Types of Solutions: Solution- homogeneous mixture of two or

more substances of ions or molecules.

Gaseous Solutions- Nonreactive gases or vapors can mix in all proportions to give

a gaseous mixture (solution)

Liquid Solutions- Dissolving

a gas, liquid and solid in liquid solvent to give

liquid solution
Solid Solutions- solid mixed in solid and formed a homogeneous mixture
give solid solution

Chapter 1

Solutions
Text book: General Chemistry, 8th edition, D. Ebbing and S. Gammon, 2005, Houghton Mifflin Co.,
ISBN-10:0618399410

Solutions

Types of Solutes and Solvents:

Solutions

Solutes and solvents may be;

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more

pure substances.
In a solution, the solute is (are) in the smaller
amount and dispersed uniformly throughout the
solvent (larger amount).
Solvent

Solute

Solids- sugar, Salt,

Liquids- vinegar, ethanol,
Gases- CO2, O2, Ammonia

Water as a solvent: most common substance in nature.

O-H bonds are polar

Solution

O-atom sharing electrons with two H atoms

O-atom is electronegative than H atom

Liquid Solutions:

Miscible liquids- Miscibility is the property of liquids

to mix in all proportions, forming a homogeneous
solution
example: Aceton and water

Immiscible liquids- Immiscible liquids are liquids that

do not dissolve in one another
example: Methylene chloride and water

Solutions
How does a solid dissolve
into a liquid?
What drives the dissolution
process?
What are the energetics of
dissolution?

How Does a Solution Form?

Solid Solutions:

Na metal melts 98 oC and K metal at 63oC

Mixed together (20% Na)
Resulting M.P. lowered to -10oC
Low Freezing point
Used as a heat-transfer medium in Nuclear
reactors
Dental filling alloy- mercury (liq) in silver
(solid)- solid solution

1.
2.
3.

Solvent molecules attracted to surface ions.

Each ion is surrounded by solvent molecules.
Enthalpy (DH) changes with each interaction broken or formed.

Ionic solid dissolving in water

Attraction of water molecules to ions because of the

ion-dipole force.

Factors Affecting Solubility

Dissolution vs reaction

Chemists use the axiom like dissolves like:




Ni(s) + HCl(aq)

NiCl2(aq) + H2(g)

dry

Polar substances tend to dissolve in polar solvents.

Nonpolar substances tend to dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.

NiCl2(s)

Dissolution is a physical changeyou can get back the

original solute by evaporating the solvent.
If you cant, the substance didnt dissolve, it reacted.

Degree of Saturation

Factors Affecting Solubility

The stronger the
intermolecular
attractions between
solute and solvent,
the more likely the
solute will dissolve.

Unsaturated, Saturated or Supersaturated?

Saturated solution
Is a solution that contains the maximum amount of solute at a given
temperature.
Unsaturated solution
A solution that is able to dissolve more solute at that temperature and
pressure
Supersaturated solution
A solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be
dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances

Example: ethanol in water

Ethanol = CH3CH2OH
Intermolecular forces = H-bonds; dipole-dipole; dispersion
Ions in water also have ion-dipole forces.

Gases in Solution

Factors Affecting Solubility

Glucose (which has hydrogen

bonding) is very soluble in
water.
Cyclohexane (which only has
dispersion forces) is not
water-soluble.

In general, the solubility of

gases in water increases with
increasing mass.
Why?
Larger molecules have stronger
dispersion forces.

Increasing pressure
above solution
forces more gas to
dissolve.

The solubility of liquids and

solids does not change
appreciably with pressure.
But, the solubility of a gas in a
liquid is directly proportional to
its pressure.

Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar compounds (like fats).

Vitamin C is soluble in water.

Writing Solution Equations

Henrys Law
The solubility of a gas is directly proportional
to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution.

1. Write out chemical equation for the dissolution

of NaCl(s) in water.
HO
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
2. Write out chemical equation for the dissolution
of tylenol (C8H9NO2) in water
2

Sg = kPg
where

Sg is the solubility of the gas;

k is the Henrys law constant for
that gas in that solvent;

Pg is the partial pressure of the
gas above the liquid.
Temperature- Solids solubility

H2 O

C8H9NO2(s)

C8H9NO2(aq)

Generally, the solubility of solid solutes in liquid

solvents increases with increasing temperature

14

Temperature-Solids solubility

The opposite is true of gases.

Higher temperature drives gases out
of solution.


Carbonated soft drinks are more

bubbly if stored in the
refrigerator.
Warm lakes have less O2
dissolved in them than cool
lakes.

Dilution
In a dilution

water is added.

volume increases.

concentration decreases.
M1V1= M2V2
M=molarity, v=volume

N1V1= N2V2

Concept Check
Most fish have a very difficult time surviving at elevations much above 3500 m. How
could Henrys law be used to account for this fact?
Solution
As the altitude increases, the percent of oxygen in air decreases, and thus the partial pressure
decreases. Above 3500 m, the partial pressure of oxygen in air has decreased to the point that not
enough will dissolve in the water to sustain the fish.

