IGO MORA
Sevilla, 2005
FOR SP ANISH
CONTENTS
UNlT I. ACQUISITION OF A SECOND LANGUAGE PHONOLOGY 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
.I
II
I
2.1
2.2
lntroduction
Main Methods
2.3
Dingnosliclcsls
28
53
UNIT V. CONSONANTS
Comparison of Spanish and English systems
Plosives
Fricatives and afTricates
Nasals
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
ISBN: 84-()09-6863-4
Depsito
83
84
89
92
95
104
106
114
Excrciscs
11 R
53
62
73
83
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
UNIT
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
37
37
40
43
4ft
21
21
23
1
8
9
17 .
127
127
131
140
144
145
146
]47 '
151
159
:
159
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
UNIT
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
UNIT
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
163
165
166
169
171
177
177
180
181
]88
192
193
196
20 1
201
203
206
21 O
I INIT X. INT()NI\TION
1n.1
'1'111' Mcaninl'.
01' Inlonalion
10.:2.
'1'!IeSlrllclure
01'
~~ll
~~
~
215
21)
aTolle LJllil
218
220
220
223
:~:
~~~~r~~s~:~
..~.~.
~~~~
~~~.
~.~.~
..~
~~.~.i.~~.
~.~.t.~.~.~~.i.~.~.::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::
;;~
0.5 Tone and lntonation Languages
221
UNIT Xl. CHECK YQUR KNOWLEDGE
235
CONSONANT
PHONEMES
239
241
PREFAC':
To Miguel
,i
!
i
I!
r
l'
!"\
'1
The first thing we have to take into account is that when a child goes to
school, he has normally acquired a more 01' less full competence of his
Ll. When a baby starts to talk, he do es so by hearing the sounds his
parents make and then imitating them. So, obviously, we can observe a
close relationship between oUt'hearing and the way we acquire our L l.
Production is highly related to perception. A child develops his
pronunciatignJro1!Lhis developing perceptual system. At first, all babies
produce common babblings,lITespective of what language they hear. Six
months later, they start to babble in a different way depending on the
~~p~~nt:".~~Jffants
spec.ific .Ianguage they ~ear. As ~~jor (~9/9L~r3J,
receve mput they acqUlre the abIlty to map the vanable speech. waves
onto a finite set of sound categories, which are probably innate and not
language-specific." Eimas (1974) showed that infants can discriminate
ItI
IdI
101
that (1980:2):
Plosive, dental
Plosive, dental
the sound
that
ItI
ItI
'--:'111"
I 101-:..-. ------.
,~
Idl
Idl
So, Ihe O!1ly way lo pronou!1ee lhese !1ew English sOll!1ds eorreelly
is:
Up to this point we have deaIt with two" terms wbich have not yet been
I'..WJ,.!'! nc!
'/ student of a
defined yet. Although It IS taken from gramea
tluite every
second language knows the meanings of LI (first Ianguage or native
Ianguage)
and L2 (second
language),
this distinction
is not so.
o
straightrorwardo
Llc (1997:41) defincs an L2 in thc rollowing way: "Sc
considcra L2 o Icngua cxtranjera a toda lengua quc sc adquicrc cn cdad
di tTcrent!y o
2
sound/s
is, he wilI go to his set of boxes and wiII pick up one of his sound/so In
th is case, the sounds IU 01' Id/ ..
I
O'Connor (1980) also explains that the sounds of our native language do
IlO! Id liS aeqllire Ilew sOllllds alld Ihal is why adlllts el1llll01 piek IIp Ihe
sounds of a foreign Ianguage as a child cano As he explains, in our native
Ianguage there is a smaII number of sound-units which we combine in
order to form words and sentenceso As we get oIder, we are dominated by
this fixed number of sound-llnits. O'Connor compares these sOllnd-units
SPANISH
Plosive,alveolar
Plosive, alveolar
Fricative, dental
characteristics
conceming
the
(a)
There are two types of acquisition of an L2: guidcd and non-guided (or
natural). The first one is related to the learning of a foreign language in a
clss with a teacher, a methodology, a prograrnme and so on. When
talking about this type of acquisition, so me authors use the term "to
learo" an L2. The second)s related to a natural context without a teacher
or pedagogical orientation; in this context, the leamer belongs to the
linguistic coml'l'1W1ityof this L2. This situation is similar to the
acquisition of an 11 and for this reason the term "to acquire" an L2 is
normally used. In fact, some authors only use the term "second
language" in this situation, that' is, when the student is living in the
speech community of this, L2; andothey prefer to use the term "foreign
plbcedu'11C l/te:
1 Therprocedure
is explainedby
Sebastin-Galls
and Soto-Faraco (1999:111) in
the following way: "We developed a variation of the(giiI~procedure that
inc\uded a two-altemative [orced choice test after each fragment was played. The
dirfercnccs betwecn thc two altcmativcs consistcd ofphoncmic contrasts cxisting
in Catalan but not in Spanish."
This tcrm was first introduccd by Sclinkcr (1972). Scc also: Brown (1994),
Cook (1993), Ellis (1994), Gass and Sclinkcr (2001) ..
4
r
UNIVERSIDAD DE SEVILLA
. Fac. Filologa BiblioleciJ
For exarnple, all languages have vowels but their nurnber and qualities,
differ from language to language. As Major (200 1:41) explains, the
following examples are the result of universals, not produets of languag~
specifie transfers:
consonants
may
pronour..ce
league
as
[Iix]
because
the
Ig/
,oOo",,i,-,
. ("
l
') 7
UG eontains
a set of absolute
universals,
notions and
principIes whieh do not vary from one language to the next.
Oi) There are language-specific
properties whieh are not fully
determined by UG but which vary eross-linguisticaIly.
For these
properties a range of choiees is offered by UG. One parameter
along which languages vary concems word-order.
O)
3
4
,1 lhierarChies
presenee ofandy frequency
but not
O
Spanish-speaking
learners of English modify three-member
frcquently than lwo-mcmbcr onscts (Carlislc, 1997).
Nativc Language.
Target Language.
6
, 7
onsets more
PJOIIO~Ogy
I
1.2 Phonological
L1e (1997)
phonoh'gical
processes
involved
in the acquisition
of an L2
of the most
of an L2:
common
iI
I
I
i
I
(1) Vocalic cpenthesis (Oller, 1974):.We can find this process either
in consonant clusters 01' just in final consonants. For example
[thari:]
for "tree"
01' ,[
seke]
for "sack".
!
I
I
I
1.
of elisions may be also found. Tarone (1980) has found that both
processes can be found in a language like English if its syllabic
structure is more complex than that of L l. So, in order to
simplify the syllabic structure, a Vietnamese will tend to elide
one of the consonants in an English final consonant cluster so
that the final syllable will be CVC.
(2) Substitutions
of some L2 sounds: The incorrect sound normally
OJ\C- single
sOllnd of L2 ean he
heIongs to L 1. Sometimes,
slIbslilllled by dincrent sOllnds in l1n IL. Llc (1997:'15):
1L..2..=::
--/[r]
[d]
Iwl
Ivl
Irl
[v]
ItV
[w]
[[R]
[z]
[b/P
[v]
R]
z] . ]
I ': 11 1',1b J
1.3 Contrastive
Phonetics
[s]
[5]
{&"[,
described
seven
[ 1]
(3) Elisions of unstressed syllables, reduplication
01' harmony
are
not normal1y found in the IL. Contrary to what we find in the
acquisition of an, Ll, an L2 do es not start with very simple
structures, absence of cortsant clusters 01' simple syl1ables of
the strvd:ure CV. It can start with very complex phonetic
structures (in comparison to the acquisition of an L 1) B UT with
a strong tendency to simplifiction.
(3)
when
trying
to' pronounce
/
--......
6
7
clear
[1]
in
postsyIlabic position.
Overdifferentiation:
It refers to those cases where two
phonemes
of Ll correspond
to one single phoneme in L2.
Haugen (1956) termed overdifferentiation
as convergent. When
comparing the phonological systems of Spanish and English we
can find the following examples7:
Spanish
!
'-
J
r
"-u ( ....
,,/:Xl.Tlc-C
.ft;'\I.Clll.s
u
I{'
, I
'1
ti
--'"------~..----------- ..-----------------------------
Phol1%f!Y
English
Spanish
At an allophonic
Spanish
Ir/:
Ir/:
approximant
At an allophonic
English
---.
/ .'1)
..' <SClLlllcl
'.
"-
\
1
/,'
.
Some examples8:
-/ ! i "~-
~C
Spamsh
English
11
[bIt~n]
distinction
[bIt])
German,
as divergent.
Spanish
is considered
the opposite
are considered
primary
di fference
("beet"
[bi:t] vs.
is secondary.
occurs,
"bieten"
[bi:t;m]
different
due to a difference
In
vs. "bitten"
in length.
in syllable
(6) Phonotactic Intcrfcrcncc: It rcfers to differences
and word structures. For example, although in English it is very
frequent to find a word starting with "sp-, st-, sk-", in Spanish
no word has this onset, which explains why Spanish speakers
insert an le/ sound: "estress'" instead of "stress" when speaking
English.
(7) Prosodic Interference: It refers to the tendency to transfer
prosodic pattems from Ll. So, a Spanish speaker would use a
syllable-timed
rhythm instead of a stress-timed
rhythm when
speaking English.
9 This only refers to Standard Spanish because we can also find a velar or dark
[3:] in the Spanish spoken in Catalua.
11
C(., "
i,,,
(,
clcar e()rr~lalion
dI angllagc-. l'
interfcrences
if the CA is limited to two languages, LI and L2, only.
Thcrc are important ir:dividual difTercnces in the phonological systems
of learners. Mackey (1966) shows h9W the non-existence
of the
phoneme 101 in the French (and Spanish) phonological system do es not
explain the reason why some speakers produce Isl or IzJ and others ItI or
to produce this 101 sound.
names
12 This topic will be discussed at greater length in Ihe next seclion. Thcrc is more
research against than in favour ofthis statement.
13 Zampini (1996), Eckman and Iverson (1994), Archibald (1992),
12
13
10
11
Spanish. In examples such as "estudiar: espaol, escuela" the [s] and the
[ t], the [p] and the [k] are not tautosy lIabic, that is, they do not be long
When the native language has a similar phoneme, this will be transferred.
Such is the case of Spanish lel and Id! and English ItSI and Id!. If there is
no closely similar phoneme in the native language, some other less
similar phoneme from the native stock will be used by the leamer. That is
the case of English 1hI. The Spanish speaker will normally omit it15 or
substitute it for !-xl. Other new sounds for the Spanish student of English
are Iv,o,z,J,3,d3/. Sounds which are completely new and which cannot be
compared to any sound (Le. phoneme or allophone) in the native
language (e.g. cIicks ofsome African languages for English people) have
to be leanled expressly, with no external hclp.
to the same syllable. The syllabification of these words is: es-tu-diar, es':,
pa-ol and es-cue-la. For this reason, when the Spanish student of English
tries to pronounce a word such as "study", he will produce "es-tudy".
(iv) What is the functionalload
We can say that a phoneme has a low functionalload when its occurrence
is somehow limited and it is not used frequently. That is the case of the
phoneme 13/, which is a phoneme of restricted occurrence because it is
not found in initial position16 and when in final position 17 it altemates
with Id3/18. Mott suggests that for this rcasan, \css attention need be paid
to it than to other areas of di ffic uIty in the English phonological system.
(5 ])
of each phoneme?
16
I
t
17
15
\,'\
\:1(\'
\v.~0\.ftJ
\
t/('(llIi.l'itiol/
AC(/lIisiliol/
/-~
o/u
.\'(,o/IIII,(III,L:lla,L:
/'//(I/lOIO,I~\'
lA Forrign !leernt
Use of the vowel system of the mother tongue. (100 % students)( J..ucvc!/J1e
Use of the palatal aITricatc instcad
lt
-+'/
l. of th~ English alveolar Ij/: "~,
yo u". (53 % students).c-,).(:' -,;J.-i eu.
3. Use of the Spanish dental plosive instead of the English alveolar:
"dear, don't". (85 % students)
4. Use of the paIatal affricate instead of the English palato-alveolar
fricative: "she, share". (52 % students) Su.6.si/hct( 0((
5. Use of the bilabial plosive instead of the labio-dental fricative: "van,
1
:
alveolar
fricative:
Lkd?I
:)
~ ']sounds
?00,.~1l!'~":~
7. Use
of the
dental(17plosive
instead of the voiceless dental frieative:,
"think,
lhollght"
% sludenls).
8. Wrong pronllncialion
01' lhe suflix -ed in lhe simple pasl and pasl
definition
I
I
"play s,
(2001:19)
\.
..&-(
'J,-'P .
native or nonnative
u roreign
or NN accenl
is by lislening
lo un
9. Lack
of aspiration ofregul",
in the voice]ess
plosives moved"
/p,t,k/: "pen,
(61 %,I1(Vc~ .,le,
. ,\, til.. detect
when
reading a word
list. other
The reason
this is
utteringto
p"'ticipleforms
vc<bs: "Iooked,
(100 %time"
students)
informal
conversation.
On the
hand, for
it wil]
bethat
mo"when
difficult
j
a wor~ in iso]ation, the speaker tends .to av~id some segment.al and
st.u?ents)
.'\
7;.:::' l (.
] O. ElIslon
of consonants
and consonant
clusters m final positions:
prbsodIc
phenomena
(no stress, no mtonatlOn,
more attention
to
"Spanish, stops" (73 % students) Phouoio.~
consonant clusters, ete.). In contrast to this, in syntax or semantics it is
11.Insertion of the vowel lel before the consonant elusters Ist-, sp-, sk-/:
easier to avoid certain phenomena
and so the foreign accent muy go
"Spain, stay, sky" (89 % studcnts) 'Y [u:X...lotclcircs
undetectcd. Major names lhe example 01' Henry Kissingerl9,
a German
immigrant
to the United States wel1 known for his eloquent use 01'
12.Use 01' lhe voiceless labio-dental fricative instead of the voiccd one:
"nI', have" (37 % stlldents)
(
Eng1ish and his German accent (Le. "lhe Joseph Conrad phenomenon",
13. Pronunciation
of silent leUers, espeeially "1": "would, walk" (91 %l
I(J.
. ",7 Scovel, 1988).
{
.
;
(~,,~
t'i11("
~.G e
d
- )Ic
~~se
\ ,.,<stu ofthe
ents) vOlcedLU
velar
IC ploslve
(Q~(~}('ybefore(- Iw/:
E' I"went,
V ~llQOj2-.
we" (54 % students)
"\1 ho \.,,-0 'Y(O\ c.e~'
7'
The learner's age of arnval
... m the eountry where the TL IS spoken and the
t~
f"
((j(J.SQ97LlQ.ll
The above resuIts wou1d point to' two basic types of error:
l. Those where we linu all example of subslitulioll
for a Spanish one whieh is rather similar.
2. "fhose which are due tO.differences
of distribution.
palato-
1 _
UALJ.er
Cez
'\
e{
f
"::.): r \D..Scr
age when he is exposed to this languagc for the first time seem to be
erucial factors when determining
whether the learner will acquire a
i).
-'-t
i ~~('?_~-----\0~~
h'_
(01 ~
19
16
17
Pcriod
(CP). According
to
Looking at this table, the first obvious concIusion is that adolescents and
adults learned faster than children during, the first months. Overall, it was
the adolescents
who reached the best levels of performance.
As this
seemed to chaIlenge
the Critical
Period
Hypothesis,
Snow and
Hoefnagel-Hohle
concluded that there is no Critical Periodo In contrast to
this interpretation,
Lightbown and Spada (1999:67) make the foIlowing
remarks:
Xy
XYAdult Child
Adolcsccllt
XLJ
lask
yLL
Y
y*
(1) Some ofthe tasks were too hard for young learners24
(2) y oung childrcn eventually catch up and even surpass
adults and adolescents if their exposure to the language',
takes place in contexts where they are surroundcd by the
language on a daijy basis. Adults and adolescents may
learn faster only in the early stages of second language
development.
'
(3) Adults and adolescents can make considerable and rapid
prol'.rcss towanls
mastcry or n sccond lanl'.ual'.c in
cDlltexts
daily
XY
Xy
whcre
basis in social,
persollal.
prol"essiollill,
01'
I1cadclllic
intcradion.
Although the CP was first proposed for L1 acquisition,
it was soon
extended to explain L2 acquisition. Most studies carried out in this field
(Long, 1990; Major, 1997; Neufeld, 1997; Patkowski, 1994) suggest that
there is a CP in phonology (Le. nativelike phonological
acquisition of a
second language is only possible at an early age). However, there is no
general agreement as to when this CP ends. Some authors say that it lasts
up to puberty but others claim that this is too late and suggest the age of
six 01' seven. Facing this situation, Major (200 1: I 0-1 1) concIudes that:
\\o.~.~.A1thQugh
They studicd English speakcrs Icarning Dutch. The study was carricd out in
Iolland.
21 When they taok their first tests they had been working 01' attending schaal far
no more than six weeks.
20
cr{l~O~r~he
" ,'\
'--"
evidence
is mixed regarding
(hllt Ihe gi"\)\IP WIIS (he best nll he les( lit the beginll ing nI' (he yellr.
18
01'
not of
CJ>, th;:cis-ovcrwhelming
evidence Ihat age does inOuence
aCljuisitiol1. Evel1 though there may be a small l1umbcr of older
learners who attain nativelike
phonology
(thus calling into
~ lndicfltl~s th~ ~f()Up thnt did best nt the t'nd of the yenr.
:' Indkllles
the existence
19
Acquisitioll
question
majority
more nativelike
TO PRONUNCIATION
TEACHING
the pronun?iation.
Magen (1998) studied two nativc Spanish speakcrs of fluent but heavily
accented English and tried to assess the contribution of various phonetic
and phonological factors to the perception of global foreign accent. The
following factors were consideredto
contribute to the perception of this
foreign accent: (1) those affecting syIlable structure (initial epenthetic
schwa, non-initial epenthetic schwa (-ed cnding,
(2) those afTecting
vowel quality (vowel reduction,
tense-Iaxness),
(3) those affecting
consonants (final/sI deletion, manner (/tSI-IS/), fricative voicing (/zJ-Is/),
stop voicing), and (4) those affecting stress (Iexical stress and phrasal
stress). Somehow surprisingly,
thc results revealcd that native Englishspeaking Iisteners were not sensitive to voicing differences. They were
most sensitive
to syllable structurc
factors, final /s/ dclction
and
consonant
\'TNIT n. APPROACHES
the CP if stated
as a yes/no proposition),
the vast
of the research indicates that the younger the learner the
::!tff1!,;5~
ll1anncr.
2.1 Introduction
I
I
;e and cOlltmllcdare
([)1ll0dalilies
spccch. Spontaneous
speech has lo do with instances 01'
lIslIaIly divided in two Illain grollpS: spolltam'ous
Sp(~('ch
speech
where
thc speaker
communicates
naturally
without
any
preparation
nor any visual aid. When there is any kind of visual aid,
whether wrirten or with images, we describe that speech as being
controlled. The degree of control goes from minimal (for example, whcn
a speaker uses slides lo follow a line in a presentation) to total (when we
read a tale to a child).
PronUl1ciation, then, has to do with speech, but it specifically refers to the
way we use our vocal traet to produce the sounds that transmit the
message .ve want to communicate.
Pronunciaton,
therefore, implies a lot
of physical trainillg. This is an important aspect to remember bccDusc
20
21
(j)
ApfJfoaches
/0
specific
2-2\10[0'1
Pronuncia/ion Teaching
techniques
that
are used
lJ1
a coursc
III
1.
TI lE DIRECT METHOD
that
'Y)
Approacl/l:s
,,) j'rulllllu;iuliun
Teaching
rr'
TIIE REFORM
11.
-\.\
MOYEMENT
\
<:
~
Or<>\,-\nC-~~ljCo..".'.
I'\? , " .
,{.,.
~'J~,-,.\
fF
Appruucl/es
.t
...
\
'"
.
~,f!
~'i-,N""::;'
",'/\lj).t
ftj.(,'..j~_.+-,c,D o I/'~
_
\'?
,?-:~.'/lA:::'
.-J-'\
,o\}Jl.,<s?'\
"""r\ .b....-..r;.~"('-\O->'
n:<:_,~
"'-, v
In fact, the Reform Movement and the creation of the IP ' Alphabet have
had such a huge impact on language teaching that they have modified the
w,hole concept of pronunciation
teaching. The main consequence
has
been a shift towards a more eclectic approach whe~e both the imitative
,'. de 6,P{II!GIK$
It
.....,..c~('!~t<liC'(:.t(J
,
27 The analytic-linguistic
approach uses linguistic tools: the IPA alphabet,
articulatory description, visual descriptions of the vocal tract, and detinitions
based on Contrastive Phonetics.
28 The use of the written form in the pronunciation classroom can be seen as an
advantage or an impediment for the learning process. In instructional settings,
where students can manage reading in their own language, the use of the written
text is inevitable but it must treated carefully, specially when the orthography
can be misleading. In the following section, we will see how spelling must be
included in the preparation of a course on pronunciation and we willleam how
to make the best of spelling :when we teach how to pronounce in English.
pronunciation
teaching,
eli
t""
n::k-
,q
as we shall see.
