) x\(\Ax
\C).
that
= A'"S x A'"C,
X(7)
for the rest.
the inverse
function
scalar
system has the same properties
is
used,
the
regressive
the progressive one
with
Hitherto I have said nothing of inverse operations.

be the inverse operation of A"B; so that A"Bn
Let
as
the direct scalar function: for
A nB
And
B - A.
for
A,B and
AB
tl
use
A-B
A- B.
and
If
any one of
the inverse signs follow the rule of signs (p. 103), so does the
next.
That
we have
is,
if
for
instance
Q^(QÂ) = QfA
3l/l (Q, 3lll
- A.
A)
give
Q^'A
or
A,
For
A
=
or
XQ
X (A^B) = \A
4///
\,
M)
(XQ 4//
= \A, by hypothesis,
" On
* The
complete investigation will be found in a paper
the foundation of Algebra, Part in." in vol. viii. of the Cambridge
Philosophical Transactions.
166
or
,(Q i/y A)
Q 4/K-4
An
And
A.
is
t/l
true for
it is
of signs be
conversely, if the rule
true for
Q a ,,A.
algebra, similar to ours, requires but the following fun-
damental basis.
Two
that
-f
and
distributive over the
A + B, A x B, convertible, so
A x B = B x A, and having the second
first as in (B + C) x A = B x A + Cx A.
consecutive operations,
A B = B+A
scalar operation,
\A, having the property
\A
X (A x B) =
One
+ \B.
starting symbol, 0, wholly ineffective in
its
own
operation,
so that
An
= A,
A - B,
inverse operation, seen in
0,
and giving
(0
A) = A.
Strictly speaking, one operation
and
function
scalar
its
thus
\ (\A + \JB) is
the whole system of
inverse,
to
sufficient
and
are
its
for
Ax B.
express
and
scalar functions
and the
inverse,
sufficient
But the invention of two
be deduced.
(A-B) + B = A;
so that
expression
And
hence
starting symbols
may
operations, followed
by
that of a scalar function, has been the order of discovery.
The formation of a symbolic system on the seven operations

of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, involution, evolution,
and formation of a logarithm,
unsymmetrical
pression,
but the redundancy
and the reduction
to
easy to
one practised
This last will be best
stands.
it
means of ex-
in
rich
is
symmetry
in the language of algebra as
both redundant and
is
is
seen by assimilating the notation more closely to that of

Let 0, /( 0,,, 0,,,, &c., be thus defined:
algebra.
0,
1,
Let
0,,
=
=
n,
e,
E",
O,,,
n =
/t
Ov =
s ",
and
distributive
is +,,
x, is
-},
4-,,,
+,,
+,
&c.
properties remaining,
or
&c.,
or n k =
&c.
Let the progressive symbols be

&c. thus connected; x
;i
= \"0.
n.
&c. and
b)
x,,
(a +
6)
= a
x,,
6 +
we have
2,, x,,
x, x,, x,,,
Then, the convertible

all
theorems of
ordinary algebra holding good, when any one suffix

below + x and all numerical coefficients. Thus
(a +
common
x,,
-f,,
x,,
is
placed

means the following
in ordinary language.
The
first
side
167
is
e
the second side
is
This chapter may

whence the equation may be easily verified.
show the necessity of connecting successive operations
serve to
by the
it
scalar or logarithmic operation,
may be done
and the ease with which
without any permanent disturbance of established
notation.
THE EXD.
>!etcalf<
and Palmer,
Printers,
Cambridge.
University of California
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Trigonometry and Double Algebra (1849)

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AND DOUBLE ALGEBRA

et la geometrie ont et6 separees, leur progres ont ete lents

Tant que 1'algebre

UPPER GOWER STREET AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.

before the reader

being in any sense a second edition of that which

on the same subject in 1837.

to give the student

knowledge of arithmetic and algebra

works on those sub-

and a constituent part of the foundation of the higher

double algebra has not yet obtained cur-

rency, though that of triple algebra has, of late years,

been much employed.

each symbol stands for an object of thought having

be perfect, must desig-

and direction of the

thought, and some discussion,

algebra, any of those

bewildered by an art in which impossible quantities,

slow degrees, and the union of

heads, the art

has become a science, and the impossibilities possible,

Feb. 10, 1849.

Symbols of Algebra are discussed.

Dissertation on the use

of the Negative Sign in Algebra.

London, 1796, 8vo.

WILLIAM FREXD. The Principles of Algebra.*

M. L'ABBE BTJEE. Memoire

Dedie aux amis de T evidence.

A Treatise on the Geomeof the Square Roots of Negative Quantities.

(Read December 18, 1828.)

Cambridge, 1830, 8vo. GEORGE PEACOCK. A Treatise on Algebra.

not only of imaginary but of negative quantities.

work suggested M. Buee's memoir.

tainer of the geometrical signification of

SOME WRITINGS ON ALGEBRA.

ber 18, 1830.)

London, 1834, 8vo.

London, 1836, 8vo.

Anonymous [GEORGE PEACOCK].

of a Course of Lectures upon Trigonometry, and the Application

Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions, Vol. XIV. Part 1. D[UNCAN]

imaginary quantity,' (at page 59).

Etudes Philoso2>hiques sur la AY

Paris, 1841, 8vo.

Cambridge, 1842 & 1845, Svo. GEORGE PEACOCK.

The Spirit of Mathematical Analysis,

relation to a logical system.

The author supposes

marked 'received April

THE REFERENCES ARE TO THE PAGES OF THE WORK.

gradual measurement of arc,

the Trigonometrical Functions,

and on Formula of One Angle.

projections, co-ordinates, abscissa, ordinate, 7

sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, cosecant,

versed sine, coversed sine, 9

complement, supplement, opponent,

Formulas which involve two or more Angles.

Extended notion of projection, 21 distinction of AB and BA,