V=volume, N= normality

Percentage by volume (%(v/v)) =

Percentage by mass (%(m/m)) =

Volume of solute
total volume of solution 100
mass of solute
total mass of solution 100

Mass of Solution

Ways of Expressing
Concentrations of Solutions

50.00 g KCl
solution

Mass Percentage

Mass % of A =

mass of A in solution
100
total mass of solution

Molarity and Dilution

Parts per Million (ppm)

ppm =

mass of A in solution 106

total mass of solution
Milligram solute in litre solvent

Molarity (M)

Parts per Billion (ppb)

ppb =

mass of A in solution
109
total mass of solution

M=

mol of solute
Litre of solution

Because volume is temperature dependent,

molarity can change with temperature.

Micrograme solute in litre solvent

Mole Fraction (X)

XA =

moles of A
total moles in solution

Preparing a 1.0 Molar Solution

A 1.00 M NaCl solution is prepared

by weighing out 58.5 g NaCl (1.00 mole) and

adding water to make 1.00 liter of solution.

Molality (m)

In some applications, one needs the mole fraction

of solvent, not solutemake sure you find the
quantity you need!

m=

Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Publishing as Benjamin Cummings

mol of solute
kg of solvent

Because neither moles nor mass change with temperature, molality (unlike molarity)
is not temperature dependent.

Colligative Properties

Colligative properties depend only on the

number of solute particles present, not on the
identity of the solute particles.
Among colligative properties are




Vapor pressure lowering

Boiling point elevation
Freezing point depression (Refer Experiment
No:2)
Osmotic pressure

Solutions

Vapour Pressure Lowering:

Raoults Law: is a law that relates the vapor pressure of a
solution is dependent on the mole fraction of a solute added to
solution.

Concentration
Concentration Term
Molarity (M)

Ratio
amount (mol) of solute
volume (L) of solution

Molality (m)

amount (mol) of solute

mass (kg) of solvent

Parts by mass

mass of solute
mass of solution

Parts by volume
Mole Fraction (X)

Psolution = solventP0solvent
where
Psolution is the vapor pressure of the solution
solvent is mole fraction of the solvent
P0solvent is the vapor pressure of the pure solvent
 Boiling point: The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the
liquid phase equals atmospheric pressure

volume of solute
volume of solution

 Boiling-point Elevation: The difference in temperature between the

b.p. of a solution and the b.p. of the pure solvent

amount (mol) of solute

moles of solute + moles of solvent
26

Colligative Properties of Solutions

Osmotic Pressure

Colligative properties deal with the nature of a solute in

aqueous solution and the extent of the dissociation into
ions
Electrolyte Solute dissociates into ions and solution is
capable of conducting an electric current
 Strong Electrolyte Soluble salts, strong acids, and
strong bases dissociate completely; thus, the solution is
a good conductor
 Weak Electrolyte polar covalent compounds, weak
acids, weak bases dissociate weakly and are poor
conductors
 Nonelectrolyte Compounds that do not dissociate at
all into ions (sugar, alcohol, hydrocarbons, etc.) are
nonconductors

The pressure required to stop osmosis, known as

osmotic pressure, , is (for solution)
= MRT
where M is the molarity of the solution

For ideal gase: R gas constant, T absolute temperature, Osmotic pressure

PV=nRT
The molar concentration M of a gas equals n/V; therefore,
P=(n/V)RT=MRT

If the osmotic pressure is the same on both sides of a membrane

(i.e., the concentrations are the same), the solutions are isotonic.

29

Osmosis

Is the phenomenon of solvent

flow through a semipermeable
membrane to equalize the
solute concentration on both
sides of the membrane

Semipermeable membranes allow some particles to pass through while blocking

others.
In biological systems, most semipermeable membranes (such as cell walls) allow
water to pass through, but block solutes.
In osmosis, there is net movement of solvent from the area of higher solvent
concentration (lower solute concentration) to the area of lower solvent
concentration (higher solute concentration).

Water tries to equalize the concentration on both sides until pressure is too high.

Colloids:
Suspensions of particles larger than individual ions or
molecules, but too small to be settled out by gravity.

Tyndall Effect
Colloidal suspensions can scatter rays of light.
This phenomenon is known as the Tyndall effect.

Coagulation:

Coagulation is the process by which dispersed phase of a colloid is made to

aggregate and thereby separate from the continuous phase.

Examples;
Curdling of milk- Milk is the colloidal suspension. When milk sugar (lactose)
fermented to lactic acid
Clotting of Blood- Blood protein fibronogen coagulated and makes clott.

Operational Skills

Applying Henrys law.

Calculating solution concentration.
Converting concentration units.
Calculating vapor-pressure lowering.
Calculating boiling-point elevation and freezing-point
depression.
Calculating molecular weights.
Calculating osmotic pressure.
Determining colligative properties of ionic solutions.
Factors Affecting Solubility