<.:
=un,J,.s
';
7 G \c,-i'i'O
, r( (
O....a_,,".
r"-
AUDIOLINGUALISM
"ct)1
As it has just be en stated, the 20th century has gained ffom th'e
complementation
of both the imitative and the analytic approaches. This
complementation
has
increasingly
developed
new
teaching
methodologies
that progressively
integrate techniques
inspired by both
perspectives.
The first one is traced
in the United
States with
Audiolingualism
and in Great Britain with the Oral Approach
during
the 40s and the 50s. The teacher (or a recording machine) models a sound
that the student has to imitate and rcpeat. Howevcr, the teacher usualIy
makes use of diffcrent phonetic materials, inc!uding the phonctic alphabet
and illllstrative charts and graphics.
Coming from the strllcturallinguistics
!lotion that each linguistie clcmcnt
gets into a specific paradigm, the minimal
pair drill cnhanees the
acquisition
of phonological
skills by means of repetition of different
words that differ by a single sound in the same position. This techniquc
folIows the definition of the phoneme as being a distinctive sour:d unit
(Bloomfield
1933) and is used in both listening and speaking practice.
For example the rcpetition of pairs such as "sheep vs. ship" to practicc
long /i:/and short Ir/.
IV.
The
1960s
COGNITIYE
APPROACH
C1. f f Q...ucl
X
of the transformational-generative
development
(C.hQn:~l5.y_ 1959,
1965)
has
also
\
16
dVJoUe
I
~"LL
kelta 25
c"<.,
I~pe'b:d.u y c.~U(
grammar
influenced
pronunciation
teaching. Ouring this period, pronunciation
seen as a wast&oftime
in the sense that it was considered
J
24
f'~(L~
f'
00'
\",1L-"PlO((
~
Teuching
';"('0
a)
,- b)
lo Pronu//cialiun
the
a.
,,"L. ~ '//
in the (f,
arca
or
teaching was
impossibk rOl"
11.1'
,1
,.
,tI
\,
t
'"
teaching
nowadays
stillstems
THE SILENT W A y
L().s1
~eu.
ptUJ ..k:r y
-el
In the 1970s
Sllcnt Way method
revolutlOl1lsedteaching,
the field too.
of language
teaching
and,thcparadoxicalIy,
of pronunciation
In this
method, the teacher speaks as little as possible and tries to use body
langllage to sllbstitute real words, so that students have an opportunity to
speak. In this respect, the Silent Way mllst be considered very similar to
the Direct Mcthod. The main difference being that in this case, the
teaeher does not rnakc use of the phonetie alphabet or any other lingllistic
explanalory
aid: the attention is foclised on the sound system alone.
Typical in this method are the sound-colour chart, the Fidel charts, word
charts, and colourcd rods that help represent both language and reality 29
~!.Ua.~,
bcLYYC\.f;
29
For more nforialion on this intcrcsting approach, see Blair (1982), LJ.;sen-
Frccman
(1980).
,\..("
~"l
.,
I
T'
\l\.l.',)
'.
\,
,'r
.
;.-,
't
l'.
-
'," ,\\.\ !;
l"'~
" t,
,., '.
,f'
le
ti
.!
\"
t'; \
r\ 'r
.'f', , \L
',,\\n\~
'(
\.',
'
tC
'/.
.~ (Si.
.'
(e
1-
\
\f-
' .
0,;;,
(\ \.. '
~~
o-.-~'
,!) l'
(.j
.i-,
;yz. Ianguage, tOllching and gestures, to make the student feel comfortable
whilc listening to the foreign language, facilitating
the production
of
natural speech. AfTcctive langllage learning, which is pragressivcly
gaining popularity among researchers, is concerned on the way learners
acquire a language, considering
personal priorities before instructionaJ
necessities. For the developing of speaking ski lIs, affective faetors are
very important if we acccpt the idea that spontaneous speaking transmits
our most inner feelings and thoughts. A methodological
approach [hat
do es not consider how to motivate, and enhance personal skills towards
communication
is bound to fail. More and more, pronunciation
teachcrs
(and language teachers in general) design teaching programs that take
into account the personality of each stlldent and the communication
links
that students
establish
with their
peers
in arder
to facilitatc
communication
in the forcign language. Speaking is dircct and implies a
face-to-face
interaction. If we want to make the most of our students'
_S\:u..oJ.o ..b:.~
V\.'
'VI. ,
,.)("
<_"
l\
, c!:..<2
(both listcning and rcading) more than thc Jcarning of active skills
(writing and, in our casc, spcaking). Lcarning to spcak and improve thc
student's
pronunciation
demands the creation of a more naturalistic
environment
and the provision of real material, which challenge the
capabilities ofthe school organization.
V.
; ,.~
'I ,
fram ~
,,:,11
1,
\:)!If\
"'{; \
lLC'~V\,;
\,J ,\.
cd.u.n,n~/~
h,,'
{i{if'(JW:!/{'.I'
Iu
'/'OIl/lIIciul
, (he goals (hey aim to. On the O1\ehand. even sinn\\ gronps are fur from
being homogeneous as to how competent students are. In the ficld 01'
pronunciation, competence has to l,~ seen as a complex one: one student
can rcally show a high pcrformance in the pronunciation of some vowcls
while, at the same time, a low performance in the rronunciation of
consonants. The opposite can be true for another student. In other words,
the number of skills to be tested in the pronunciation classroom is so big
that it wiII be difficult to delimit similar groups of students organized
according to their level of competence. On the other hand, and as a
consequence of what has just been said, our students will have different
goals to achieve during the pronunciation course. One specific element of
pronunciation teaching that makes it radically different from other areas
in the leaming of an L2 is the evaluation process. In the case of
pronunciation teaching, evaluation is not only a necessary tool, but it is
present at every singlE? point during the learning process. As we will see
below, evaluation will be the only instrument to know at which point our
students start, how they develop during the course, and which aims they
reach to at the end of the course. Evaluation wi1\ always centre on the
student as an individual considcring both perform(Jl1ce and personal
pcrspectives.
The following section will analyse evaluation and, more specifically
initial evaluation, in the pronunciation classroom.
2.J DlagJlostic
tcsts
1{i!)f'(wc!II!.I'
lo '/'ml/lllcillliol/
'/'wc/ing
,!
,
That is, any program designed for a course in pronunciation must always'
be considered tentaiye and will need further brpshin~ once the initial test
takes place. rmvl5t:uAl
::>I\ kuJ..&
(i)
/"
tph'0.q(I\,~
'-t:O()'
29
..
.....
-.
This contrnstive nnlllysis opcrntes on Ihe bnsis 01' Ihe so-callcd prediction
of crnus. Tllc pllollclician allalyscs lllc sOlllld syslcl11 01' tllc Icarner in
conlrast with tllc sound systcm 01' the larget language and cstablislles a
series of milestones to be achieved. That is, a typology of errors are
established that may prevent the acquisition of the target sounds by
inscrling mothcr tongue sounds on a gradation. These errors can be of
dilTcrcnt kinds:
a)
30
lO
01'
The arca
Phonotaetics
31
01'
31
Afifi/'Oachcs
lo
!J/'olllll1cialio/l
Tcadlil1,1;
time of exposition
to the language, their linguistic
exercises in the diagnostic test will have to be balanced
a)
b)
Speaking
~istening
(active) skills
(passive) skills
Afifi/'oachcs
background,
between:
etc.
1)/'o/llllll'i,lIio/l
Tcaching
1CQJJ...!(.!"on
can be inferred fram the paragraphs above, there is a lot oflearnerin the way we construct a diagnostic test: the
specific needs and skills ofthe students are considered in order to design
the activities that wiII serve for our initial evaluation.
f'HU'
As
lo
?\-'oV'>
"
-Q-Q live
{- /
./
diserimination
Prominenee
Consonant
elusters
cJustcrs
Word
stress
Vowcl
Promincnee
Intonation
diserimination
For young learners, beginners and students who
do,,q...l._Jp
not
foreign
PRODUCTION
Wnrd
Rhythm
stress
Rcduecd
speceh
PERCEPTION
s' )i'j,{" 1(-'1
-~~' ,,",'Y,,
c.int the
,
language country, a great emphasis has to be put on the listening skills.
Before we are even ready to start speaking our mother tongue, a lot of
prior training has taken place in the fonn of passive activity (i.e.
listening). The same happens in the case ofthe foreign language leaming:
young students must be exposed to a 10t of listening input. If we will have
to face similar activities in the classraom,
the diagnostic test is the
moment when our students'
listening skilIs will have to be evaluated.
Listening requires as much training as speaking, but it is even more
important. Considering
that we first necd to crcate (01' so it seems to)
general abstract patterns in our mind before we are uble to produce an
output, the skill of pronunciation
in the L2 demands a lot of listening so
<~
centred methodology
.o
test:
'"
..
Intonulion
(C
qasspeeeh
Environment:
or
as a-knowledge
Foreign
Janguage
.spontaneous
Role-play
-- -an
-- Controllcd
-students:
-L2
-Consonant
Background
Spontancous
Reduecd
spcceh
ofthe
ofPhoneties,
cte.
Level
Objeetives
ofcompetence:
Novicc
basie
(novicc-low,
eommunieation,
novicc-mid,
novice-high)
spcceh,
V owcls
Consonants
(...J of the eourse:
Rhythm
spccch
- PRELIMINARIES
-\l'f'
::}r-(,~ ') 0 ''"'
native-like
pronuneiation,
lose their
foreign
aeecnt, interrnediate-high),
cte.
Advaneed (advaneed,
advaneed-plus)
and Profieiency.
Intcm1cdiatc
(intcrrncdiate-low,
intennediatc-mid,
that we can:
11)
b)
I )islingllish
lile dilTcrenl
IlIIilatc anu rcpcal Ihosc
cklllcnts
clclllcnls
32
01{
33
Cx
(ii)
(iii)
",$(' '(f'l<:'/ClO'
34
Evaluation
oftbe results
The recording of the interview is necessary ,so that the teacher can
evaluatc the studcnt's results afier the intervicw has actualIy takcn place.
1t is now when notes have to be taken. Many: teachers design specific
evaluation sheets where they annotate evt:ry single aspect on the student's
performance. These sheets are usualIy very descriptive on which the
objectives of the test are. They should be designed in a way so that there
can be established an easy comparison between students. That will help
in the process of redefining and specifying the course objectives.
But the evaluation test is not only useful for the teacher and the course
programo 1t is necessary that each student receives a copy of his/her
personal report so that they are aIl aware on their specific expectatio!1s
and objectives,which
will be different from student to student. The
teacher wil! have to advise each students on how to achieve those
milestones, afier the evaluation' test and during the whole process of
learning.
Hcrc you have an example of an evaluation sheet:
Elements
of Sneerh
Vowcl
discriminalion
Consonant
Word
stress
elustcrs
Consonant
Intonation
diserimination
Prominence
Rhythm
Reduced
speeeh
Examnles
Diffirulties
The diagnostic test is the preliminar step towards final evaluatioa and,
therefore, the final achievement of goals. However, continuous
evaluation
is essential if we can stay at the leamer-centred
methodological point. Students will develop their skills in different ways
and redirection and redefinition wiU be needed throughout the process.
During the whole leaming process and also at the end of the course,
students wiII pay attention to their personal diagnosis report so th~tthey
are aware of which points they should eoneentrate on. The leaming of
pronuneiation implies speeific physical activities that require a lot of
concentration and self-awareness.
During final evaluation, the results of the initial test wiII be analysed and
compared to see ifthe learner has actually achieved ~if personal goals.
KIs
I.
PIIONOLOGY
ANO PIIONEMES
36
37
(f)
dex.aL;;$
similar to Spanish /1/, while at the end its pronunciation resembles the
Catalan one32 In short, we can then define a phoneme,as a distinetive
sound in a language and an aIlophone as a particular pronunciation of a
phoneme. The phoneme is not a single sound, but a group (a "family" of
sounds). Phonemes are abstraet units. Each of the members of this
family is a varant of the same phoneme. In phonetics, we are interested
in describing and leaming to use these variants of the phonemes of
English.
Phonctics is, thcrcforc, closcr to what spcakcrs of English do whcn thcy
pronounce English. It is interesting to note, however, that English
speakers are normally not aware of allophones. They would say that the
beginning sound of"lu1\" is the same as the final sound. That is, they hear
both /1/ and [i] as the same sound /1/.
This is because we normally hear only the phonemes of our language,
those sounds that have a contrastive function: all English speakers will
hear perfectly the difference between the two words "dull" and "Iull".
Thus, Idl and /1/ are phonemes, because they differentiate words. Using
11.
PHONETICS
Ol-e-
Phoneties deals with what takes p]ace once the sounds ~ actualIy
~
\!I
produeed,
acoustic features
that is, of
Phoneties
sounds refers
and th~erception
t~e
activityofofspeech.
the vocal
These
tract,three
the<LI
stages also establish three different branches in Phonetics.
1) Articulatory
Phonetics deals with the articulation of sounds ..
Within Articulatory Phonetics rcsearchers lIsllal1y study the different
parts and activities of the vocal traet and the sounds that can be
produced there: vowels and consonants.
2) Acoustic Phonetics' deals with the physieal aspects of sounds, how
sounds are in fact the effeet ofthe alteration ofthe air particles.
3) Auditory Phonctics is a branch of phonetics which studies how
sounds are perceived, the psychological
and neurological
implications ofsuch an activity.
In order to illustrate the speech communication process Finch and Ortiz
(1982:3) offer the following figure:
wrong phonemes will make your English sound intelligible. Using wrong
allophones will make your English sound foreign (but sometimes also
difficuIt to understand).
Going
Phonology
sounds. It
previous
]2
If\
This spccific nllophonc oflll is spccifically dcnotcd as [3. ]and known as "dark
IIr'.
1<)
SPEAKER
Motor nerves
BRAIN
SPEECH
LlSTENER
Sound WUVl'
Scnsory nervcs
EAR
BRAIN
MECHANISM
has be en said before, this is especially true in the case of th~, English
language,
When studying
the sound system
of English, . students
(especially those for whom English is not thcir nativc language) must also
be phoncmieally
aware to realize the great eomplexity o' this language,
On the other hand, phoneticians are exeh~~ively concemed on how words
are pronouneed, so the written representation
does not reaIly matter. For
that reason, the International
Phonetic Alphabet
was devised3-3-by tl1ect'tll (~/JI.
International
Phonetic Association
in 1886, The latest version of the Cllktdrdc Q
IPA Alphabet was published in 1993 (updated in 1996i4,
3.2 Spelling
and Pronunciation
English, however, presents a huge gap between what is written and what
is rcad, This phenomena ean be trace9 in the history ;:f the Ianguage,
since the writing system was estahlished
much hefore the different
!\111',lo-Saxol1 dialccts cOl1verged il1to OI1C unique llIodel 01' speech. [n
lile!, l1owadays, lile English lal1guage presents a lI1uch wiJer dialectal
variety than Spanish does. Just as an interesting remark, we can say that
there are more dialeets/aecents
in the United Kingdom than those that can
be found worldwide.
When tcaching young children to read, teaehers and parents try to hclp
the kid beeomc phoncmicalIy
nwarc, This phoncmic awnrcllcss simpIy
m.eans that the kid needs to know that there is not a one-to-one
relationship between tht1 [ctters on a book and the sounds that rcad. As it
40
Scc http://www2.arts.gla.ae.uk/IPAI
Acknowledged to the International Phonetic Association (Dcpartll1cnl
Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, School of English, Aristatlc Univcrsity
Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, GREECE).
33
34
41
01'
01'
THE
~)N:~(J~:~
INTERWl1l0NAL
P b
11\1
Tnn
PHONETIC
ALPHi\13ET
(rev;,ed
10
184
1993)
I.M.n_'ID~IC)
7~,~=-r~~t~~:~
I~ o
11)
,-1-1 h ...,._
,t~_
f -..
e el_
.j,~
.w..
eeg_lj
k'
~ ....e t'e:
J~'
I ~"'.~
e
t'~'fII.u~
.......
.oI.,
V\\jo,;.t~..,..
<.'ON5ONANTS
,..1 ..-1 C' ..
(NQN-I'(JU.tQN1C)
tLoa...,
-1><.>
Do
: \'tl..,
t .
S
AI~lr;n.tt
111......
".
V.h'f
11t.-w4Q,
p"lI~uh,
n.Ja"'.aJ
W.T~)"""
...fot'-"'U.
n.",
h~I..w... .d.;t:k.r ['),..",W,I~
r y
eI_ .,
(>r-....J
..
e.""'."."
st fPRA."i EC:j.,\fENT
A IJoCo;tq(_J~
Il~.".
WOWAC"C'D-n
.!oun:J'uI;m
ti:
I>IA(:Rm(:s
o--~
c.
~o--.y. o
re-3\o-At:>
ALS
~~
_,rw~~~_.t\"iMI"'IJtro."'-~.&.o
. ~
i~"
..
-~--:~:~i ! ~~..~~=~:=-t-~I~:
...l.-8 ...;-b ....
""", (hUh ...
~_~.
1,., ~,
"
,,_i~i~_tu,u
a m_ ...L..Q. D
: ~-
...
The p~oncmic
reprcsentation
(also known as phonological
representation,
phonological transcription,
phonological labelling)
aims at representing sounds as they belong to one language. That is, it
represents the phonemes employed in the produetion of a word or an
utterance. This representation is very general and abstraet, as it considers
sounds in thcir distinetivc way. Specific dctails are not shown. A
phonemie representation is always made between solidi "j".
,,_
"'- .,.-......."...
--
,..... .
--
-... _1
,...
I,~~:.~..::~
......... \1 .
1
C.~pJ.o<.oJ"""'-"
\V ..
w..~
Loo ......--
..vv...t.~n.
-J...
q ...
"'...
w.w.I"'LMo,I~_ fj , .
H
v._."" ...J ._
.......
~~..,
-:;. 1:fo4~""''''''-
..........
Jy ;::~
V.I .__
-j~j-I
P
m~:;:~~
_~,
dV
"---C11 "'"'_
...(1tll
('_.ti ~
~..~ ..S)il"'"'
v.." ""...,..,..,....,
1: .
1 1.., ~
N-.,1I. ~
~_~~
I-
.....
~ ...
<;
(~
~"'..I_
dI
.:.-::.:
ti'
t
.... ~ . f_
)
2.(.~-:-~....hi[~~J
w_J.z:~T-....-- _~__.
arn
'o:loffit
'kau1d
'kau1d
'wet
35
42
11
..-
1,4_._.:'=:.~~~_~._,, ...
l._,.
'S
43
'der
111
l'/ol1ctics Gl1dPhol1%gy
diacritics
pauses:
I for a short pause (like that of a comma in the written form) and
11
in a phonemic
transcription
and the
C0l1s0nants:
Not everybody
uses the same symbols. Por example, whereas Jones
accounts for 8 pure vowels and emphasizes the differences in quantity (he
uses the same diacritics and adds diacritics to emphasize the quantity
distinctions),
Lewis accounts for 12 pure vowels (he uses different
symbols for each vowel phoneme but he does not add tI,,, vowel length
mark, he emphasizes the quality distinction). And Gimson accounts for
12 pure vowels because he uses different symbols for each vowel (
quantity and quality distinctions are equally important):
[~]: Retracted
articulation
ofthe
consonant.
[k]:
Advanced
+
articulation
ofthe
consonant.
[kh]: Aspiration
[~]: Labinlization
[k>]: Unrealised
realization
[k t]: Coarticulation
[!:1]:
GIMSON
LEWIS
!kotl
!k
!k8:tI
8titi:tI JONES
!k8
/sitl
!kDtI
/SItI
/sitl
/si:t/
/si:tI
/srtl
!k8
Dentalization
[z]:
Devoieing
o
(f]:
Dark or velar
/1/
devoted to diacritics.
Diacrities are simply extra labelling symbols that
are addcd to formal phoncmic symbols to show evcry possible nuanc~LUl
Allophones (and, thus, a phonetic transcription) are represented between
square brackets [ ]. Here you have a list of commonly used diactitics:
Vocalic:
[Y, ti
]:
8:1
[o]:
closer realization
o
[9 ]: more open real ization
/pIte* /
(1) In complementary
~istribution:
They can't occur in the place of
another. They are mutually exclusive => it's possible to predict which
allophones
of a phoneme will occur in any particular context or
position in the word. The different articulations
are going to be
44
distribution
1k
[] : nasalisation
conditioned by:
. ft Lle.
(a) Context: the surrounding or adj~~ntqsotTnds:
"key" [k]:
Ik/ + /i/ (fTont vowel) -+ Palatalization.
+
ccntralization
indicates
Irl link (the speJling containing a Ietter "r") before another word
"Peter":
The phonctic rcprcscntation
includes every single aspect of every single
sotllld. It r,ives l1Iore illfoJ'lJlatioll Ihall a sil1lple phonel1lic trallscription in
the scnse lhal il aims al represcnting allophones. '1'0 do so, extra symbols
are used. If we go baek to the IPA ehart, we will find a special section
45
example "donde"
find either:
[!,1]
[!,1]
(1) Intrinsic allophones: Those whichoccur in:a natural way and which
do not require a previous knowledge of/frol11 the student:
+ pause
(scmi)vowcl
key [ki:]:
instead of being velar is advanced.
