(Dont) hit the planet!

Finding periapsis from position and velocity

Philip Blanco, Grossmont College and Carl Mungan, US Naval Academy
A space object detected at r = 20 REarth from Earths center has azimuthal and radial velocity components v = -1.23 km/s and vr= -3.54 km/s. What is its origin?
Possibilities include: a ballistic missile launched from another continent, an Earth-orbiting satellite, or a solar system object. Will it hit us, and if so, what velocity change is
required to deflect it? Starting with conservation laws, we develop a dimensionless, graphical method to find the closest-approach (periapsis) distance of any unpowered
space object. We apply this method to simplify and solve some interesting problems in introductory astrodynamics.

1
GM
Mechanical Energy per kg : " = (vr2 + v#2 ) $
2
r
Angular momentum per kg : h = rv#
At periapsis distance rP, radial speed vr = 0 while
azimuthal speed v = h/rP,

After normalizing by local circular speed, one can plot

any objects instantaneous velocity on Figure 1 below.
Points within, on, or outside the dashed circle
correspond to elliptical, parabolic, or hyperbolic orbits.
All circular orbits appear as one of the two green dots.
$%&' "' /,0&,%12 ,3 4+1#(42#2!-%11+0& 5#2&(0-+ 1(&#, #!!#

2GM h
= 0 at r = rP
r
r
2

! ! r + GMrP " h = 0
1
2

local circular speed vC = GM /r , i.e. vr ! cr vC and v! ! c! vC ,

GM 2 2
GMr and ! =
c +c #2 .
2r r !

2+

Note: Computing (cr c - 2) tells us whether the orbit is

bound (<0) or unbound (0).
2

Using these expressions for h and in Equation 1 gives

2

$ rP '
$ rP ' 2
2
2
c r + c" # 2 & ) + 2& ) # c" = 0 (2)
%r(
%r(

- a quadratic equation that can be solved for rP/r, the

periapsis-to-current distance ratio
- forms a set of hyperbolic contours of constan rP/r in
normalized (c, cr) velocity space see Figure 1.

Recipe to characterize an orbit

1. Calculate local circular speed vC = GM r
2. Normalize object s velocity components by this
circular speed: c = v/vC and cr = vr/vC.

3. Compute cr2 + c!2 ! 2 (<0: bound, " 0: unbound)

4. Plot (c, cr) on Figure 1, and/or solve Equation 2 for
periapsis distance rP.
Possibilities:

(c

2
r

+ c!2 ! 2

rP Rplanet

!"&

!"$

rP > Rplanet

!"&

!"$

!"'

!"*

!"+
!"#

!"$

!"*

!"(

!"+

!"+

!"&

!"'

!")

!"%

!"%

!"$
!"'

!"&

!"+

!"+

!"(

!"#

!"+

!"*

!"*

!"#

!"#
!"%

!!

!"%

!")

!"(

!!

!"'

!"&

!"$

Effects of various impulses (see Figures 1 & 2):

In decreasing order of magnitude

!"$

!"&

!"
#
"
!"#$%&'() *+),-#&. !
! "
!"

Blue: Radial impulse, changes energy but not angular

momentum. (This example zeroes the incoming radial
motion, instantly turning the hyperbola into an
elliptical orbit with apoapsis at the current distance, and
raising periapsis.)
Pink: Retrograde, minimum impulse for instant
capture into a just-bound orbit (but also lowers
periapsis - careful!).

!")
!"*

Now apply a single specific impulse (delta-v) to the

Earth- approaching asteroid of Example #1. An impulse
vector (normalized by the local circular speed) appears
as an arrow on Figure 1; the contour value at the arrows
tip shows the resulting periapsis/radius ratio.

Green: Circularizes orbit at current radius

!"%

!"*

!"

!")

!"#

!"#

"

!"(

!"'

(1)

Express h and ! in terms of instantaneous velocity relative to

" h =c!

!"(

!")

!"%

2
P

!"#$"% &'%()$*+ !! ! "! !"

i.e. vr2 = 2 +

Example #2: Asteroid deflection

Periapsis contours in velocity space

Conservation laws give periapsis distance

!"'

!")

!"(

The black dot shows the Earth-approaching objects velocity

components from Example #1. Arrows show the effects of
various impulses on it (Example #2).

Red: Prograde azimuthal-only, increases angular

momentum around planet ( centrifugal barrier ), raises
periapsis.
Brown: Minimum impulse to raise periapsis, normal to
the desired final contour. (The example shown here
raises rP to 0.5r, by reducing radial and increasing
azimuthal velocity.)
FIG. 2. Incoming hyperbolic path of Example #1
(black, shown dashed for no impulse applied) , with
results of impulses described above.

The purple dashed line (with orange marker 2/3 way along),
shows the result of an adhesive collision between two coplanar
orbiting objects with mass ratio 2:1 (Example #3)

Example #3: Adhesive collision in 2D

Mechanical energy is lost in the inelastic collision, but
total angular and linear momentum are conserved.
For coplanar orbiting objects A and B, momentum
conservation gives postcollision object s normalized
velocity components,

cr =

mA cr ,A + mBcr ,B

(m

+ mB

, c! =

mAc! ,A + mBc! ,B

(m

i.e. the combined objects (c, cr) lies on the straight line
connecting original objects velocity components on
Figure 1. Position along line depends on their mass
ratio.
E.g. collision of two objects (one bound, one unbound)
with mass ratio 2:1 - see Figures 1 and 3. Can also
reverse time and plot result of 2D explosion pushing
orbiting objects apart.
Try it yourself! Draw a line between any two points on a
copy of Figure 1. Can see that, for example:
1. A collision with stationary object (c,B = 0, cr,B = 0)
always lowers periapsis.
2. A collision between identical prograde orbits (same
c, opposite cr) always raises periapsis (first shown by
Moulton in 1928).
FIG. 3. Adhesive collision of coplanar orbiting objects
Dashed purple path:
Hyperbolic trajectory of A, mass m:

#"
3m

Dotted purple path:

Elliptical orbit of B, mass 2m
Orange path:
Combined object, mass 3m

Example #1: Earth-approaching object

!!"

Given r = 20REarth = 127420 km, v = -1.23 km/s, vr= -3.54 km/s,

$"

2m

!#"

$"

!$"

vC = GM /r = 1.769 km/s c = 0.70, cr = 2.0,

!$"

plotted on Figure 1.

< 0: bound

Ballistic missile watch out!

Orbiting satellite

(cr c - 2) = +2.49, i.e. unbound, so object must be an

incoming asteroid/comet!

0:
unbound

Asteroid/comet on collision course!

Asteroid/comet
fly-by safe!

Solve Equation 2 rP = 0.197r 4 REarth , a near miss!

(Geostationary satellites orbit at 6.6 Rearth)!

2+

+ mB

See Figure 2 for orbit (black hyperbolic path)

!#"

!!"

Distances in Earth radii. Blue disk: Earth

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