+
cool [h:uJ:]: instead ofbeing advanced is velar.
out there [auJoea]:
Without release
"all right"
{in
With a simultaneous
ItSI
.,
'<
({
e1::to (
Button
[b\t;]
Not
[lIot]
'J.C,,:::,:,.
o_(CVVi;(J<'C
~y
"later", "butter".
-'--2:'--Yhe
"tap" [r finRP Irl when between vowels: "Mary".
3. Some cases of nasalization where the vowel can even substitute the
final nasal sound: "man" as [m].
4.
lip-roundings in Irl
i:
36
Also reprcsentcd
as
li -I
47
UNIVERSIDAD DE SEVILLA
".',
j'/lOlIelics
cnd ot'words:
the phonetie
{lI/(I
/'//CJ/lelics
jll/CiII()i()~1
[i), that
i" is
reprcsentcd
{lI/(I
f'}ullu/U,I!..}'
with
3.4 Exercises
Exaetly
'unstressed
syllables:
neutralized
[u].
"you",
"to",
"into"
between
are
/37
in
with
all transeribed
l.
Consider
the following
I
d)
.--J
Bit:
2.
Pin:
lo J
I,
,-
(':]y'
:'...c"
Bid:
Bin:
for "bin",
voicc
Inl
+
voicc
-111
-nasal
VOICC
\:\ +
labial
+ alveolar
nasal
PJN
(('-
,,-\ +-'CQ,
I -j I '[0
\X)
-\')0
)~ ( <:Q
t 0
~c"r,~'~-,
,,'
Nasal
Place
37
Yoicing
"bid"
Ipl
'.
them phonctically:
49
-\.,r
.
~).,...,
(~ ().,..\
l1lN
IS
Place
~-Y'\BID
5.
6.
110/
,
"
(-,I
{\C-"IC
.BIT
,j() ,"_.'
(--.\,
CJ;: / ~J
-"IO(
I-ic, ( r ,G"
,e,'
http://www.umanitoba.ca/facu
' (1
lb 1
7.
3.
at:
Ities/arts/l in guistics/russe
pract1.html
Reverse transcription:
A reverse transcription
is when you have
the phonctic symbols and thcn Y0l! have to write the standard
form for each word. Y Ol! can practice
on your reverse',
transcription at this site:
.)
f_,
4.
Minimal
pair (i):
Minimal
pair
nnll
and
(ii):
\)C
':...9
.\'
50
'\',,-
51
pt02,htm 1
-'. 1
1.
\
/'
When describing the chain which links the speaker's and the listener's
brains, we have to take into account three different stages: the
i
J
-i.._
(,
(!
J~_~
--
(f)
the lister.er ~as to decode tpis message. The physiological stage has to do ~
with the speaker' s motor activity and the listener's hearing mechanism.
First, the speaker's brain activates the correspov~;ng muscles which
control the movements of the tongue, lips, vocal folds, cte. and then the
impulses,
listener's sensory
to the brain.
nerves Finally,
carry the
the message,
physical stage
in therefers
fonn toof thenerve
air ~I!::.\
disturbances produced by the movement of the articulators, they are
called sound waves.
The study of each of these three stages corresponds to the three different
speaker' s
areas
df phonetics:
a~ ~bQnct~'re~~iCS hstener's(thephysiological
physiological
stage), the the
auditorv
stage),
the aousti~
stage). But we have to
take
intoand
account
that al t~hQIle1j'CS
ese areas (,trrncoustic
are interdependent.
53
o/ Speech
The Organs
1I.
THE O~GANS
Man's
(iv)
Respiratory
apparatus:
iungs and muscles ofthe chest.
Larynx.
Rcsonators
(supraglottal
cavities):
pharynx
(pharyngeal
cavity), mouth (oral cavity) and nose (nasal cavity).
Articulators:
palate, tongue, teeth, and lips.
figure (Kreidler,
o/ Speech
several cases: (1) urging horses, (2) kissing, and (3) disagreeing.
Our utterances are conditioned by the physiological
limitations
imposed by the capacity of our lungs and by the muscles: (1) we
are obliged to pause in articulation in order to refill our lungs,
and (2) we are obliged as well to submit to the behaviour of the
muscles which activate the lungs: syllabiC impulses and dynamic
stress. Once the air leaves the lungs through the trachea or
windpipe, it passes through the larynx, containing the so-caBed
vocal folds.
OF SPEECH
speech mechanism
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The Organs
(ii)
The larynx: Thc larynx is a sort ofbox within the throat fuI!
of muscles and cartilages: the cricoid (at the base, it is ringshapcd),
the thyroid
(Adam's
apple) and two nritcl10ids
(pyramid-shapcd,
it is oppositc Adam's appIc). It contains lwo
little films coming from the thyroid to the two aritenoids. They,
are subject to open and close easily, they are called vocal folds or'
vocal cords (Finch and Ortiz, 1982:8):
-
Front
fJ
ac ~
~pi:lotli!
(ruis"d)
Adarns
!hyroid
carlila:"
3pplc
a!~cnoicl
carlibgc
"'1::.
r_1'"
-ec'(o~~
(i)
cricoid
carldag"
The respr'atory
apparatus:
The lungs provide al! the air
necessary for the production of most of the sounds of language.
The l1lajority of languages lIse c~rcssivc l1ir, that is to say, that
thcir speakers exhale air from the lungs to produce phonemes. On
the other hand, there are certain languages (African tribes) in
which thc nir ncccssnry for thc production of spccch is tukcn
11-0111olllsidc inhaling it (i.ug"Tsd~
1\iJ;J. English and Spanish
have "qick~".
54
tr;.chea
Figure 2
air. just in
55
Thc vocal folds vibratc bctwecn 1..Q.0'and ISO times a sccond in men and
200-325 eyeks pcr sceond (eps) in WOI11CI1. This piteh 01' frcqllcncy of
vibration can be -moditicd 01' ehanged whcn he speaker desircs. The
having
thc
larynx
is the
pharynx . .I.W:..
lJharvngl'al
C9-""-
.<~., ::7"51..."~
through
.Ji9ft pulatc.
_~is
used to refer to the opening b~tween the vocal folds. "These
vocal .folds.can.describe.four diffQ.f'tI\tpositions.or shapes: (a) wide apart
'describing a big gap or opening (breathing); (b) open~(the air pass es
through two scction~ 01' tlw two cn!:.tjJng~t(voicck:ss sOllllds); (c) the air
passes through the vocal folds but they are very close together (~ibration
~(,:;!V-.
passed
::.:....f",
10
bilabial sounds: two of them are oral Ip,bl and one nasal Iml
(Kreidler, 1997: 19):
(~:~l~
~
-:D
Figure 3
(iii)
38It norrnally precedes the energetic articulation 01' a vowel when emphasising
something: "co-education" [,bu?edju:'keISJ;1].It also reinforces or even replaces
C>
t:~c\.....
/:::-
..
---~
\'(':L'',..- --:=:--'::'~."
SI
[p bJ
(m]
Figure 4
Ibis nasal cavitr. is constant in shape and size. As Mott
(1996:50) explains "The acoustic effect ofusing the nasal cavity
as a resonator is to add, not a resonance; but anti-resonancc,
57
the mouth cavity because the height betWeen the surface of the
tongue and the roof of the mouth is quite wide (vowels); and (2)
close(d) articulatiou:
a very narrow gap or a complete closure is
described (consonants) ..
The lips play an important role in the articulation of some sounds.
ha"rd alate
/
_-50([
--
ridf:c .
I~c(h
l~alvc()I~f"~
Figure :;
(veJ;;rn)
pala~e
"'"
..
')X::'~
Figure 6
Although lhey are not in the mouth, the vocal folds can also act as articulators
bccause they produce two consonantal sounds: the glottal stop [?]
glottal fricative [h].
and the
40
58
liJa
lJ'
As a r~vi~\V 01' l!lis s\:dion \Ve are going lo olTer u tigure devis\:u by Motl
(1996:40) where he shows the exact place of all the organs of speech
previously mentioned and below this profile he provides their translations
into Spanish:
III.
11101
MAIN
DIFFICUL TIES
NA TIVE SPEAKERS.
FOR
sr ANISWENGLISH
NON
('Iasal c~ ...
l1y
ca ....ldad n.u.r
oral
c..evkjod bvcaJ
labio
di_nI
~
G
7
o
9
cavlty
IlpI
hH,lh
a!yeoln
.1....
40Ita
hnrtJ
IJ4'IIiI.
1011 patal.
u...ula
~Gl.o'.H
ton-ouo
11
12
b!).(je
tront
b.ck
(00'
pr.aorao
10
14
15
, n
, I
In
1
tlp
(ap$x)
20
"OC11
2 ,
trnchQo
of the
(lAmina)
t.la
oull.l)
.ryn
the~~osure
<.:::.J
/f\
c.v
('pIC9~
p<:atoo(&o
_w
p'H"Vf\~
~JlI\JhJIlI.
o.uQphtli\JI~' (........,.,
f"(a.~
\6'
~
~w.mtion
plosive co~ants~nglWl..
....
of the VQ~c!,::ss p'lo.s.iv~and
duro
blA"dl.) (v/,1lo)
p.rad.r
...
ul.
Ignoua
pLlola
corona
which
largely consonan~
depend on the
of some
"'ancJltHd.
'.11"0.plul(lIa
t"'J!V<.J
larln'W'.
cuardo.s
J;
eo'''s
3. Qu;.,P.Q.siti.Qu.o~hc-ton~ln
Ir 4QuQ.
( ...
lflpipQ)
English, the
1110st
active articulatar is
the tip of the tongue which strongly presses against the alveoJi. On
the other hand, in Spanish, the most active art:culator is the bladc of
the tongue which makes contact with the pre-alveolar area and in a
much weaker way. Sometimes, the tip ofthe tongue may even touch
the inner side 'of the upper teeth in Spanish, Apart from that, the
vO<::.J.lo!l.
Figure 7
,,:.'
:;(~~~
~~:,!
.~:)
position
in English
is nonnalIy
~"\i.elar .~
and
I
.
e-Jjeclut
~~
- f'
must remember
that _ alI semi-open
and f\IIIy oren
characterised by a movement towards the velar arca.
60
taperfd
61
vowels
are
4.2 Description,and
A vowel sound is one in the production of which the current air comes
out through the mouth (or mouth and nose in the case of nasalised
sounds) where it finds an open articulation. AII other sounds in English
are consonants, which are sounds in the production of which the air
stream comes into the glottal cavities and encounters a pattern of close( d)
articulation (a noise component from the acoustic point of view).
But a complete analysis must consider the linguistic point of view, apart
from the phonetic or articulatory ones. In that view, which takes into
account the behaviour 01' sounds in the language, a vowel is defined as
the central element in the sylIable. Whereas, on the other hand,
consonants wiII be those unts whose function is ~inal
in the
oo:lvlIabIe..Jnthis way, we can describe or divide a syllable into two main
sections in any language:
(Margin)- Nuc leus-(Margin)
Consonants are trnditionally considercd ~llallic_and
vowels have
been always regarded as non-marginal.
But in the following two
examples, the opposite occurs:
Britain: [bllq]
Way:
[WCI]
(syl1abic consonant)
(marginal voweI)
The result is a problem between the phonetic and the linguistie paint al'
view. Phonetically speaking, in the first example [~] is a consonant, and
in the second one [w]
The possible s01ution is to distinguish two kinds of terrns for each point
01' vicw. Thc rcsult is thc crcation 01' two new words for the phonetic
point ofview41:
These. two tenns were invented by the American phonetician Kenneth Pike
( 1(43).
.41
62
CONSONANTS
1.
Egressive - Ingressive
Voiced - Voiceless
Oral- Nasal
Place of articulation
Manner of articulation '
(i)
Egrcssivc - Ingrcssivc
Voiced - Voiceless
Vibration 01' the vocal folds is not a distinctive factor by itself because
voiced sounds can be partially or completely devoiced in certain contexts.
For this reason, there is a parallel distinction where consonant sounds are
distinguished by the degree of breathand muscular effort involved in the
articulation. Those consonants articulated with relatively weak energy are
called lenis and those with great energy .,[,o...tis
.. Voiced consonants are
6]
La
V.
lenis and
~onsonant
voiceless
consonants it will
fortis.always
Even bein lenis.
those cases where a voiced
may be devoiced,
When contrasting
the Spanish and English consonant
phonemes we
discover that they differ greatly interms
of their voice. Almost aIl
English consonant
phonemes42 are arranged
in pairs because every
voiceless phoneme has a voiced counterpart and vice versa. In the case of
'the Sp: '-h consonant phonemes, we find that most of them lack the
voiced or the voiceless counterpart. Normally, it is the voiced phoneme
the one which is missing. Historically,
Spanish also had the voiced
co\Interparts
but for diachronical
rcasons they disappeared.
Cataln
(1 ()!\<J) explains sOl11e 01' these proeesses in the following way. At first,
Spanish had the three pair5: Iy, 7), IS5,sl and Ixj/:
affricate,
/21: affricate,
/ss/: fricative,
/s/: fricativc,
/x!: fricative,
Ij/: fricative,
Ic;l:
dental, voiceless.
dental, voiced.
apicopa!ata!, voiceless.
apicopalata!, voiced
velar, voicelcss
velar, voiced.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
sufri
las
mucosas
de la lengua
dcl
[ ... ]. En el gencral
ablandamiento
(iii)
the
voiceless
is not very
clear.
Oral-
"Me
Nasal
Except for nasals and approximants /I,r,w jl because oftheir vowel-like nature.
The only truly exception is the glottal voiceless /hJ which has no voiced
counterpart at a phonologicallevel. Anyway, it has a voiced allophone [fi].
42
64
[fricatizacil)]
qlH.: conduce
a la
parece incorrecto atribuir !\ la incrcia nrticulnlorin,
lenicin,
un fenmcno
como el ensordecimicnto
de -z-, -s- y -jintervoclicas,
cuando precisamente el entorno, siendo voclico, favorece
la sonoridad."
Cataln concludes saying that (1989:20): "No se trata,
creo, de una evolucin fontica, sino de una crisis fono lgica, nacida en
el sistema y no en el sintagma."
sounds
adicional
But Cataln
/zJ
otro de ensordecimiento,
comn a las tres sibilantes sonoras
(z,sj). Ambos entran igualmente
en el general ablandamiento
articulatorio que sufri el espaol en el siglo XVI. Las sibilantes
sonoras tienen rehilamiento
(o temblor local): una vibracin
43
Sometimes,
seeondary
Place of articulation
in the English
(active
+ passive
). English Jjf4;
against
Spanish
]1,
IJ.
Eost-alveolar:
The blade or the tip against the post-alveolar
region (active + passive).
English Ir/. In so me cases
(American English) this sound muy be articulated with the
tip of the tongue curled back pointing at the part of the hard
palate immediately
behind the alveolar ridge (retroflex
artieulation).
A.lvcolar: The blade or tip of the tongue against the alveoli
(active -1- passive). English It, d, s, z, n, 1/; Spunish Is, n, 1, f,
d.
Q.c.I1JY;,
Labiodental:
B.ilabia~
zj/lherc
is 110 cOl1tact,
jllSt
the velum
(v)
Manner
at the
of articulation
~.
A com~
eonsonantal
sounds
can
c1osure:
We divide
manner of
,14
(v~arisatioQ).
In the case of the sound Iw/, the lips are rounded
same time that the tongue moves towards the velar area.
ala~ai:V~
The tongue touches the palato-alveolar
region with its rims, blade and tip (active + passive).
English ItS, d3, S, 3/.
passive).
there is an essential
le,],
J.n.tg~Whe
tip of the tongue between
lower teeth (active + passive). Spanish 10/.
a
a
Mcondary
articulation
for the complete produetion of the eonsonant
(eo-artieulation).
Two examples of this phenomenon
is the realisation of
IV and Iw/. In order to pronounee 11.1, in additionto
the alveolar contact,
nrrroximatiol1.
~asal sto~
The air is stopped in the oral cavity but the soft palate is
down. So, the air can escape through the nase. If this blackage in the
vocal tract is produced by (a) the two lips, a bilabial nasal stop is
produced (English Im/; Spanish Iml); (b) the tongue and the alveolar
ridge, an alveolar nasal stop is produced (English InI; Spanish In/); (e) the
tongue and the palatal area, a palatal nasal stop is produced
(Spanish
1]11);
(d) the tongue and the velar area, a velar nasal stop is produced (English
11)/).
(j>.
Therc are thrcc maio s.1a~ in thc production of a stop sound: (]) the
approximation stage (the articulators approach each other); (2) the
blockage or compression or stop stage (the air is compres sed behind tile
articulators); and (3) the release stage (the air is released in a small burst).
These three stages can be seen in the following diagrammatie
representation ofthe sounds Ip,b/:
()A pproxlmatlOnstage
..
~OCkage
stage
approximation stage
blockage stage
,':7 .}U~
_A
(a close narrowing)
-.:
The air passes through two organs approximated to sueh a way that he
rassing air produces frietion (hissing noisc). Thcy are ea1Jed fricativc
sounds.
A parta1 elosure is made at some point in the mouth, the air-stream being
allowed to escape on one or both sides of the contaet. The result is a
continuant sound, with no stopping of air. The main lateral sO\lnd in
English is the alveolar /\/. There are two lateral sounds in Spanish: the
alveblar 11/ and the palatal I IJ.
. Friction stage
(~
elosure
the~or~
Spanish
-_/\_--
ffIn
Exccpt for the glottal sOllndIhl whcre two active articlllators are involved.
An ;nter~ent
,
'I~
friction stage
/u;.1.P'-
the case of the rolls, a series of rapid intermittent taps are madc wth
the tongue. One example is the Spanish sound If/:
,
,/"./_ \, I .._~_,
1, "
/ ,/'
(.{,
68
,-
69
\:;;:
,\;'
\ I
-,
;.'\
.'
'
';~.\.
.-', 1
~ \
j,,?
,: " .,'
i"
V\_
@).
Approximant
(open articulation)
(4)
..Il.Ef1!r~eof etcwioJLof
the ton~
Taking into account this
distinction we can distinguish four positions: open, half-open,
close amI half-close.
(5)
(6)
One articulator
is close to another but without the vocal tract being
narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent air-stream is produced (noise
component). The sounds produced in this way are also called rrictionless
continuants. There are three46 main approximant sounds in English: the
palatal/j/, the labio-velar Iwl and the post-alveolar Ir/.
(7)
(8)
VOWELS
Ir.
There are eight main factors which have to be taken into account
describing a vowel sound. These are the following ones:
(1)
when
(2)
Part o[ thLtongue
which
into: front, central and back.
(3)
raises
most:
We divide
vowels
CV8
CV2 [e],
[u].
CV3
[3],
The highest
70
~.~
Phonological
speaking, all vowels are voiced but
from the phonetic
point of view there couId be so me
devoicing.
There is a phenomenon
calIed aspiration which
implies the devoicing ofthe folIowing vowel49.
f.uJ::C I Gliding. A gliding vowel is that in the production of
which avariation
or change of level takes place (diphthongs).
Apure
vowel does not change its original level when it is
uttered (monophthongs).
CV4 [a],
position
CV5
[a],
of the. tongue
CV6 [J],
is CVl
CV7 [o]
(front)
and
and the
unrounded but not all back owelsare rounded. There is one back vowel
~he Or ms ofSpeech
which is unrounded: CV5. A secondary series of voweJs (the secondary
cardinal vowels) can be oblained by reversing the posilion of the lips
(from CV9 to CV16) and then six more vowels were added to the central
are a (from CY17 to CY2250). Mtt(1996:7l-2):
~(~/c;
'fJ...))(/\~
\ /I\IJ
"i',)
,
".--/
'c1'
4.3 Exercises
l.
I
diagram
-;o
50
3 9
x'
:(
6 45 2 1
e u
- -~
'--~_<:l...
t 0<.--1
,."
=::.
d/0
,,;'
C, d 0'1"r'J')
.p(01r l''):(-','('
~/o',____
,,-'
/0 -c_
e,~:.Q
',r,
e'
",J,'rb
)'2t--j~'>
rC..Q
-',,c..
~",;o.~"",
( rSPANISH
-1
-)---< Vl_)
J\?
",J
")( . Lo
.---)~iO'
')'~_,,-:
~__ 'FC)!....;"">
ENGLISH
.)("c\
\" O.Y"
,rA
~'
c.>1 (J~F~
e
k.
10
51
..,..
__,
1...;.(,
\,
and provide
,).'
"b '*+~
l' A
~.
'-rf"2;
L )(;''''
C".--r)
--.s
P':\-""",,'
Jf'J
,/,{
,r~'Vr)k
f~j '?J;
,)r-c_
'(C>.'0
VI
ci-t2s.("'t:
'.-<~
c:>
,~
,-, 'eL,
00(,
{",-l!:'-o..
r-o~)\
~j-./
,.j<....'ye,C,,(
!,;:
'C\, C/.,)
14
(e)
2.
(1)
sound:
(English
In/).
@ FriartivaIAlu-eeeaJr;~~
l--.-
Od,Llb-tvo. j
,~
~u
(a)
deu.,V) .'
serch., C~IJ
/
',LEj/
I
(g)
3.
lllustrate
the position
of the vocal organs during the first
consonants in each ofthe fol!owing words. Use a wavy line at the
glottis ifthe sound is voiced and a straight line ifvoiceless.
ce&f<Z-9-{
e tftLLLcil
(a)
(b)
(e)
(d)
day
da
boy
voy
(e) gnaw
(1) gente
(d)
(e)
74
Ls.
f.i>.~
r
____"t:/~
'lu2. uvuJ.t.t
75
The OrguJ/S
aj ::;peech
4.
llsing
(he
Place
Manner
of arto
of arto
OraJ/Nasal
VoicedIV oiceless
~
"-.CC-
v../
Isl
InI
Irl
ItI
--".",.
(b)
~~~:~\
~\
'\
(f)
(d)
~'\
5.
C--..
~.~
"'i~7\
Describe
below:
the consonants
Manner
of arto
of
OraJ/N
asa!arto
Voieed/V Place
oiceless
181
ItI
Inl
Irl
6.
pap
nio
mother
father
child
mantel
constreir
atar
casa
consonant
in themiddle
putting
hissing
76
nio
gnat
knot
77
knee
lamb
is voiced:
lenis
Bob
soso
nene
dental
till
see
8.
pequeos
los
azahar
house
houses
vowels52:
pour
me
tan
pea
said
.r'Bl~ase
book
,/
plan
tea
pit
mum
'-
CENTER
BACK
c.a.)'"
FRONT .
rf.et(
:tl:
door
he~rd
f&;1,.!>-<:..
l)Cl/7
CLOSE
MID
(HALF)OPEN
- tren
- pan
-
for
eaeh
td
7.
mis
/'"
con
sin
pool
him
who
- --.-- ...-------
9.
Pravide
the appropriatc
fallowing sounds:
phonetie
symbol
....
-.-'-.---....--.--.---.-.-_._ _._.~-_
--..." ....
-.--.......
--.... --- --
(Span.
(English)
&
/':ng.)
ti /m/
!f/
(Span.
& Eng.)
Eng.)
(Span.
&
/1'/
(Spanish)
&
Eng.)
(Span.
the type of
..
.. ..
Activc+Passivc
Passivc+Passivc
Activc+i\ctivc
/I
.--.---~--._---_ --._----_.-...
Voiccd.
i'ricalivc
Voicclcss,
vclar,
Voiu'd,i'ricativc
dvcolar,
V--oiccd, palatal,
latcral
-dcnlal,
--.----.---.----
,,-
----
----.-.,.--.-
__
,.
____
l'ricativc
I/
u.
-- .. -
Spanish
.. __
V oiceless,
oral stop
V oiccd,dental,
alvcolar,
oral stop
52
Pay attcntion
to the position
of your tongue.
79
........
--.
/I
English
of
the',
English
the
sounds
/w,
are
jI
also
called
U) The
are
sounds
in
the
cardinal
production
of
cardinal
vowels
are
which
sounds which
are sounds sent with ingressive air. They are used in just a few
cases:
(1'.)
Approxilllallts
alld
Ilasals
are
alke
bcc:tuse
stage.
80
vowels
are
obtained
' and
(k) The
(c) Contoids
secondary
81
usefut
in
order
to
describe
UNIT V. CONSONANTS
affrieates
(ltJ,d31),
three
nasals
(/m,n,1J1)
and four
approximants
j,
(l1,r wl). The Span ish eansanant system has six plasives (/p,b,t,d,k,gl),
five fricatives (/f,O,sJ,xI), one affrieate (/el), thr~c nasals (lm,nJ1l), twa
laterals (/I,A:I) and two vibrants (lr,rl).
Aceording
difTcrcnecs
phonemcs:
The glattal plasive /71 accurs frequently but it is of less importance, since it is
usually just an altcrnatiw pronunciation 01' /p,t.k/ in ccrtain contcxts.
53
83
CO/JSOJ/i1llIS
CO/JSO/J(1/J/S
2.
sometimes
replaces
151 and
complete
3.
Igl
is often
somctimes
replaced
the reverse.
IdI (a very
dental
In English,
IdI must
variety)
be a
by a similar
friction
sound;
this
does
not
131occurs in Argentinian
and both
ISI
and
by Is/.
6.
7.
In Latin American
Spanish
for English.
In
by InI
01'
IfJg/
9.
111is always
10.
11'1
clear in Spanish.
in Spanish is a tongue-tip roll 01' tapo
11. Ip,t,kl are not aspirated in Spanish.
17.. ('onson:lI1( scq\lcnces in Sp:lnish consist or:ln initi:ll stop or Irl +
1I'.I.wl 01' li/. (>lIwl' il1itiull'lInslllllll1t~; I1II1Y11l' lillow('d 11l1lyhy fil 01' Iw/.
I\lul1Y ,,1' 1111~1':I1'.li:;l1il1iti;" :;('IIII('IICCSUl1d11II110s11111rillul Sl~qll(,IIC(,SIII'C
vcry diniclllt and need 11111chpraetiee.
Ib/:
5,2 Plosivcs
01'
grollp
(Le. 1Iit:r
[m] (orthographically
85
Consonants
Id/:
Consonants
group
(Le. after
after the nasal [n] and the lateral [1]: "un dedo"
[ ~ d50 ]
2. Non-audible
release:
Before pauses; it is produced by a weak
opening of the stop: such plosives are said to be incomplete and are quite
frequent in familiar speech; lack ofrelease is common in "all right!,,54.
3. Non-audible
release in stop clusters: oral plosive + oral plosive or
oral plosive + affricate. Either within a word or at word boundaries, the
first plosive
has non-audible
release:
"dropped"
Ig/:
group
(Le. after
after the nasal [n] (> [IJ]): "un gato" [lJ gto]
[y] (fricative
factor
to take
into account
when
difTerent syllables)
dealing
CVC
['gJerf,-, d3eukC]
Nasal relcase: When a plosive is followed by a homorganic nasa55 either syllabic or initial in a following syllable oi word- the release stage
is performed nasally. That is, the third stage only consists in the loweririg
of the soft palate, so that the air compressed behind the oral stop escapes
through the nose. This can occur either within words (in the same or
realisation):
4.
5.
Another
,o
Lateral
or at word boundary:
release:
"sllbmerge"
['khof ,-,'11].
are
/1/
"regardless"
[IJrga
:d>.
les], "bad :)ght" ['bred>
o
o
....
clusters: "play".
As Finch and Ortiz Lira (1982:62) point out, Spanish
occur together very freqllently; therefore, non-audible,
types of release are of exceptional
occurrence,
the
appearing in the same syIlable, and none ofthem in final
plosives do not
nasal and lateral
first two never
position:
Non-audible
release: Ipt/ and Ikt/ (as in "apto,
acto") are the only examples. Whenever a lenis
plosive interven es it is realised as a fricative [OY ]
l.
Complete
plosive:
54
For teaching purposes it is not necessary to mark this allophonic variant, which
is in free variation
\\ Tllal is, seqllenccs
86
abdicar"
87
I 1r)/.
Cvnsvmmls
Consonanls
respectively.
Pre-nasal
lenis
01'
... the voicing 01' the vowel does not begin togethcr \\'ith the
rdense stage 01' the plosiw, but some time latel'. When the lips
separate after the stop for the first segment in "purse", for
instance, the tongue is already in position for the vowel, but only
breath comes out ([ 3o D before the vocal folds start vibrating. This
voice!ess interval between the release stage of a plosive Ilnd (he
voicing 01' a lollowing vowcl is caIIcd aspiration, and although it
consists of a voiceless vowel, convention has assigned it the
diacritic [h J. AlIophonically, then, "purse" is transcribed [lph3'S J
plosives
INGLESA
OCLUSIVA
cierre
obertura
cierre
d. la
boca
ESPAOLA
oberturo
d. la
d. la baca
d. la boca
boca
entrada In vibracin
d. los cu.rdos vocales
Figure
cierre
88
~.
d. la glotis
t.,"t'
Consonants
1 voieeless
(alIophone
velar
Ix/.
of lb/); 1 voieeless
2 alveolars:
(allophone
voieeless
PhonetiealIy,
Consonants
we
labiodental
find:
of Is/); 1 voiced
[x] (aIlophone
[s] (allophone
palatal
bilabial
W]
1 voiceless
1 voieed
interdental
of
Is/)
m(allophone
["6"]
[8] (aIlophone
of
[]
of/g/).
Although
the Spanish
phoneme
(English
Although
this realisation
followed
that many teachers at primary ::hool use this sound to help their students
to write correctly some words such as "vino", which must be written with
"v" and not "b". This phenomenon is ealled hypercorrection.
system
by a voiced
sound:
"muslo"
"este" [hte],
eolloquial
speeeh
is when
it precedes
Is/-/OI
is
lleLltralised and words such as "caza" and "casa" are pronounced in the
same way. Just the opposite can also happen, that is, that speakers do not
use lhe sound Isl <lne!they only employ 10/. This is something typical 01'
sOl11e AndalLIsian villages and it is calIed "ceceo". For these speakers,
there is no di f1crcnce betwecn "serrar" and "cerrar".
Spanish Isl and English Isl are not identieal.
your tongue in the production of a Spanish
English Is/ you use the blade. In fact, the
(approaching the baek of the alveolar ridge)
English ISI. For this rcason, somc English
prooucing
IJ'I
Whcreas
whcn in fi.Jct it is an
Is/.
[mh~o].
by a pause, nasal
01'
initial position
("yo"
(j]),
Spanish:
In
it can even
[iral],
"las rejas"
one voiceIess
phoneme
01'
we get an allophone
which
is a
01'
in
ItL
treat
the Itrl am! Idrl 0(' words like "trial" am! "dream" as single-unit phonelllL:s
and put them in the alTricate category, too. Those who support this view
argue that the realisation of the phoneme Irl is a frieative realisation afld
rol' this rcason we havc a plosive plus a fricative and there is no reasoll to
betweell
difTercntiate
them Irom ItSI and Id3/. Thc main dincrcncc
Spanish and English aflrieates is that the seeond are produccd in a more
advanced point of articulation. Apart from their point of artieulation, they
also differ in their distribution.
Whereas both English phonemes can
appear
either
in pre-
or post-nuclear
"judge"
position:
"chico"
sounds
position
("ehureh"
ItJ3:tJI
01
and
in pre-nuclear
Finally,
fr/: "Israel"
[mmo].
distinetion
"mismo"
[Iarxas] .
This
The
[mlo],
"mismo"
voiced affrieate
as "seseo".
Is/: [].
There are plaees in Spain and Latin America where speakers do not know
the Spanish interdental sound 18/56 and they only use the alveolar one Is/.
is known
alveolar
of the phoneme
disappear and modifY the preeeding vowel (making it more open): "dos."
[d:,)]. This phcnomcnon
is vcry eommon in somc arcas of Eastcrn
Andalusia.
Another eontext in which this sound can disappear
in
in absolute
phenomenon
allophone
eonsonant
for a
close
( 'U".\'U"III1I,I'
( 'UII.I'U"c/lIIS
5.4 Nasals
].
2.
("bacon"
("rhythm"
/non~/)
and
finally
the vejar
3.
4.
The phonemes Iml and InI represent no problem for Spanish/English
learners of English/Spanish
because apart from being identical in their
articulation,
thcy can occur in prc- amI post-syllabic
positions in both
languages57
Howcver, the English velar hJI gives considerable problems
of distribution,
Final:
word ("pum!").
Syllable-final
[m] is .
with /h, r,
Vowels
that
3, w, j/).
corresponds
wit!1out thc
r g]
of IfJI is
Nasals (mainly the alveolar one) assimilate very readily in both English
and Spanish. There is a long list of a1!ophones in both languages. The
main 7 alIophones of Spanish InI are:
In!
[n]
(Le. alveolar):
in prenuclear
syllabic position:
"cana" [kna]
in postnuclear
syllabic position followed by an
alveolar
consonant
or vowel:
"insociable"
[ins08j13le];
[m]
(Le. bilabial):
in postnuclear
syllabic
bilabial consonant:
92
It is a phoncme
5: English has 1m! in all positions bu! Spanish ]acks this phoneme in word-final
The spelling
(together
IbeI kIJ/).
occurrence
in this position.
n\:\\n
that when the word can be divided into two morphemes, Ig/ will not
be pronounced ("singer" = "sing" + "er"). But when the word cannot
be divided, Ig/ will be pronounced ("finger"). As with every single
rule, it has an exception: the ru]c ,'redicts that the Igl wilI not be
pronounced
in super]atives
and comparatives
but the opposite
happens: "Ionger" [Iol)gg] and "Iongest" []DIJgrst].
onc
to Spanish speakers for two reasons: (1) the Spanish phonological system
lacks this phoneme; and (2) the distribution of this phoneme s unusual.
In relation to the first point it is worth mentioning that although Spanish
lacks this phoneme, it has a velar allophone of the alveolar InI. The
problem is that Spanish speakers only produce this sound when followed
by a velar sound ("ganga", "anca"'). For this reason, when a Spanish
speaker tries to pronounce words such as "song" [SDlJ], he pronounces
MediaIly:
th\\\.'
always pronounce
the sound [k]. But the spelling "ng" may be
rule which predicts
pronounccd [IJg] or [IJ]. There is a morphologcal
I.rl.
position:
of restricted
,of thc tongue against the soft palate): IfJI and Spansh has a palatal nasal
In initial
ll) distingu\sh
93
position
followcd
by a
Consonants
(Le. labiodental):
followed
by a voiceless
"infme"
[illJ fme ]
labiodental
fricative
If/:
(Le. iI)terdental):
fol!owed by a voiceless
interdental
fi'icative 18/:
"once" [I)8c]
-}
Consonants
(Sp. "oo") and does not appear in final position in Spanish. This
position is particularly interesting to note in the case of al! Spanish nasal
sounds.
Quilis and Femndez
(1996: 116) describe
the process
of
neutralisation of Spanish nasal consonants in post-syllabic position in
thc folIowing way:
(i.c. dcntal):
[n,]
fol!owed
by a voiced
or voiceless
"donde"
[dI;1de]; "lento"
[lI;1to]
Los fonemas
It,d/:
by a palatal
consonant
[c] or
[J]:
encuentran
"un
distintivos.
silbica
implosiva,
En esta situacin,
postnuc1ear,
/k,g/:
will represent
an
~
[rl)]
[velar
n]
[n]
[uJ
[IJ]
[1J]
[L1]
voiced:
"many"
labiodcntal,
bcft)rc
J:ain"un
rortunatc"
dental
(beforc
[8,5]):
"tenth"
advanced
retracted
(before
(before
(fol!owed
[k,g]
[r]):
inf:v
bytwo
"umest"
front
different
vowel):
words):
"tenet"
"ten or
slightly
devoiced
whcn
contact
with
a pause
Is/: "snorc"
when a"ten
voiceless
cups",
girls". consonant precedes, espccialIy
In!
pierden
cuando se
(Le. velar):
followed by a voiced or voiceless velar
"manco" [mar:ko]; "un gato" [lJ gto]
en posicin
sus caracteres
nasales funcionan
encuentran
en posicin silbica prenuclear,
explosiva: cama -:cana - caa (/k-ma, k-na, k-Jla:/). Por el contrario, cuando se
(Le. palatalized:
followed
dental
If thc articuIators nearly make contact but do not actual!y constrict the air
passage as to produce a friction noise, then we produce what are known
01'
frictionlcss
continllnnts;
which in English are
as npproximants
II,r,i,w/~K as in "Iip" Illp/, "rcal" 11'1:11/, "YOIl" fill:/, "was" IWlJz/. Thne i.';
no dividillg line bclwcen tlH: consonant category ami thc vowel catcgory,
we arc dealing with degrces of stricture. If we widen the articulatory
channel, we will produce a vowel; if we narrow it, we wil! utter a
fricative. In contrast to fricatives, in the produetion
there is no noise component or turbulenee.
of an approximant
Some phonetitians (notably Catford, I988, chp. 4) a]so cJass the nasal
consonants Im,n,r:J/ and the c]ose vowe]s /i,u/ as approximants because the air
58
flow becomes turbulent when they are devoiced. ]n Spanish linguistic manua]s,
the nasal consonants are often referred to as "continuantes".
l)1
C<J//soll<1II1s
COIlSOllallls
+ prominent
open vowels
close vowels
Th.: sounds
Il,m,n,I]1 could
be considered
contoids
and vocoids
at the
samc time. The sound 11/ is a contoid beca use the tongue tip is in contact
with the alveoles but a vocoid because the air is exploded lateraIly
without obstruction.
SimilarIy, .the nasals can be considered
contoid
because there is an obstruction
in the mouth (the lips; the tongue +
alveoles; the back of the tongue + the soft palate). But at the same time
they can al so be considcrcd
vocoids because the air escapes freely
through the nose. Their (/l,m,n,I]/) vocoid quality is stressed by the fact
that they can be a syIlabic nucleus.
approximants
nasals and Il/
'yoiccd eonsonants
voiecIcss consonants
- prominent
the peak
------
/'.C/
RP and
Africa,
England
Ireland,
as "car"
a rhotic
all of south-castcrn
England, Australia, Ncw Zealand, SOllth
and, variably, the sOllthern United St:\ks ami Enstcrn Nc\\'
are non-rhotic. Northcrn and wcstern England, Scotland, Wales,
Canada, and most ofthe United States are rhotic. So, a word such
wi1l be pronounced as Ika:/ in a non-rhotic accent and as !ka:JI in
accent.
On the other hand, /j,wl are vocoids because they arc open artieulation
but consonants
because of their ~arginal
position in the syIlable and
because they combine with vowels just like a1l consonants.
In fact,
articles have their pre-consonantal
rrom when they are followed by /jI or
Iw/: "lhe univcrsity"
lo;,jll:m'v3 :s;,til and not */oju:m'v3 :s;,til ami "lhe
water"
01'
Additiol1ally,
Ihe so-calkd
"lillki,1I'.
is lcI~ljArJI
and not loeI~J'jAI]/; and "They are wet" is loeI~lwetl and not IOeI~j'wctl.
The articulation.
articulation ofthe
of each approximant
may vary depending
on the
following vowel. Check the position ofyour tonglle in
Vowels are the most prominent sounds, and among these, open vowels are
more prominent than close vowels.
59
96
97
Consonants
"reed-raw";
"leave-
Consonants
Figure 2
Basically,
(W,,Y]) ofthe
what we have
voiced plosives
(Ib,d,gl). Martnez Celdrn points out that a fricative like /s/ is basically
ditTerent from a sound like [(.~]beca use the friction componcnt of thc first
Figure 3
in Spanish
Martnez
Articulaciones
aproximantes.
ste es un neologismo, procedente
del ingls, que hemos adoptado porque nos parece totalmente
necesario. Este tipo de articulaciones son frecuentes en castellano
y
conveniente
distinguirlas
nctamentc
98
de las
fricativas.
Las
99
Consonants
in the following
b,I ,j1
ap..-o;O:;IJI,utt.:
EJ.
Consonants
\'000.:;,01
t:j.
}1411k1
p;sIOlt
diagrams
(Martnez
pa1JC~ 01' preceded by In,1I'2. Similarly, th:; first sound in the English word
"we" is different fram the first sound in the Spanish word "guitarra" and
the first sound in the English word "wood" is different from the first
sound in the Spanish word "bueno".
In the first examp:::: ("we" "guitarra")
we have to take into aecount two featurcs: (a) the Spanish
sound is a plosive (Le. there is closure); and (b) the English sound is also
labial. In the second example ("wood" - "bueno")
it is important to
remember that: (a) the Spanish sound is a plosive (Le. there is closure);
and (b) the English sound is also velar. So, none of these substitutions is
acceptable. Nevertheless,
there is a strong tendency to substitute English
Iwl for Spanish Ibl when this sound is followed by Iv, u:1 01' even h:1 and
plW
to substitute it for Spanish Ig/ in the rest of the cases. Mott (1996: 137)
suggests that "Just as Eng1ish Ij/ is best practised as a shortened li:1 by
Spanish people, Iwl can be considered a shortened form of lu:/."
In relation
to the Spanish
sounds
"liquids"
("lquidas").
dp!I,).,imJ.lIl('
t--:j
1'.\1<\1.11
nhl'ro
Figure 4
So, Ij/ and Iwl cannot be compared in both languages because apart from
the faet of (1) being very short elements and (2) and never oeeurring as
syllabic nuelei in English and Spanish, these two sounds61 do not share
any 01 her fcature. They are di ff'crent from Engl ish in that they can be part
o!' III[~ I)['al, 01' Ihe syllnbk
("picrna").
(1996: 122)
define
lateral
consonants
in the
Las consonantes
lateralcs son aqucllas cn las quc durantc su
emisin el aire fonndor sale a travs de IIn cs1rech:lIl1icnlo
producido por un lado o los dos de la lengua y el reborde o los
reborde s homlogos de la regin pre o mediopalatal. Las cuerdas
vocales vibran siempre durante la emisin de estos sonidos.
distribution.
The Spanish speaker has to take into aceount that the first sound in the
English word "yes" is radieally different fram the first sound in the
Spanish word "yo".' The Spanish saund is pranaunced
with frlctian al'
even closure (affricate) when uttered 'with emphasis, in contact ",ith a
62
101
Id3/
as thcrc are
Consonants
PhonologicalIy"
Phonetically,
there
are 2 laterals:
Consonants
1 palatal
Ifj
and
1 alveolar
[1], l dental
l alveolar
[lt3,
1 velar
11/.
Quilis andFernndez
following way:
[] se pronuncia
[l]M , and
vibrant
consonants
in the
define
11/
UJ65.
(1996:129)
de la lengua en
1996:123).
i
i
Phonologically,
and 1 multiple!rl.
PhoneticalIy,
consonants
in
I Spanish:
1 simple Ir!
Due to a process
pronounced
of "deslateralizacill"
and is
speakers
the following
lost in these areas66 On the other hand, those who distinguish 1IJ and IJI
(northern Spain and marginal arcas of AndaIlIsia) are called "/Iel\"tas".
Yesmo is so widespread nowadays that it cOllld be said that lIesmo is
becoming a recessive feature " in modern Spanish. For most Spanish
speakers the 1IJ has become a IJ/.
multiple
[r].
In English
Ir/. Whereas
approximant
there
is. just
the articulation
one
phoneme
and
it is an
by" ... la
los alvolos", the production of a multiple !rI iQ characterised
formacin de dos o ms oc]usiones del pice de la lengua contra los
alvolos."(Quilis
and Fernndez,
1996: 129-30). The graphemes which
represent multiple rr; are: (1) "r" in initial positions of a word or in
internal positions when preceded by n or 1; and (2) "rr" in internal
positions. Multiple rrJ occurs in initial and medi~1 positions or preceded
by [n, 1]: "roca"
[arre5e5r]
[rka],
"perro"
[pero],
Enrique
[enrke],
"alrededor"
(Irl and
positions.
1t
depends on the emphasis used when speaking. So, the word "puerta"
normalIy represented with the archiphoneme IR!: /puRtal.
is
in implosive
Americans
generally
"matter" and "Iater".
65
use
a tap articulatin
66
102
1ni
for the
ItI
in words
like
Consonants
5.6 Distributional
problems
ftI'
tgbd
dr
kP
d3
1. Consonants
J,~,2, ..eEngliSh~~
~:\(}.\%
in Spanish.
,\ ;- /v,
,1'
3.
f(
"
\ (f.;:;;,
>
el Consonants
VG{,U
Voicc
Nail
Zoo
Red
Yet
Must
Wet
Same
VisionIJ I
Tree
Tea
Guest
zm
l'Again
hRubber
Ahead
w
River
Extra
Dinner
nAffect
Thin
Desk
Word
Choose
CheeseRicher
Think
Hammer
Much
Faith
Some
Look
Come
Drivc
Addrcss
Weak
Echo
Boot
Rush
FaI!
Miss
Horse
Live
Pin
Medial
Fina]
Final
sReason
Rib
TIJose
SureOcean
()
Futher
Hangcr
lnitial
Fancy
Soothe
Verv
Beyond
Away
Joy
Region
Charge
Laugh
Buy
Earthy
Massage
3Medial
Rouge
Rug
Long
JBurter
Lady
SAllow
lnitial
U
pper
Top
v8
tS
in the following points the
in the Spanish ys. English
;:':7
:=..
4.
5.
Spanish
[J]
01'
[f3J, an allophone
6.
Spanish
[s]
positions in Argentina,
replaced by [h].
7.
For some authors (like Finch and 0rtiz Lira) the sequences ItI + Irl and Id! + Irl
are considered one phoneme each, for the same reasons that ItI + !S! and Id! + 131
Spanish
['kond3uxe D. Eng.
is normally
dropped
[d3]
is of much
in pre-consonantal
freer
and
final
aad Andalusia
and
(i.e.
Chile, Central
[j3,o;~"].
Colombian,
Castilian),
occurs
only
("mismo" ['mizmo]). Eng. [z] is ofmuch
America,
before voiced
rreer occurrence.
consonants
67
8.
to some Andean
9.
69
104
[IJ], an allophone
are also considered one phoneme each. In the case of the sequences Itrl and !dr!
the Ir! h<:sa fricative reaIisation. And in the case of ISI and 131 in ItS! and Id31 the
friction is shorter.
68 nitial 13! can be found injust a few loan'words: "gigolo, genre".
There are six phonemes of restricted occurrence in English: /hl (not found in
final position); Ir! (not found in final position in RP); !3! (not found in initial
position, possibly in a few loan words); Ir)! (not in initial position); !j,w! (not in
fina] position).
Spanish
70
of vchrs
nationalities.
Eng.
is restrictcd
IrJ/
occurs
medialIy and finally, with 01' without the presence of other velars.
Spanish 11/ is realised as a clear variety in all positions70 Eng.
cIear only preceding vowels and Ij/.
11/
is
[k]
riations
I
III
--*
[g]
[15]
Consonants
[ph]
[b]
[pC]
[9]
[!]
m
[kh]
--*
[cj]
Ibl
[t]
[k]
[,n
Idl
[12]
->
dental
allophone
(advanced
+[0,8]):
NOT
advanced
tongue
(pre-velar,
+
front
vowcl):
GOSPEL
*--*
lackofaspiration
of
explosion,
and
non-audible
release:
aspiration
final
position:
130;\
T THE
Ig/
rslight
etractcd
[d]
[th]
(+
[g]
[d]
[r]):
TRY
lack
aspiration:
PHONETIC
BAKER
weak
in
final
position:
POP
in
final:
CAKE
non-audible
initial
CAKE
TOOL
aspiration
in postalvcolar
accented
initial
position:
PIE
KING
--*
--*
oral plosive
+ oral plosive: TOPCOA T
THlCK
DUST
[p]
nasal relcasc:
DARK
NlGl-lT
phonetic
systems:
*Spanish
lateral
release:
LlTTLE
oral
plosive
+ nasal:
TOPMOST
[tC]
106
--* --*
--*
--*
--*
Consonarlts
107
-*
108
[q]
LA TERALS
FRICATIVI~S
SILL y dcvoicing
pIosivcs
Lcss VE,
considcrabIy
WORKS,[p,t,k).
COLO.LEA
109
[r]
H after
W] /k/
-t -t
Consonants
nasal
[d]
[5]
-}
[n]
[k]
lb]
[D]
PUNE
the
. In!
voiced:
[J]
[j]
[w]
[m]
[nJ]
--'t
A
W
ARE
consonant
[vd
W
[m]
"casa"
as [tla]
[ksa]
plosive):
"tela"
[t]
alveolar
(i.e.
fricative):
flap,
following
[8,5]:
THREE,
WITH
mainly
between
vowels:
MIRROR
"pera"
[p]
[pera]
[g]
pause):
"bote"
[bte]
devoiced
following
accented
or contact
after
[p,t,k]
(PRA
Y),[p,t,k]
fricative,
or
Idl
[y]
after
with pause:
RESPECT
in initial
positon
of TUNE
a phonic group
[m bte]
with
pausc:
TWICE
SEMIVOWELS
APPROXIMANTS
ORAL STOPS:
(i.e.
I
I
II I
If
Iml
Ig/
Consonants
(Le. as plosive):
in initial position
of a phonic
[;I
group
(Le.
[d50]
[1]: "un
d5o]
(Le. as fricative):
in any other positioi1: "ese dedo" [se 55o]
(Le. as plosive):
in initial position
:
iof a phonic
I
group
(Le.
[l)
gto]
(i.e. as frcative):
STOPS:
[m'i'lfl1]
(Le. alveolar):
in prenuclear
[kna]
in postnuclear
an
alveolar
"insociable"
sylIabic
pasitian:
"cana"
(Le. labiodental):
followed by a voicqless
If/: "infme" [iI1Jfme]
(Le. interdental):
folIawed by a voiceless
/8/: "once" [l)8e]
11 ()
\ \ \
labiodental
fricative
interdentaI
fricative
( 'O/l.\'Olllll/I,\'
[0]:
foj]owed
by a voiced
It,d/: "donde"
or voiceless
[d6;de]; "lento"
(Le. palatalized:
followed
consonant
[J]:
[c] or
"caa" [k]1a]
[tJ]: "muchacho"
[x]
-?
-?
-?
181
Isl
[f]:
"caf" [kaf]
[8]:
"caza" [k8a]
[s]
(Le. voiceless):
L]:
(Le. voiced):
[mucco]
11/
"caja" [kxa]
[1]
[11]:
(i.c. as a laryngcal
(i.c. alveolar):
in prenuclear
syllabic position:
"pala" [pla]
in postnuclear
syllabic position but when
followed by voweI, pause or any consonant
except
[t,
d,
8]:
"mal"
[ml];
"alfrez"
[alfrc8 ]
"casa" [ksa]
(i.e. interdental):
whenever
it precedes a voiced consonant
(this realisation
is not constant): "muslo"
[m)lo]
-?
or
LATERALS
FRICA TIVES
Ifl
nasal
JYo]
AFFRICA TES
[c] or
pause,
lxi
Icl
[iral]
(Le. velar):
[p.]
M: "Israel"
(Le. as fricative):
[J]:
style):
1]1/):
-,
in colloquial
[ll)to]
IJI
[11,]
dental
-,
in postnuclcar
Latin America):
in postnucJear
[hte ]
position:
syllabic
"este"
112
"llave"
[l..Pe]
113
and followed
syllabic
[t,ldo]
Consonants
Consonants
VIBRANTS
Ir!
[r]
(Le. multiple,
preceded
of a word):
18/: it is represented
"e" or
or
"f'.
by
"i").
Is/:
it is always represented
/j/:
it is represented
[aIreBeOr],
by the letter
by "e" or
"a") .
Ix/: it is represented
"e" or
by the letters
"j"
by
"i").
In/:
it is always representeo
IJl/:
it is always represented
1982:65).
Here is a list of some spelling rules you have to take into aeeount
studying Spanish:
when
Ibl: it is represented
ItJ:
Ik/: it is represented
"u"), "qu" (when
words 72).
71
by
it is always represented
11/:
/1../:
it is always represented
it is always rcprcscntcu
Ir!: it is represented
it is represented
beginning of a word
,IN:
/ks/: it is rcprescntcd
if (aY it is not
by "n", f'I",
01'
at the beginning
"s".
01'
it is simplifico
to [s].
"p" or
qr "n" (preeeding
:
/k8/:
it is represented
simplified
by the
letters
"ee".
Somctimes
it
IS
to [8].
Sometimes it is possible to use both spellings "qu" 01' "k". For example
"kiosco" ,and "quiosco" 01' "kilmetro" and "quilmetro", The second option is
Ih~'\'n~' whkh i~t~(\'mm~'\\\kd.
72
\\.,
115
"e"
is
C0I1SO/Iil/I!S
LU/lS<i/HIIIIS
Iksl
"s": island
Igz/
"g": the hard "g" is pronounced like Ig/ and the soft "g"
pronounced like Id31 (when preceding "e", "i" or "y").
ISI.
ItSI.
IS
IIJg/
and
IIJ/73.
Ij/.
116
fI
117
Consonants
Consonants
2.
Match
column
column:
5.9 Exercises
cetceo
hacer
1. bo bo
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
match in initial position. What are the words? (b) Three words in
the right-hand column haye initial consonants for which there is
7. galn
8. veinte
9. kilogramo
10. grave
l. beige
2. breathe
__
6.collgh
7. door
8. face
9. Jane
Jedge
lick
maid
meat
nave
nose
robe .
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
rogue
rung
rush
Ruth
sail
pitch
__
goal
choke
__
jell
fun
think
safe
valll
_6_
__
__
118
they
zone
mode
name
lace
rake
yeIl
wet
head
shift
__
geranio
bien
__
yogurtera
kilo
llorar
__
~
ejemplar
gente
__
__
__
__
__
gorila
querido
suspensin
queso
guerrero
VInO
I I . caridad
12. situacin
13. casa
team
kilJ
bad
dame
3. chip
4. coach
5. comb
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
2004:31).
yacer
zeta
antes
llover
herbvoro
14. gitano
15. jinete
i
3.
YS.
[J J or
_
[d3J:
[f] ys.
[e]:
119
CUllso/ltll/ls
CO/Jsonanls
English:
Gwcn:
[n]
YS. [IJ]:
Wendy:
railway.
Wasn't it cold on Wednesday?
Yeso ft was very cold and wet. We wore warm
clothes and walkcd quickly to kcep warm.
!t's lovely and quiet in the woods.
Yes. Further away from the railway it was very
quiet, and there were wild squirrels everywhere.
We counted twenty squirrels.
How wonderful! Twenty squirrels! And did you
take lunch with you?
Yes. About twelve we had veal sandwiches and
Gwen:
Wendy:
[j]
vs.[d3]:
[J] vs.
[e]:
Gwen:
Wendy:
Gwen:
Wendy:
4.
the squirrels.
5.
6.
---
.----_.
--
------..
----,--.--- ..
-'''A.j__
lo'
120
C
L ()
B
A
----A(,
E
lJ
B
1
D
L
A
words which
121
2002:89):
Consonants
Consonants
d.
e.
f.
English Irl is an
sound and
1. La
mujer
del
ar ero
los
s a os
come
puchero.
2. A_r_ate
por fe_rero
con _os
capas
y un
som rero.
3. Na_a
du_a
cl que na_a
sa_c
4. A_oga_o
sin conciencia merece _ran sentencia.
5. No to- o se da a to - os
6. Tanto
ale el hom re cuanto vale su nom re.
g.
Is/;
181
_______________
amI thc oppositc is cnllcd
h.
[b]
[y]
[d]
[g]
[o]
[0]
by
-----,...
Nasals
J.
are
as
also
prominent
, or
sound.
calletl
as vo~els
are
and
much
more
9.
b.
in English and
Spanish.
I I does
I
______
c.
or
I and I l.
consonants.
122
123
COI/so/Ja//Is
b.
Irl is an
The English
Ir! is a consonant.
Spanish
problem
Spanish,
Attempts
cancerning
the
consonants
to produce
this
cause
this
saund
before
is that,
a
unlike
occur in
by a Spanish
Thc nasal
person speaking
English or
I does
_____
g.
Ip/, I
Id! are
Smiths'
house
sounds
stops
in
in English.
Spanish
such as
speaker
/111
=1
should
therefore
previous
example.
and
these only
when
they
(e.g. the
assimilated
Spanish
__
statclllcnts
fewer
exercises"
problems
than
A Spanish speaker
tends to pronounce
[IJ] san
c.
__
d.
__
the
e.
or
through
and not a
pronoLJnce
the
__
The English sound Irl has a fricative
the sequences Itrl and Idr/.
125
t'alsc
[I]g] instead
Spanish
speaker
wil! wrongly
[jAIJ gg] instead of [jAIJ g].
exploded
late rally
obstruction.
but
any
allophone
__
A
"younger"
124
than Spanish,
b.
not occur in
I l.
ItI and
unfamiliar
for the
replace it by In/.
The palato-alveolar
cantain
a.
I does
difficulties
clusters)
and is
else overemphasised.
d.
(consonant
seven consanants
either omitted
whereas
it is not pronounced
(e.g. "shirt")
c.
( '0//.1'0//(1//1.\'
nose
withaut
realisation
in
Consonants
f ~_
The English
occurrence
sound
(together
ITJI
is a phoneme
of restricted
g.
__
The English word "tenth" and the Spanish
"once" both share a dentalised aIlophone of In/.
word
h.
__
The English word "wonder" nnd Ihe Spanish
"donde" both share a dcntalised allophone aUn/.
worlJ
C.S
Voiceless
voiced ones.
1.
__
J.
__
The second
consonants
syllable
are more
prominent
\j;::') ~J--je.:~
has no
Front vowel sounds are unrounded in both langllag~s; back ones are rounded
(cxccpt 10:/ in English) ..
75
\27
full't'is
(inel
f)//Jill!wngs
J
and followed
anot!ler"
'oll'ds llIld
by a nasal consonant:
Dip!Jr!Jongs
"ham"
of vowel
"mano"
sounds
[mImo];
boundary:
It should
is common
and
"enfermo"
between
it is also
nasal
common
In Spanish,
sounds:
at the
nasalization
"nio"
beginning
[iJ1o];
of word
[eI1]frmo].
vowel system
I/
~-/~
According
to Mott, this English tendcncy
exrlajns the development of some present-day
(1996:] ]9) expJains that:
Figure 2
The vowel
sounds
of English
and Spanish
share two common
characteristics:
they are voiced sounds (i.e. there is vocal folds vibration)
and they are usualIy oral sounds (Le. the air escapes only through the
l1]outh). In some cases, vowel sounds could be "devoiced"
and
"nasalii'.ed". Aspiration in English is heard as a kind 01' voiceless vowel.
This is possible
towards diphthongisation
English diphthongs. Mott
it wiII be recalled
General'
01' preceded
j
' ..
129
beer
Pre-R Breaking
Prc-Schwa Lax.ing
chair
more
sure
[bi:r]
[tSe:r]
[mo:r]
[Ju:r]
[bi:;}r]
[tSe:gr]
[J u:;}r]
[b;-)r]
[tSE~r]
[mo:;}r]
[m~~r]
BEGINNING OF
INfI1AL VOWEL
[Ju~r]
gloois
closed
as
['1 i: breI]78.
~NGL!SH
PANISH
opposition in Spanish, as can be seen in the following words: le -ley, rerey (Mott, 1996).
gloois
op<:n
END OF
FINAL VOWEL
vibrntio/1
thal charnctcrizcs
77
711
BUI
Id
nnd
Idl
f~ --.:
vocal cord
vi bracion
vocal cord
vibracion
opiJosition
130
glottis
clOsM
6.2 V owcls
In the fol1owing chart Finch and Ortiz Lira i (1982: 42) show some
correspondences between the Spanish and the English vowel systems.
-------ua
au
-------ea
al
la
o
ei
eI
O,ou
e
a
u
aI
u
O
--------oI
----------------l
Spnnish
English --------f':nglish
Spnnish
is
ue
ee
Ie
are in phonologicnl
glottis
op<:n
Figure 3
vibrJtion
F===~~:----~>
Finally, English and Spanish vowels begin and end very differently.
According to Mott (1996: 263):
vocal
vocal cord
vocal cord
vibrat;oo
111
As it can be seen in the above ehart, there are some important differenees
. between both vowel systems: (1) there are many more English pure
vowels (twelve vs. five)79; (2) there are central vowels in English; and (3)
no English vowel so un , matehes any Spanish one
,
,..
,'.
,:...-:1,
",,1
h.)
(b)
1 .'.r1..C'L
. Our frst priority must be to get the ~i~;1~r to master a larger number of
pure vowel oppositions, plaeed articulatorily and auditorily eloser to
eaeh other, than those of his mother tongue. This will imply the
separation of qualities, e.g. lFEI- IAI and IDI - 10:/, and the use of the
central part of the vowel area.
According to Finch and Ortiz Lira (1982: 42-3), there are 3 important
points concerning vowel quality whieh any Spanish learner should take
into account when leaming English vowels:
English
le-a:/.
It is the typical
..
(e)
lul is half-way
(d)
(e)
10,0:1 can
(t)
(g)
be elieited
by
produeing
opener
and
closer
lip-rounding.
1.
Spanish
li,e,a,ul
are
near
equivalent
to
English
li:,e,A,u:/.
(h)
Nevertheless,
this is not an advantage,
there are important
differences and the student will need good practice. The leamer will
have to note that:
2.
(a)
(b)
(e)
English
frequeney
le(3),I,ul
deserve
of oeeurrenee
of
special
attention
to
the
high
in produeing
vowcls
in the Spanish
132
vowel system.
behind the
CLASSIFICATION
VOWELS
ANO
OESCRIPTION
OF
SPANISH
and
qualities within the central area80. New vowel qualities can be taught
providing a sound at an intermediate
point between two already
known vowel qualities. Examples:
79
I.
duc
1. Manner of articulation:
If the tongue approximates
as close as possible to the palate, we get a
series of vowels known as "close vowels" (vocales de pequea abcrtura,
vocales cerradas, vocales altas o vocales extremas), such as Ii/ and lu/.
If the tongue keeps away from the palate, we get the vowels Icl and 101
known as "mid vowels" (vocales medias o de abcrtura medii).
133
If the tongue ke.eps further away rrom the palatal region, thus being as far
as possible from the palate, we get the vowel/a/ known as "open vowel"
(vocales de gran abertura, vocales abiertas, o vocales bajas)8!:
::o .I
o'
.. "'10.0 . --."""
""0"(-'.'-
i\:
po~l.rior
untrat
anlerior
!!
; .
II
._._.-!~._._.
"o
t!
- .-. _.~_._.
.~.
.m._i
.
.2. I
.z!I
I
i
j
.=~.,,~
!
J
Figure 4
vs
"" ~'-'-r-c.."~----~
,
.
-.['I/,-t'f("'5
F,i /1 -~7
,
,/"'.'.
.-"{'"
.. _.1'\~~
We can also take into account some other factors such as: nasalization,
the intensity (or loudness) in their emission, and their length or quantity.
3. Nasalization:
,
r"S'
A!though al! Spanish vowels are oral, they can: be nasalizcd in ccrtain
contexts. Machuca (2000: 44) states that: "los sonidos voclicos pueden
nasalizarse cuando aparecen en posicin inicial absoluta seguida de nasal
o entre consonantes nasales". So, the vowel sdunds in words such as
"infiel" or "mente" are nasalized.
!
I
We do not need the labels "mid or half close" and "m id or half open" for
the Spanish set of vowe]s as we do for English. The English language
nccds to be more specific in its classiJicalion as lhe number 01' vowels is
greater.
2. Place of articulation:
A further classification has to do with the part of the tongue which
reaches the palatal region:
a)
'5' V'lO -.
4. Intensity or loudness:
'i
I Ci
'-f.
y')"-,';y-")'~:j
1') I
C',
o ~.
Those vowels which receive the greatest degree of muscular jeffort are
known as "accented vowels" (vocales acentuadas o tnicas). On the
contrary, those vowels which receive a lesser degree of muscular effort
are referred to as "unaccented vowels" (vocales inacentuadas o tonas).
Unaccented vowels "presentan menor estabilidad en su timbre y menos
perceptibiJidad que las tnicas" (Quilis and Femndez, 1996:55). Finally,
only in very specific contexts can we talk about "relaxed vowels"
("vocales relajadas"). Quilis and Femndez (1996:55) state that:
En el sistema voclico castellano apenas si es posible hablar de vocales
relajadas. Se realiza de este modo la que se encpentra en posicin fina]
~I
135
a una pausa,
VOH'eLs una'
Nevertheless,
English speakers have to take into aecount that Spanish
long vowcls are not as long as English ones ('.lee!, .\'(i(i!l ') mI the S11Or!
vowels are not as short as the unaccented English vowels.
5. Length or quantity:
Length is not a distinctive
feature in the Spanish vowel system.
Nevertheless,
in words such as "azahar" 01' "pase" it is possible to talk
about longer phonetic realisations
of the vowel sounds. Quilis and
Fernndez (1996: 146-7) describe five different circumstances:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
b)
c)
neutral (neutras):
when the tongue occupies a mid position,
thus creating two resonating cavities, one back and one front, of
equal dimensions. The vowcl la! represents a neutral vowel.
CLASSlrICA
VOWELS
TION
AND
a back position.
DESCRIPTION
OF
in the
The
ENGLlSJ-I
li:/:
between
half-open
to CVI
and half-close.
is neutral.
than
It cannot
Examples:
speech [aG:r].
can be classified
a)
11.
Diphthongs
'co/',
/oU:
I!
allJ10st fully
lu:/:
baek,
roul1Jed,
almost
fully
retracted,
unrounded,
elose.
Examples:
front, though
half-close,
slightly
between
close and
Clase to CY 2. Examples:
'ship, bit,
pin,jish'.
between
half-clase
and half-open.
Examples:
1A1:
-Illt.~ twclv('
/-dl
fe,'/
t'
.1
~. lO:!
(schwa):
Examples:
central,
'Qho/lt.
unrounded,
between
half-open
and half-close.
1r1
.t; .:1
10/: back,
rounded,
open. Examples:
/a:-/ (ash):
between
d'J
but almost
bctwccn
halr-opcn
J)/
,. \/
;)s in puf
~s ~r. sc,,:n
(l';
,,';
lu/: between
1""
!t1
rlft
bl."(1
Ule ~L'c()nd
sylf:'hi11-1
of
bn ..J!l1t?r
Figure 5
6.3 Diphthongs
(almost half-clase).
111
fully
c.Jrt.
ti'ont, unroundcu,
(",Ir
:01
1 "
and open,
1(\
as ;r~ lo:
/:):/ as In aff
1 (1
half-open
phOTlCrnC5
h/~cJ
'3:tI
fJf.I'f}/lOfJS'.
,l~
vuwel
! .. /i:1 as In cal
between
I'ush' .
[~nglish
Examples:
j-jere is a picture which shows all English pure vOwels (Mott, 1996: 60)
Diphthongs
categorised
i)
ii)
can be classifed
artieulatorily
and auditorily.
according to (Finch and Ortiz Lira, ] 982):
are
The distancc the tongue travels: they can be "wide" (when the
glide is long) and "nan-ow" (when the glide is short).
The direction 01' the movemcnt the tongue makes in producing
diphthongs: English diphthongs can be "closing" al' "centring",
and Spanish diphthongs
can be "closing"
01' "opening".
If a
diphthong
138
They
is closing
139
iii)
1.
CLASSIFICATION
DIPHTI-!ONGS
(1
<)<)G:
AND
DESCRIPTION
OF
SPANISH
There
Figure 6
Spanish diphthongs
Figure
140
7,
of diphthongs
in Spanish:
(1) rising
diphthongs
141
rising diphthongs
and
[wi]
as [i~] and
diphthong
[we]
pronounce
the sounds
[el.wBo],
"hueco"
tend to pronounce
[uj] as in "ciudad"
is in word
initial
[g] or [.]
in Spanish:
position
many
the diphthongs
"ruido".
01'
[ja, je,
speakers
[gwBo],
When
the
tend
to
"el huevo"
When there are three instead 01' just two consecutive vocalic elements in a
syllable, this is call a "triphthong" ("triptollgo"). As Quilis and
Fernndez explain (1996:69): "Como en el diptongo, la vocal ms abierta
es la que fonna el ncleo silbico, y posee tambin la mayor energa
articulatoria.
Las otras dos vocales sern semiconsonante
o semivocal,
segn vayan situadas antes o despus del ncleo silbico.": "despreciis"
[despreOjjs];
"buey"
[bwj].
[gwko].
diphthongs
are described
as (Quilis
and
n.
CLASSIFICA TION
DIPl-ITHONGS
English diphthongs
Los llamados diptongos decrecientes,
en los que la vocal que
forma el ncleo silbico est situada en primera posicin, por lo
que los rganos articulatorios
se desplazan desde una posicin
abierta a una cerrada. La vocal ms cerrada recibe en este caso el
a)
ANO
can be central
Centring
Oiphthongs:
(sehwa) vowel:
These
01'
OESCRIPTION
elosing:
diphthongs.
"baile, ley, hoy, jaula, deudor, lo~unt". In this way, Spanish scmivowcls
and semieonsonants
are vowel allophones.
The distinction
between
semiconsonant
and semivowel depends on its pre 01' post-nuclear position
in the syllable:
Ii/
lul
IJI
the
le'dl 'there'
/':1;1
dling diphtllOngs:
gl de towards
,
/'dl "dear"
ENGLISl-I
There
OF
"before"
moljrn,
tour"
I
b)
Closing diphthongs:
Thcse diphthongs haJeI the characteristic
they al! end with a glide towards a cJos:er vowcl. Three
diphthongs glide towards /I and two glide tqwards lu/:
le!1 "play"
ALLOPHONES
PHONEME
[!;I] semivowel
semivowel
[j]
[j] semiconsonant
[w] sem ieonsonant
Iple!/,
01'
that
the
82
Some
authors
(see
Mott,
1996)
include
this
diphthong
among
diphthongs,
Although old h;:/ diphthong dcvclopcd ;into nowadays
still rctaincd both in conscrvativc
RP and in many regional aspccts.
142
143
h:/,
centring
/Ja/
is
by
Ig/
within
es/te/ tiem/po
(Gimson,
As a suffix: "employer"
3.
As a separable
I'naUgdelz/.
6.5 Distributional
604 Hiatus
morpheme).
de la Vega):
11
syllables
instcad
of
problcms
IIm1pblg/.
element
in a composite
form:
First of all, it has to be mentioned that the frequcncy 01' occtI!Tcncc 01'
vowel phonemes in English and Spanish is different; Spanish presents a
higher proportion of vowel sounds than English (43.49% vs. 39.21%).
Secondly, whereas Spanish shows a high frequency of occurrence of the
three most open vowels (la,e,ol totallillg 33.65%), the cClltralizcd vowcls
(l8,I,A,8U,U,3:,I8,uel.1 totallillg 23.98'1'0) pn:dominatc
ill Ellglish.
"nowadays"
Ncvcrthelcss,
there is a tcndency in rapid and advanccd RP to omit the
second clemellt (M or lu/), especially in the sccond illstance (i.e. as a
separable
(Garcilaso
1989):
aldi/vi/no"
13 .
Additionally,
English strong vowcls occur two or tl1n~c timcs
frcquentIy in unacccnted syIlablcs than in accented oncsS4.
and syncrcsis
Whereas all Spanish vowels can occur in all three positions in the word
(initial, medial and final), English vowels are subject to so me restrictions:
In Spanish, when two vowels come together in a word, one ofthem being
[i,u], the other being [e,o,a], they may not form a diphthong. Thus, each
vowel will remain in a different syllable, constituting a syllabic nucleus
by its own. We refer to this phenomenon
as "hiatus" ("hiato"). Some
(a)
(b)
(c)
144
lcss
accented.
initially.
Exceptions:
exceptions:
/ul
lu/ in 'oomph'
6.6 AIIophonic
variations
83
84
AII these figures have been extracted fTom Finch and Ortiz Lira' (1982).
145
Ig/
and
//.
point
J)
[i:]-[i']-[r]
a paJatal allophone
[::>:]-[::>"]-[0]as in "poured,
[u:]-[u}[u]
consonants
port, pot"
[a] is produced
Ic,,Jl,jl
"despacho".
a velarized allophone
2)
three allophonic
as
in
varieties:
the
words
tlley
are
In open
palata;
"facha"
or
"malla",
"palma" or "maja".
the default allophone [at7 is found in those contexts where the
other allophones do not oeeur. For example: "caro" or "comps".
3)
vowels
IN (rr), as
( [El
[::>1
in the Collowing
2)
3)
4)
"pelma"
In Spanish thc l110sl notcworthy cxal11plc is that pC thc phoncl11c lil which
has two possible spellings "y" ("y griega") and 'ji" ("i latina"). The etter
"y" is pronounced as liI in the following contcxtsr8:
1)
;
I
l.
2.
3.
or
closed
or "costa".
2.
85
86
Examples
d.I\\,';.n,O .
c\osed
by consonant
cxcept
y ou use an "i" whcn the sound lil is at word initial position and
"iglesia, idea, isla".
followed by a consonant89:
y ou use a "y" when it is at word or sy lIable initial position and
followcd by a vowcl. In tbis context, it is prollOllllccd as a
87
It is represented
88
EIscwberc
it is pronollnccd
as
T (i.c.
a palata\.
fricati"c.
/ Yl\durin:
[aJo
voiccd sOllnd).
y oweis
ami
DlpllilJOngs
101
IAI
rot
cut
metIrl
1'6:,1
lel
rat
bit
rate
leTI
Lax
vowel
bite
metelarl
li:1
Tense
Vowel
rote
I:;)ul
cute
Iju:1
Some syllablcs with lax vowels end in two consonant letters (which
may be identical or different): add, telL off, pend, fc!!, lo.f!.
2.
3.
4.
Eddie
lel
IAI
rubble
/'6:,1
lartervowel
mopping
mb]e
Edie
101ing
li:1
lu:1
Lax
later
lerl
Tense
Vowel
moping
Iml
I:;)ul
pin
Finally, the mos~ common silent voweI letter in English is "e" in final
position: "pIcase, name, tease"
owel digraphs are scqllences 01' (wo vowcl lelters tha( may be the same or
different.
93 This combination does not always signal a tense vowel. There are nurncrolls
exceptions in words spelled with the digraphs ea, 00, and ou: bread, look, cOllld.
91 V
90
Except words beginning with "h" and ceratin words: "itrico, iota, IOn,
raranoia".
1 See also Dickerson (1994).
148
149
FinaIly, as Finch and Ortiz Lira (I982: 44) point out: "The Iearner can
also make use of the rules goveming vowel aIternations, i.e. those rules
that prcdict variations in the vowel quality of roots when affixes are
added". Examples:
Inl -4 III
Derive
-4
6.8 Excrciscs
1.
li:1
-4
lel
leI/-4
I<EI
derivative
A) Put your own vowels in the first chart, using a set of words.
Listen to each vowel carefully and try to judgc how it sounds
relative to the other vowels.
B) Try to find a speaker of a dialect different from your own (or
perhaps a foreigner who speaks English/Spanish
as a foreign
langllage ). Repeat section \ llsing the second chart.
f<irst chart:
high
back
low
150
151
4.
in Spanish.
(1)
I f possibk
(2)
back
low
5.
2.
3.
Compare the vowels in the English words "car, cart, calm, cat" to
the vowels in the Spanish words "carpintero, cateto, camilla", do
!hcy havc any thing in common? Is there any diffcrcncc? Now
say the sentence "Dale esto a Ana". Do you notice something
special in connection to the previous words?
"Homophone"
is a term used to refer to words which have the
same pronuneiation
hut differ in meaning, for example "mect"
and "meat" /mi:tI. Each of the following transcriptions represents
a set ofEnglish homophones, write the words they represent:
/sart/:
-------~--------
/si:/:
(3)
(4)
(5)
girl
between
close
and half-closc,
_
eel-
/raIt/:
1I11t'OlllHledvo\Vcl sOllnd:
------------------
/sed/:
_
my - dear - below - toe - sewer - cure
152
153
__
The English
both marginal.
e.
__
Transcribe
the following
Spanish words:
f.. __
Ybarra:
g.
__
h.
__
Lenthening
is a cornrnon
colloquial Spanish speech.
Ij! are
are closing.
Yerno:
Reyes:
sound
phenornenon
in
rapid,
position
in the
Hielo:
~
Convoyes:
7.
hur
. yata
quilmay
yaqul
siboney
yegua
or ''y,,94:
zahor
velah
entonces
una al~
de vciPte casas cie barro y caabrava
constrWi1as a la oI;illa de un ~o de ~g!!ill' dillfanas que se
precipitaban por un lecho de pj~ras puli?as, blancas y enormes
que
como h~os
pr~stricos.
El mundo era tan re~te,
muchas cosas careci!,n de nombre, y para menc.tiwarlas hab.ia. que
sealarlas con el dedo. (G. Garca Mrquef, 1967:1)
Yemen
jabal
quibey
yerno
S.
statclllents
diphthongs
a.
__
Spanish
diphthongs.
b.
__
c.
__
than English
AII the
diphthongs
/) must be pronounced
without
This cxcrcisc
is includcd
1, leg/,
95
This exercise
is included
in M. Brookes
and I
in RP. It
pronollncc
i1 Spanish.
1,,-1
(1
an
'14
for the
thc "r" -
VOlI'eI,\,
(/1/(1
front vowel
"
as well as
le:;)1
Similarly
words
lu:;)1
such
"
and "tore".
."
lu:1
" and
so as not to confuse
"two",
"sure"
and
"
ICII should not be confuscd with the purc vowcl Icl (e.g. the
oppositions"
I"
").
l.
", "
"
and "rod".
Nor ShOllld I:>ul bc confllscd with thc
vowel
"
"low"
back
I "
",
" I "hall") .
. 156
157
", "
(pre- an~ post-) posi.tions are typica~ly occupied by. consonants . .Ji'\
~'\
of sounds which can be ::'j lIabic nucleus and the other is related to the
1~()
l' !wllo[ae[
6)
ies
the first one, it has to be noted that English has a set of consonants
1,r/)96which can be syllabic nucleus:
.
l'hOllol<ldics
(1m,
, IJ,
n,
"bortom" lbDtn;V
"burton" lbAt~
"bacon" lbelk61
Delattre (1965:41) offers the following fcnlures for the four l11os1frcqtlcnt
syllable types:
"bubble" l'bAb,ll
"particular" Ipr'tIkj;)lrt7
,
,
3.1
55.6%
11.9
27.6
10.2%
%
%
%
eev
ve
3].8
19.8%
4.0
%
%
ev
eve
As it can be seen in the above table, Spanish clearly favours the CV type.
Obviously, this means that in English there is a predominance of cIosed
syllables .
syllable may take up to three consonants before the vowel (Le. the
@ onset~),
The second
much
more
Whereas
the take
English
and difference
up to fOllr is
after
it (Le.
the remarkable.
.coda): Spanish
can only
two
consonants before, and one --exceptionally two- after:
English syllable:
Spanish syIlable:
96
(CCC)V(CCCC)99:
"sprain, texts"
(CC)V(CC):
"trans-bor-da-dor"
iS1
'i'i
FOllr C0l1S0llallt codas are ollly possiblc whcll a surlix with thc phal1eme
01' 101 i: addl'd lo ollll'r l'OIl:Ollilllls: "1<:lIlpl:;" 11l'lIIpls/.
Itl
ar
160
.0:
161
,1
Phonotactics
Phonotactics
4.
the [s] sound is;nore sonorous than the [p] sound. As we may remember,
the sonority scale takes the following form 100:
Low vowels
5.
High vawels
Approximants
N asals
V oiced fricatives
V oiceless fricatives
Voiced stops
Voiceless stops
3.
4.
theory, both could be correct because (1) Iprl is an acceptable onset and
(2) Ipl can be a coda in words such as "cup" and Irl can be an onset in
l.
CV-type
appear
to be the syllablc
types
that human
2.
children first utter when they begin to speak (e.g. [ba], [maD
regardless of what language their parents speak.
In many cases of aphasia, CV syllable structures also appear to be
the sort that first begins to appear as the patient recovers his or her
speech.
A, DI
restrictions
dnot
Initially:
a. IfJI and
13/102
101.
do not occur.
clusters are possible with ItS, d3,
b.
no consonant
c.
5, zJ.
Finally:
a. only 111may occur before non-syllabic
b. Ih, r, j, wl do not occur103
1m,
ni.
i
i
i
I
l.
2.
+ Ip,t,k,f,m,n,l,wj/:
"speak,
steak,
sIab,
As one proceeds from the bottom to lhe top of the scale, sonority incrcases.
These are called "checked" vowels. In contrast to these vowels which can
occur word finaJly are called "free" vowels. In Spahish they are called "vocal
trabada" and "vocal libre".
102 In native English words. There are words such as "Gisel1e" 01' "gigolo"
with
an initial 131 bUllhe are of Frcnch origino
10) 11'1 may occur in this posilion in rholic accents.
162
163
101
3.
no
in English:
element.
in the following onset which is preferred." (Carr, 1999: 74). For example,
the word "appraise" l~pre!ZJ' could be syllabified 1~.prelzJ or l~p.relzJ. In
words such as "red". But the Maximal Onset principIe predicts that only
the first aptian is the correcto This principIe is connected with a universal
fact: "that syllables with an onset consonant are in some sense more basic
than those withaut, and that presence of onset cansonants
is in some
sense more basic than presence of coda consonants." This means that the
most basic syllable structure in human languages is CV and Carr (1999:
74-5) name several types of evidence which support this:
phonotactic
2. le, re,
The Maximal Onset principIe predicts that " ... where the languagespecific phonotactics will allow for two or more syllabificatins
across a
syllable boundary, it is the syllabification
which maximizes the material
syllabIes
Coda consonants
are much more likely to undergo loss of
articulation
in the course of the historical
development
of
languages than onset consonants.
There are no known languages which have VC-type syllabIes but
lack CV -typc syllables, whcreas the reverse is not the case
/'holJolaclics
l'honolaclics
>-
>-
>-
>>-
>-
>-
Isf-/:
Non-indigenous
words sucli as "atleta" are syllabilied
"al. le. la".
11" /spw-, sll-/ ami h;lw-/ are nol possible (Ipw-, tI-/ are nol possiblc
possiblc "lwellly").
1(1-1
164
bul /lw-/ is
There are
1.
2.
Isl
106.
>-
>-
>-
>>>-
>-
for
1-1/:
106 Duc lo Ihc fael Ihat plural ami vcrbal !I1orphc!l1cs arc usualIy suffixcd
a support vowcl: "books", "sits".
107 Mott (1 ')%; 274).
IOH Mott (1')96: 274-5).
165
withouI
Phonotactics
>
I-rd/: rcduccd
>
>
>
I-SI: usually
>
>
to
11'/:
"standard"
articulated
01'
=:>
bccomcs
>
"standar".
fricativc "raid"
=:>
[rai()].
Other examples:
Phonotactics
pronounced
01'
"adquirir"
>
as In/: "camping".
with a support
vowel:
"film"
When Ib,dl
[tk] - [ok].
are followed
become fricatives:
=:>
>
"abdicar"
by a voiced
[cm];
plosive,
[po]; "advertir"
both of them
[013],
"tcnica"
["(n];
"eclipsar"
[~s];
"subyugar"
7.4 IntrasyIlabic
>
>
>
>
>
>
1.
2.
VCCY:
i
I
a.
b.
1-1/:
intrasyllabic
01'
groups by weakening
voiceless
the first
110
[pt] - [t];
[~t] - [t].
110
109
11
>
[0J].
In some varietiesl
by an aspiration:
[hk], etc.
111
166
Pho;:aclics
I'hollolaclics
.3.
YCCCY:
2.
a.
4.
a.
b.
c.
7.5 Juncturc
1. VCV:
There is a narrow :elationship between one sOllnd and the sOllnds that
immediately precede and follow it even at word boundaries. The
relationship bctween Iml and lall , between ItI and 13:/, and betwcen 13:1
a.
b.
and In! in the phrase "my turn" is one of "close juncture". On the other
hand, Iml and Inl are said to be in a position of"cxternal open juncture"
bccause they are preceded (1m!) and followed (In!) by silencc. Finally, the
relationship bctwccn Iml and ItI is more difficult to cbssify; is it diffcrent
01' similar to the relationship between larl and ItI in "might earn"? This
kind of relationship is cal!ed ,"internal open juncture"
(or just
"juncture") and it is highly connected to syl!able division at word
boundaries.
In Spanish, when the last sound of a word is a consonant and the flrst of
the foIlowing word is a vowelJJ3 they are pronounced as ifthey belonged
to the same syllable. This is called "enlace". Wc can also find a similar
casc when the last sOllnd is n vowcl and Ihe frst nnothcr vowcl whcncvcr
112 That is, closing diphthongs, long vowels and short vowels folIowed by two
consonants.
168
113
Phonotactics
Phonotactics
7.6 Exercises
l.
If the ]ast sound of the first word is a vowel the link is carried out in the
foIlowing way:
2.
170
3.
Apprehension:
IlJiterate:
EJJipse:
Aspect:
Equable:
ApJenty:
171
Fhonolaclics
Atrium:
lhe
____
, occurring
only
words
Greek
01'
onglll.
e.
4.
f.
syllabic
sequence
sonority hierarchy
is
in the Spanish
which
violates
the
_
word "huevo"
has an
sy ]labificat!OIhr\()Ji
r ""A~,\..(r c9~ ~~~ jQ:(
N0 f"V'"
~ri:d'yl()
Ipsarl
I~i:k/
(1" ~ ~D
Of the fol Q~ \\ .words,
non-Spanish.
Il
tt,
(;lVI~/'
I I srL:
Isfregngm/5L.
L~~
tI"
IlgUlJI tJr
Ipegrl
Ihhl
Iswreg!
tI
Si
7.
',WitW-div..
.
t.~-IRcctL 5.
I ()..!; ~-?bi.e..-
Afraid:
d.
Phonolaclics
Support
your
OelYSYIla,bification:'I~,).\e
,eck.~i~r.."'Y'
~"fv rP'
Isrimel
11
answer
'0\1.'
\.'"
onset whereas
_____
of six different
animals
and writc
witll arguments
related
to
/gu/
~iff1L"~
~ ~S\.f.\.
Irja]!
Ixcl
Isel
/kol
/bron/
/Ikwel
dra]!
wa!
Ifasl
Isa!
Ita!
Inel
Idril
Isubsl
Idad!
Itransl
Imenl
Iflol
Idol
Inol
Irol
Itol
Ira!
laml
Ixol
,/ta!
/bjol
lfijol
Ipjol
Iga!
Ilju/
Ifrjol
Ikjcl
Ipel
Ict~(\e~LO-~o- Iga!
lt.9 ~~&~
,ye--
r)~,,~Ltp
Ito~1
Iv...
Iglabr;)l.:J
_____
J!;
ItenJka!-
"
MC~f
Idrapearl
ISPJrtI)1
r\v el1
iR,-
6.
Complete
a.
c.c~
the following
statements:
is
8.
b.
The
first vowel
preceded
c.
of any native
English
except
word
may be
or
is
or
./ r ,'.,"'\."'7
!-': .:..:\
(;.
172
173
..":,
\ I
\',
CVCCCC
V+CV+CV
VC+CV
V+CCV
CCV+CV
VC+CVC
Phonotactics
Phonotactics
10. For each of the fol1owing words, say how it is syl1abified and
why alternative syllabifications are disallowed:
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
cv+cv Eng.
Span.
Span.
II
9.
Suspect (verb and noun) - circumscribe - paediatrician bachelor - daffy - geological- squelched .
Activar - advertir - salchichn - examen - toalla - almohada constancia -:-haba.
coda afler laI/? Think of a word that ends in larpl like "pipe", and
so on. When you finish, try to make a general statement about the
constraints.
I-pl ; I-b/; I-t/ ; I-dl ; l-d31 ; l-kJ ; I-g) ; I-f/; I-vl ; I-sl ; I-v ; I-ml ;
I-nl ; I-DI ; 1-1/
I-mp/'
114
Exercise adaptcd
li-orn
175
8.1 Prominence
suprasegmental
features,
along
with
to identify
In fact Laver (1994:511) states: "Other things being equal, one syIJable is
more prominent than anothcr to the extcnt that its constitllcnt scgments
01' greater
display
higher pitch, greater loudness,
longer duration
articulatory excursion fram the neutral disposition ofthe vocal tract."
Stress actually refers to perception. When a syllable is perceived as more
prominent, that syllable is said to be stressedllS There is a combination of
factors in making a syllable stresscd: grc'ater loudncss, higla::r piteh und
greater length contribute to this perception of stress.
115 Ultimate
syllable, penultimate and antepenultimate
are adjectives that are
used to refer to the last syllable, the second syl1able tTom the right and the third
syllable to the right, respectively ..
177
'\.. ''f!J
Rl \f.':/
~~ G\.
Lexical Stress
Lexical Stress
Loudness
means that the sound has be en produced with more energy,
usuaIly with an open vocal tract and voicing. That is why vowels are
naturaIly louder than consonants. And, as we saw in a previous unit, are
described as being sonorant116 Sonority is, in many respects, similar to
loudness. But loudness has al so to do with a greater 'muscular e ffo rt,
which results in a more dense and bigger airflow. Al! other things being
equal, the same sound can be produced with more or less energy,
depending on the inspiration process and the muscular tension along the
vocal tract, starting from the diaphragm and ending at the lips.
~\
. Kr.
'fJ
hado.d./I~h.ue"--
Pitch means
that amount
the Va'eofvibration
That is,
given
the sarne
of time, the ofthe
vocal vocal
folds folds
showis greater.
more cycles
of
vibrations. Pitch can be seen as a synonyrn of tonc: for example, the pitch
at the end of Ihe qllestion "Are YOIl te/linK me YOIl 're not coming?" when
pronollnced
showing discredit and anger, is higher than it is at Ihe
beginning 01' the question.
Lcngth
of a sound.
with meaning,
1CiJLanguages
which have a fixed place rol' the stress in words: In
French, Turkish or Modern Hebrew the stress, is always on the last
syllable of a word. In Hungari2n, Finnish and Cz~ch the stress is a]ways
on the first sy Ilable of words.
i
I
\'l)kckss
'\m'k:\tes
Yoked Plosives
"'~Languages
in which there is no fixed placei for the stress in words
(Dynamic Stress Langllages). Languages like E$glish, Spanish, German
or Russian have variable word stress. Spanish has the advantagc of using
a graphic accent to rnark irregular stress (trminq, termin as opposed to
termino), but English uses no such device to assist the earner. However,
English stress cannot be entirely unpredictable! because native EnglislJ
speakers are able to place the stress to unfarniliar words with at least
some degree of success, which means that English stress pJacement rnust
be rlllc-bollnd.
- V oiccd A fTricfI!cs -
Yoicckss Plosivcs,
In
179
8.2 Degrees
of Stress
Every word in English has at Jeast one stress in its citation formo But
some types of words most commonly occur in an unstressed form in
connectcd specch. Olher typcs of \Vords 1l10st commonly
occurring
without a stress (and with reduced vowels) are auxiliary verbs, personal
pronouns
and shorter prepositions
and conjunctions,
whereas
the
majori:y
of nouns,
main verbs,
adjectives,
adverbs,
numerals,
quantifiers, and personal pronouns commonly occur with a stress. Thc
exaet syllable on which the stress occurs wiII, of course, be detcrmined
by mies for word-strcss.
1)
PRIMARY
STRESS
(or PRIMARY
ACCENT),
involving the
principal pitch prominence in the word. We mark the strongest or
primary stress with a short raised stroke [ '].
2)
SECONDARY
STRESS (or SECONDARY
ACCENT), involving a
subsidiary pitch prominence. We mark the middle level or secondary
level with a short Jowered stroke [ ,].
3)
UNSTRESSED,
involving
a non-prominent
syllable
containing
no
Ir, u, el.
This accentual pattern in English, as we wil! see, has to do with the way
English prominence
is distributed
along the speech chain. English
rhythm is characterized by an alternation of strong and weak syllables,
that is, ofprominent
and non-prominent
syllables. These syllables, being
part of the different words that make up each statement, are chosen
180
conjunctions,
and
Every word unit has at least one primary stress and one or more
unstressed syllables. Polysyllabic words in English al so show, in general,
primary
and secondary
stress,
apart
from
unstressed
syllables.
Polysyllabic in English uSltally reCcrs to words with 3 syllablcs or more
and compounds. Spanish words only show a primary stress. Thcre is one
exception,
and it is the case of adverbs ending in -mente. In these
adverbs, the adjective keeps its original stress and mente carries stress on
the penultimate syllable.
hi/ll
(strong forms
The loss 01' stress can only take place when the word appears in a
sentential context, and never in isolation. When the word is emphasized,
stress can not be Jost cither. Stress rcmains whcn the word occurs finaIly,
for example
In the foIlowing
sentence,
for example
181
Lexical Stress
Lexical Stress
words,
and they are
The remaining, words are the grarnrnatical
unstressed
or we~k. However, if each grammatical
word is said in
isolation, it has a different sound.
(1) PRONOUNS:
(1.A) Personal:
Weak
Strong
y ou 117
Iju:1
Ijulljal
!118
/hi:1
.!le.
ISi:1
~~
Iwi:1
ISII
IWII
1j,;y~20
loeII
loel
Weak
;(QJ.lr.scLf...
Ij::J:'selfl
Ij::Je's-1 Ijue's-I
Himself12\-
Ihlm' sel fl
11m 's-I
when
the
ImI's-llme's-1
ImII
y ou 123
Iju:1
Ijulljal
Him
/hlm!
Irm!
-.--Herl24
/h3:1
13:1/hel lel
US\25
Il\sl
lasllsl
loeml
--
Ije's-I
Weak
/huI lu:1 lul
Whom
Ihu:ml
Ihuml
~hose ...
/hu:z/
lo re ti
lu:z/
loatllotl
Weak
~,~,;?
10ISI
loesl
Strong
Weak
/he's-113:'s-lle's-1
la:' s-I
laue 'selvz/
preceding
Me
Thae26
(2) AUXILIARIES:
1l7When "you" is weakly stressed and preceded by a word ending in "d", the two
words are joined closely together as if they formed a simple word with the
affricate Id31 linking the two parts: "Did you fail?" /'dld3ufeIl/. The same
happens
Weak
Strong
Imm'sclf/
/h3:'se1fi'
Strong
Imi:1
Them
(I.B) Rcnexives:
HerseJe2 Ourselves
--
sound
ends
in "t":
"Don't
you
lbi:1
IS128
Irz/
JrzJ
Are129
10:*lla:rl
le * 1 Irllarl
ipII
I
IsI
bow?"
IdauntSa'nau/.
Ijul occurs as a strong form in the express ion "you are" when "are" has
its weak fonn la*l. "You are" in this case is also written "you're".
\18The weak fonn is lIsllaI1y pronollnced without "h" cxccpt at thc bcginning of a
sentcnce.
119/wll also occurs as an strong form in the single expression "we arc" when
"are" has its weak form la*1 ("we're")
12/Gel
occurs as a strong form in the single express ion "they are" when "are" has
weak fonn 13:'s-1 and le's-I are used when not initial.
182
lR3
-..
Was
Can 130
Could
~l
Lexical Stress
Iwo'll
IW3:*1
Lexical Stress
Iw'li Iwe'li
(wea)
/kcenl
Iwa*llwrl
/kanl !kQI !k1)1
/kud!
/kad! /kd!
IS B J/
ISal/ 1S,1/
ISel ISI
ud!
Shmdct.:.32
IS
WiIJ
IWII/
Would
Iwud!
Must
Im/\stl
11/Iwal/ lel/
(3) CONJUNCTIONS:
(3.A) Coordinating:
Strong
--
Weak
lBnd!
But
lb /\tI
Ibatl
Forl34
---
IfJ:*llfor/
Or
I~:*I
/a*/
Nor
In~:*1
Ina*1
/soul
Isal
----
SOll1ehow
115
/'
150m-llsm-1
5/\ll1huu/
(3.B) Subordinating:
Strong
For136
1f'J: */ Iforl
01'137
i':J:*1
la*1
Than
15Bnl
15enllonl
IOBl!
loel! lotl
13M
That139
Weak
(4) DETERMINERS:
(4.A) Articles:
--
Strong
Weak
~o
10i:1
1011loal 101
A141
leII
lal
An142
Icen!
len! In!
Weak
ImaII
ImII
Ij
a *1
136Samerestrictions as before.
129The strong fonn 10:1 and the weak fonn lal are used when followed by a
consonant. And the strong fonl1 10:1'1 ami [he weak forms 181'1and 11'1whcn
followcd by a vowel.
.
13Thefonn /k01 occurs only before words beginning with "k" or "q".
131Thefonns ISal ISI are chiefly used when "we" 01'"be" folIows.
132Theform 1St! occurs only before voiceless consonants.
137The weak fonn is chiefly used in common phrases, such as "two or three
minutes".
I3KThe slrong rrm is norrnally lIscd only when the word is isolated.
139Thc strong form is rarcly uscd
J4/oi:1is sometimes used as a weak fonn before vowels.
1011and loi:1 are used before vowels.
loel and 101 are used before consonants.
133Thefonn ImI occurs only next to Ipl or (bl and the fonn 101 only occurs next to
"k" or"q".
134/forl occasional strong fonn before vowels.
Ifl altemative weak fonn before consonants.
Ifrl altemative weak fonn before vowels.
(at Eton ColIege) to the expression "My tutor" and "My dame". Some use ImII in
The strong fonn If~:1 and the weak fonn Ifal only occurs folIowed by
consonants.
The strong fonn lf'J:rl and .the weak forms Ifarl and Ifrl only followed
by vowcls.
consonant. The strong form Ij'J:rl and the weak form Ijerl when followed hy
vowel.
IX4
143Manypeople confine the use of ImII to the special expression "My Lord" a11(1
IX5
11
11
-His145
~46
Their147
Lexical Stress
Lexical Stress
IluZ!
Irz!
/h3:*1
name
loee*1
15erl
Strong
is the Hebrew
is often
schwa.
(5) PREPOSITlONS:
l~tI
Weak
le ti
f3y
Iba!1
1b!1Ibel
----
~1'IK
If':):" I If'-J:rl
fum
Iffoml
Ifreml IffmI
Into 149
Imtu:1
Imtellmtul
0[150
lovl
Onl~1
lonl
lanllnl
T0152
Itu:1
le 'pon!
lapan!
Some people beIieve that this is a careIess way of speaking and that we
shollld pronollnce all our syllables equally clcarly, as ir they were all
strong forltls. Ilowever, English spoken with only strong fonns sOllnds
most unnaturaI and does not heIp the listener to distinguish emphasis or
meanmg.
Because our speIling does not show whether a word is weak or strong, we
are often' unaware of the changes we make every time we speak. In
spelling, some weak forms are shown as contractcd forlTIs: can '1, >van '1,
didn '1, J '!l, he 's, she 'd, etc.
A similar phenomenon can be foundin Spanish. Many unstressed voweIs
can be pronounced
weaker when they are not stressed. Yet, what
characterizes
the English language is the gap that exists between weak
and strong forms. The reason for doing s'o is the necessity
for
14~lrzJ
-----
accommodating
prominent words with a more d~gree of length, 10udness
and pitch. This is caIled the borrowing rulc! This theory' states that
stressed syIlables can be made much more prorrj.inent because unstressed
syllables
consonanls,
Ihe weak
forms
Ifel
anu Ili
are
followeu
by
I
I
The slron forrn If'-J:rl anu lhe weak forrns Ilorl anu Ifrl by vowcls.
is used only
!.('xical.'';ress
!.exiCil! Stress
B.
T1m::e-s\'lIabk
words
Verbs:
SIMPLE
1.
WORDS
1 _
A.
Two-sylJable
(stress
words
syllable.:
(a) contains
or (b) ends
_
consonant:
(a) contains
contains
according
"correct"
/b'rekU;
"Iovely"
the
preceding
-penultimate-):
Verbs:
_ 1_ : if
contains
rule:
contains
a short vowel
or eu;
(b) the
/'du/: "enter"
1__
or ends
contains
l'ent'J/; "eqllal"
l'i:kw'Jl/;
sylJable contains a
consonant: "qllantity"
/dl1vam/;
Adjectives: seem to need the same mle, to produce stress pattems such as:
"opportune"
I'Lw.li/.
than one
l'op'Jtju:n/
j
1 __
ifthe
2nd
SUFFIXES
/dIZa1n/
* Other two-syIlable
n.
I'mAni/.
and prepositions
seem to
I
't
ways:
(1) They may have no effect on the stress pattem of the root word:
"child" vs. "childhood".
(2) They may
"kitchenette"
receive
strong
stress
themselves:
"kitchen"
vs.
"advantage"
When the sllffix has no effect on the stress pattern of the root word it is
callcd a neutral suffix. Most ncutral sulTixes are or Gcrmanic origin: -cn
188
189
Lexical Stress
Lexical Stress
When the suffix receives the stress it is called a strong suffix. Most of
them are of Latn origin: ~aire (millionaire), -ee (refugee), -eer
(mountaineer), -ese (Vietnamese), -esque (picturesque), '-ique (antique), eur/-euse (chaufTeur), -oon (saloon), and -ette (cassette).
And finally, suffixes can also cause a shift Df stress in the root word: they
cause the stress to shift to the syIJable immediately preceding the suffix: eous (advantageous), -graphy (photography), -ial (proverbial), -ian
(Parisian), -ic (climatic), -ieal (ecologieal), -ious (injurious), -ity
(tranquillity), and -ion (perfection).
IlI.
COMPOUND WORDS
English words with 3 or more syllables show two stress leveIs: primary
and secondary stress. 80th of thern In\'olve a pitch change, but to a lesser
extent in the case of secondal)' stress. Primal)' stress usually comes last,
although this can change depending on the regional accent.
Some other compounds, however, bear the primary accent on the second
syllable: downstairs, first-class, ground-floor, mincepie, short-term or
even on the third syllablc: country-hollse, secondhand, broken-hearted,
easy-going.
The placement of stress on English words is extremely complex, and the
main reason for this complexity is that the English language is a largely
mixture of Romance and Germanie (Mott 1991: 216). Ir we look at
suffixation in these twolanguage groups, we find two opposite principIes
acting on words. In the Romance languages, if a suffix is added to a
word, the stress is moved up onto it. For example, in Spanish, estpido,
estupidz, In the Germanic languages, on the other hand, the stress stays
where it is. For example, in English, jllow, jllower, fllowing. The
problem is that English has adopted both principIes but very often
regardless of the origin of worJs. To take one example, catholic Lat.
CATHOLICUS < Gr. katholikos) wouldbe expected to bear stress on the
second syllable, as in Greek and Latin, but the word has undergonc
Gcrmanic stressing and the stress has been frontcd.
The most eommon type of compound has the primary accent on the first
element: backache, blackmail, birdcage, bookcase, bridesmaid, bulldog,
cardboard, crossword, earthquake, footprint,
highbrow, liftboat,
nightdress, teapot, windscreen.
191
Le.xica/ Sfress
Le.xica/ Stress
If the first part of the word is broadly speaking a noun, then the first
element will nonnaJJy carry more stress:
typewriter cal'erry suitease tea cup
2.
Ir
COMPOUND WORDS
in Spanish
In English, stress has a distinctivc function. That is, stress can be used to
establish a distinction in meaning between two words, where the only
difference is the place where stress is shown. Here are some examples:
import
export
transfer
record
conduct
rotest
mercase
153
192
NOUN
193
Lexical Stress
Lexical Stress
con
tract
dcscrt
rebel
insu]t
convict
conflict
obiect
subicct
produce
suspect
project
present
conflict
vowel
(the 1Iltmate
Other words change their meaning, and not only the morphological
category. Here are some examples taken from Dauer (1993):
l.
Note that when the word functions as a noun, the stress is placed on the
penultmate
syllable, while it appears on the last one for verbs. The
alternation in the stress pattern also afTects the quality of the vowels in
the words. When the syllable is unstressed, the vowel wil! usually be a
schwa, while a strong vowel wiIl appear in strong syIlables.
record I'rekgd/
2. , a.
b.
3. a.
b.
4. a.
b.
5. a.
b.
Augllst = a month
august = magnificent, grand
personal office = private office
personnel office = staff office
trust y = reliable
trustee = a person who manages someone
consol = control panel in a cal'
con sale = to make someone feel bctter
else's property
is made between
Stress in the
antepenultimate
syllable ='
NOUN IADJECTlVE
I'aduate
noun
01'
separate
estmate
adjective
approximate
alternate
moderate
appropriate
elaborate
de Iibernte
appropriate
elaborate
deliberate
---
194
in Spanish.
and
l.
a. tnnino
b. termino
c. termir.~
2.
a.
b.
c.
a.
b.
3.
duplicatc
aDproximate
altemate
moderate
happens
= tinishing line
= l tinsh
= he/she finshed
patterrts
154 In general, the I si person singular simple present i'n Spanish is stressed in the
penultimate syllable, while the 3rd person singular simple past is stressed in the
ultimate syllable. Other examples are: canto ys. cant, guiso Ys. gu:j (1 sing vs.
he sang, 1 cook YS. he cooked), cte.
195
Lexical Slress
Lexical,)/res.\
vegetable
evenll1g
chocolate
8.7 Exercises
family
1.
naturally
generally
3.
asesinato
asesino
ENGLISH
refr16eration
SPANISH
~i
. 2.
i jI
,
= interesting
tcmperaturc
miserable
laboratory
elementary
deliberate
favourite
different
196
~
,
e.
d.
b..
c.
gf.
.1
that
h.
offered
understand
ddistribute
istribut ion J.1.a.
prefer
misunderstand
offering
preference
II
~i
1.J
197
words. Which
Lexical Stress
'1. The foll(1wing words in English have a rolllanic origino Pine! the
Spul1ish translalion.
Lexical Stress
SP ANISH
ENGLISH
industrious
personal
mathematician
dcmonstration
pronunciation
refrigerator
fortunately
photography
contemporary
politics ize
autobiography
competence
personal
spontaneous
5.
subject
rewrite
mcrease
object
fiddle
produce
198
in the columns
below
vamish
contrast
damage
present
export
treasure
account
escape
credit
(adapted
regret
reply
pcrvert
199
Every language has its own rhythm. The languages of the world are
generalIy classifed into two types on the basis of their segmental timing.
'~llable-tim~"
languages,
sueh
as
Spanish,
are
considered
jSQcht.o.n..ou~ exhibiting a highly regular pattem of sy llabie duration. In
contrast, are the "stress-timed 155" languages, such as English, whose
syllable timing varies greatly, both within and across sentential domains,
~llable-time_d_du1hm
201
Rhylhm
Rhylhm
I
I
203
Rhylhm
Rhyllll/'
which (ell
J{)"" Hnd .l0nn)' tb:lded tu b)' !\ rI'III. !\nd \\'h0n (hey' d hu~~htthl' ran".
they w<nlcd to sll it. (No stress on "ji.1J'I1I").
'
ExcIamatory
cases:
what is unstressed:
preposition
"up"
is
emphasized
as
being
the
>-
correct
The word slreet in names of streets is never stressed:
>-
Note that in Spanish it would not be normal to stress the preposition and
destress the noun unless special emphasis were demanded by the context:
In phrases
unstressed:
of
a parenthetical
nature
the
words
are
often
even
>-
- Me ha dcho sn bo, n?
- He dcho en bao!
Hw many tmes have you ben there? Thre times. (No stress on
"t~mes").
So, in summary, words show a strong 01' weak form depending on their
role in the message. This has to do with sentenee stress. In a sentence,
only important words are stressed. This importance
is giving by the
wcigh cach sClllantic unit has in thc IlIcssagc, considcring (he discollrsal
contcxt: new information, change oftopic, emotional weight, and isolatcd
units are usually stressed. On the contrary, old information and most of
grammatical words are not stressed.
l,
t
204
205
Rhythm
Rhythm
(this
is one possible
a) Physiological pauses
b) Linguistic Pauses
when they indicate a special state ol' mind or interest on the part ol'
the speaker, as in "Mis amigos / son estupendos,,156
5. Meaningful pause: The meaning ol' the sentence changes drastically,
as in "Los libros / que son verdes / son mos" (meaning that there are
books elsewhere)" and "Los lib:'os que son verdes / son mos" (where
"que son vedes" only provides complementary information).
Another classification
(1997):
Linguistically speaking, pauses delimit tone units. Tone units are chunks
ol' inl'ormation, with a specific intonational weight which is in connection
with the message we are sending. According to Quilis & Fernndez
(1996), Spanish pauses can be classified into the l'ollowing groups:
l. Final absolute pause: at the end ol' a statement
2. EnZ/merative paZ/se: in a sequence ol' items, as in "me gusta saltar /
reir / cantar..."
3. Explicative pause: when we extend or clarifY a piece ol' inl'ormation,
as in "el comandante de la nave / muy emocionado/ recibi su
condecoracin".
4. Potential pause: it depends on the intention ol' the speaker; they are
called hyperbatic when the canonical order of the sentence is altered,
as in "cuando llegamos / estaba cantando"; they are called expressive
Oi)
156 When the subjeet is placed after the predicate, as in "Son estupendos mis
amigos", this typc ofpallsc docs not occur.
.
20()
20?
"",lll'llj
,\".,./J'"
(iii)
as examples
:rficulty.
of
Instrumental
measurements
have not demonstrated
conclusivcly
a
correlation between pause-type and pause-Iength.
lndeed tbe mnimum
threshold at which a pause is perceived has been put at different levels,
varying from one second down to one quarter of a second. A better
system for measuring pause may be to relate it to the length of syllables
or rhythm-groups
in surrounding speech. Whichever way of measuring is
used, most investigators find bOllndary pallses to be longer than hcsitntion
pauses.
It should by now be apparent that the criterion of pause as a marker of
intonation-group
boundaries
cannot be used on its own. Despite its
explicit or implicit lIse as sllch in muny studics !lnd textbooks
on
inton!ltion, pause does not always mark intonution boundaries, nor me
intonation boundaries always marked by pausc. Pallse can only be uscd as
a criterion for intonation boundaries
if considered together with other
external and internal criteria.
A hesitation pause before the nucleus (for the moment this can be thought
of as the accented syllable of the most prominent word in an intonation
group) is of rare occurrence.
But evidence from slips of the tongue
indicates that the word carrying the nuc\eus is planned well in advance.
Thus a hesitation pause of type (ii) will occur before a word of low
transitional probability although it is unlikely before a word carrying the
nucleus ofthe intonation-group
in which it occurs.
Pause !ype (iii), occurring afier the first word of an intonation-group,
seems to serve a planning function, i.e. it i<: essentially
a holding
operation while the speaker plans the remainder ofthe sentence.
Pauses types (ii) and (iii) are not ta1.:cn as markers 01' intonation-group
boundaries, beca use they do not resuIt in ut1erance chunks each 01' which
has a pitch patlern typically contained within an intonation-group.
Pause
types (ii) and (iii) are more common in all types ofunscripted
speech than
in rcading or prcparcd specch.
208
209
I
f.
c.
e.
b.
d.
Rhythm
Rhythm
a.
9.4 Exercises
1. Look at the following sentences. Underline the syllable that takes
the main stress in the words or phrases printed in italic.
a.
3.
l'
found an ~utdoor job.
b. Put the TV on. We'I1 be just in time for the ten o 'clock news.
c. As a novelist I'd say he isfirst-'rate. But he's really a ~~econdrate poct.
d. My friend's Chihese - she plays in thelChinese orchestra.
e. I live in PiccaUilly, near 'Piccadilly Circus
f. 1 reaIly hatc'over-cooked vegetables.
g. They always wear reaIlY}llp-to-date cIothes.
h. y ou can take a hoat llpsfream from Grccnwich to
Westm inster.
I. y our food wiII be stone-~old if you don't eat it now.
j. She's a iwell-known actress, but I don't thnk she deserves
being so "well-igown".
k. My husband is a ~ood-Iooking guy, but yours is not so goodIlooking.
!. We only buy Jarm-fresh eggs.
m. The chips you bought were oven-~eady.
4.
Now try saying the whole note as TUM ti TUMS, keeping your
TUMS at strictly regular intcrvals oftirhe:
ti ti ti ti TUM I ti ti TUM I ti TUM I ti ti TUM
TUM I TUM I ti ti TUM I ti ti TUM I ti TUM.
ti ti ti
......
1~7
210
1100V,hro\1'11 cmv!
1"\'
! "''''.
6.
Conseclltive
stresses
Long walk
Brown dog
taIl rnan
bright sun
159:
11
Picase
froin
5.
me, with
love
Jane.
blue sky
rnain road
green grass
fresh fruit
nursery rhymesl58:
Te market, to markct,
To buy a fat pig.
Heme again, home again,
J iggcty ig.
T o market, to market,
To buy a fat hog.
Home again, home again,
Joggety jog
Humpty Dumpty saton a wall,
Humpty Dumpty had a great fal!.
AIl the King's horses, and aIl the King's men,
Couldn't put Humpty together again
Littlc 130 Peep
Has 10st her sheep,
And doesn't know where to find them.
Leave them alone
.
j
I
158
159
1
212
1
J
213
black cat
whole cake
UNIT X. INTONATION
71'i
illlollalio/l
i/1l0llallOlI
gaps in 10ne between voiced ane! voicclcss sOllne!s, but rathcr the pitch
contour,
or \Vhat \Ve kno\V as intonution
will be perceived as a
eontinuum. This is the effect of a mental abstraction.
!
\'
11.
r.
A TTITUDINAL
lt has to do with the division into major constituents. The listener is able
to recognize the grammatieal and syntaetie strueture of what is being said
b:y using the information contained in the intonaton, for example such
things as the placement of bOllndares between phrases or sentenees are
marked by the tone lInits. This is the grarnrnatical
function of intonation.
COllper-KlIhlen
(1986) illustrates
the so-called
going
'\o
contras(s
grammatical
fllnction
FUNCTION
III.
11
good
b. low // good
'\o
ACCENTUAL
FUNCTION
of
related to scntcnce-typc,
home.
IV.
DISCOURSE
FUNCTION
A lone-group is a unil 01' informalion, and tonicily is lhe location 01' the
key word in a unit of information.
Changes in tonicity show us what
information
is new and what is given. There are also cues to indieate
whether it is our turri to speak and what sort ofresponse
is expeetcd ..
door.
Intonation can signal to the listener what is new and old nformation, or
, can suggest when the speaker is indicating some contrast with material in
another tane unit (contrastive stress). These functions are examples ofthe
discourse function of intonation.
216
ii
j,
217
intonation
intonation
of this physiological
necessity and, if possible, tries to make them
coincide with key points in the speech. That is to say, we pause to breathe
in at points where a tone unit finishes. We must remember here that a
a
a
11
1.
2.
3.
4.
11
cinema
The
l'
Arthur//
of a Tone Unit
218
element
is a syllable
that receives
stress),
what
we will call
(The
Intonation units are the same as the pause groups we have seen above.
This is ho\V the speech streal11 is divided into structured ullits. Other
.
"
. 160 . TIlere IS
terms j'or pausc group are: mtonatIon
groups or tone umts
not a general agreement as to which terrn should be used, and different
authors use different terrninology.
160
prominent
I
j
There are other criteria to identify tone units. Generally, the last syllable
in a tone unit is lengthened. AIso, the last prbminent syllable in a tone
unit (also called the nuclear stress, that is, ce~tral stress in the tone unit)
shows a variation in the direction ofthe pitch leve!: at that point, the pitch
can sllffer an increase or a decrease, going up dr down.
219
/lI/r}/Jull(l1l
lO.4
According
(o Quilis
01'
1I
TOllic syIlable: the syllable in the tone unit which stands out because
it carries the major pitch change.
Head: all that part of a tone group that extends fTom the first stressed
syllable up to (but not including) the tonic syllable. Ifthere is no stressed
syllable preceding the tonie sylJable, there is no head.
Pre-head:
There are three basic rules to know which word has nuclear stress. The
first is where the speaker places prominence on new information. Within
a tone unit, words expressing old 01' given information (this rneans
infonnation that is semantically predictablc) are unstressed nnd spoken
with lower pitch, while words expressing new infom1ation are spoken
with strong stress and higher pitch. Normally, it is the last content word
that tends to have prominence:
Patricia:
John:
Patricia:
AILAdy's urrlbrella?
i
f
iyES, atlady's um~rella with STARS on it. 'GREEN1stars
Ariadna:
Jan:
Ariadna:
Tail: any syllables between the tonie syllable and the end ofthe tone
lInit.
howcwr,
in
in John's
reply
"Iady's"
rel:civcs
nc\V
promincnl:c
I
I
220
221
lntonation
lntonation
1.
TON E
As in the example above, yes with a rising tone [,/] signals a question,
whereas yes with a falling tone [\o] it is a factual answcr. Thcsc
differences are of tone. Tone in a tone unit is selected from a number of
tone-patterns. Languages do not use rises and falls in identical ways:
Spanish uses rising contours in questions much more than English and
that is why Spaniards very often have to ask English speakers of Spanish
whether they are asking a question or making a statement. Every
language or dialect has its own characteristic intonation patterns and
th:.::se are more noticeable in some language varieties (as Welsh and
Galician) than in others because of the "sing-song" quality of the
pronunciation
Herc, the word "yes" docs not changc its fundamental meaning, it simply
implies different attitudes [rom tbe part oftbe speaker.
Languages which do not use tone for lexieal contrast but have a melody
spread over a complete utterance, such as English or Spanish, are called
intonation languages. By varying the direction of the pitch in these
languages, we introduce attitudinal or grammatical changes, not lexical
ones.
As Roach (1983) explains, we will not be interested in all aspects of a
speaker's pitch, but only in those which carry 1inguistic information.
There are three necessary conditions for pitch differences to be
linguistically significant:
222
11.
TONALITY
223
illlUlI<lllOl/
/1//oll<l/iOI/
i
A: Excuse me
13: Yes?
],
4.
TONICITY
11r.
Fall-Rise
['"
l']: the piteh descends and then rises again. This tone is
used a lot in EngIsh and it has rather special functions. It may rnean
"Iimited agreement" or "response with reservations".
It is al so used
when the speaker is unsure, and it is also used in parentheticals
like
well, really.
1 want you to LEA VE
and
1 want YOU to leave
differ only in tonicity. In tonicity the choice is that of the location of the
nuclear tone in the tone unit (tonie syllable or nucleus).
10.7
The Forms
According
of English
and Spanish
Level [~]:
2.
FalI ["']:
Intonation
movement
,,
224
ofEnglish
Complete
Business-like
Forcing-to-agree
Strong
Something
commands.
excJamations.
and
mQre
--(neutral)
definite
isquestions
toquestion.
folIow:
statements.
wh-questions.
invitation
toMain functions
Normally
used
in tag
enumerations
(and
ShOli,
quite
short
(yes
/ no).relatcd
continue.
except the lastelements):
one ( which
falling). parts,
co-ordinated
the isdifferent
Rise [l']:
IS
or surprise.
3.
disapproval
This tone
[l' "']:
1.
Rise-Fall
is a lot of fun
oo.
225
tones:
~I
!
Intonation
---c.
b.
A
questioning
When
Correcting
somebody
somebody.
feels
tired.
Greetings.
Yes!
Question
Warnings.
No
questions
Tags:
(the
tone).
Exc1amations
"Quite
Grumbling
Usually
It's
Soothing
Wh-qucstions:
generally
intcrestcd"
on
or
asingle-syllable
encouraging
-statement:
associated
about
-exc1amation.
Rcpcating
tone
something
for
reproaches,
to
statements
what
utterances:
wh-questions.
limited
unexpected.
someonc
agreement
(attracting
it part
askcd
Reserved
statements,
complete,
first
of
-usual
Not
ShJrt
forcing-to-agree
questions
after
tag
a not
command.
questions;
Same-way
question
tags;
and
a.
attention
).
or
response
with
reservations
("but").
conjunction.
auninteresting
statement
before
a pause
orsomething
before
a routine,
you.
complaints.
names
conveys
ofastudents
feeling
of
from
saying
a register).
or boring
(a
teacher
calling
the
According
Spanish:
(1996)
the following
Intonation
AdditionalIy,
Spanish:
Aguijar
(2000)
expJains
226
227
inlonation
ANJ'/('/If
Jf'.N('f:l
(11)
El plinto + alto de la
Movimiento
Movimiento descendel,lte
El punto + bajo de la
1) Level
[-1-]:
(suspensin,
tonema
horizontal)
It indicatcs
incompIeteness, so it appears every time a scntence is not inishcd, whcl1
the speaker is looking for a word or preparing what he/she is going to say
next. AIso in enumerations.
El sobrino, totalmente agotado, abri la puerta de su casa
In the example, the first tone unit ("el sobrino") shows a level con tour,
the second ("totalmente agotado") a rise intonation, and, the last one
("abri la puerta de su casa") has a fall intonation.
(a.!) Se va maana?
Ausencia de cambio en
CADENCIA (JJ)
lnea tonal de una frase.
(A)
ascendente
11
t y en menos tiempo?
(13) I'rolJuminales12:
(b.l) Dnde 11 vas? JJ
(b.2) Qu 11 esperan ustedes de ellos?
11
Typically
in s(atcl11cn(s,
JJ
Me voy a mi casa
3) Low FaIl: (semicadencia, tonema descendente). It is used to indicate
that the message is not completely defined, it shows uncertainty, that the
speaker is not confident on what he/she is saying.
4) Rise [./]: (anticadencia, tonema ascendente). It is uscd in qlJcstions
(especially yes-no questions), but aIso in sllbordinate clauses, between the
main clause and the subordinate one.
A quien madruga Dios le ayuda
The intonation rises at t"'e end of the subordinate
madruga".
5) Low Rise: (semianticadencia,
opposition or a contrast.
16\
](,2
tonema ascendente).
Yes/No questions.
Wh-word qllestiol1s.
228
229
It indicatcs an
lntonation
I Iere you haye a ,summary
01'
never
normal
are
as
or
more
abut
two
ameanmg
choice
bofetwcen
statements,
conveying
questlOns Normal
Tone
used
Simple
questions
end
in
a rising
Questions
statements
which
end
elicitinan
information
aanswer
falling
When
a yes/no
qucstion
clicits
thatend
ents
because
they
pitch
rises
with
each
is
pitch,
pitch
always
begin
with
choice,
option.
and then
falls
the same
final
ons
pattem
in
a falling
pitch.question
Thiswith
iswords,
the
lntonation
10.8 F.xcrciscs
1,
different
stress.
Spanish
speakers
S.b. Ilived
English spcakcrs start quite high and finish fairly low in thcir rangc. so
that's why Spanish studcnts fail to convey "involvement"
or "interest" in
convcrsations with English speakers.
2) Final falling pitch moycment (i.c. statemcnts Or last items in a lisl): It
may not sound low enough.
3) Thc rise-fall seems difficult perhaps due to the pitch-reversal
itself.
Especially on short phrases or on one sy llable ("Oh" or "W onderful
idea! ").
10.b. I am an engineer
2.
In these scntenecs
primarily stressed.
example:
\,
1 don't know
\, Jane
Jack
\, fath /' er
I
I
I
a.
b.
c.
d.
230
Example:
A good intonation, i.e. the use 01' an appropriate intonational contour, is many
times more important than a good pronunciation 01' individual sounds. This is
vcry important for L2 leamers. Intonation is perceived as a continuum all
through the utterance: even if some segments were not clearly pronounced, the
final impression 01' a gooo intonation, will somehow compensate for a
mispronunciation
at
the
segmental
leve!.
in NortL "akota
231
llllUIJUIIUIJ
ill/Ollil/IOII
~.
r.
g.
h.
i.
J.
summcr,
to North
5.
In the foIlowing
be placed.
would probably
1
3.
j.
4.
In the foIlowing
be pJaced.
Libya this country has been begging to play the part for some
time Icd by the cross-dressing
Muamar Khaddafi Libya mccts
many of the nccessary requirements
for Most-I-Iated Status we
think they may have had something to do with blowing up Pan
Am flight 103 (suspicion alonc is enough for us to scnd in thc
Marines the proof we can always manufacture
later) Libya also
keeps trying to make nuclear weapons and in a slap to the rest of
the world it refuses to field a team for the Winter Olympics but it
has no probJem sending miIJions of dolJars to Louis Farrakban.
MICHAEL MOORE: Downsize tbis!
I,
6.
!
,
232
(1)
A:
B:
A:
B:
(2)
!
,
I
No bien sinti Pepita el ruido y alz Jos ojos y nos vio se Jevant
dej la costura que traa entre manos y se puso a miramos Lucero
que segn he sabido despus tiene ya la costumbre de hacer
piernas cuando pasa por delante de la casa de Pepita empez ,a
retozar y a levantarse un poco de manos yo quise calmarle pero
como extraase al jinete desprecindoJe tal vez se alborot ms y
ms y cmpcz a dar resorlidos
a hacer corvetas y aun a dar
(3)
1(,1
Exercise
adapted
Crom M. 1!ewings's
233
Pro/lu/lcia/io/l
Tasks.
lntonation
A: Under that tree?
B:'The other one.
7.
to a
);>
(1)
A: Was it expensive?
B: Quite expensive
A: How much?
B: A thousand
(2)
1.
2.
pounds
statements'as
babblings,it
and
voicing
'T
3.
__
The
child's
mispronunciations
are due to
production difficulties and not to perceptual difficulties,
he has the right Undcrlying
Representations
of the
sounds.
r:::
4.
__
L1
similar.
~\
5.
A: 1s it stilJ raining?
B: 1 think so.
A: Heavily?
B: Not vcry.
(3)
'; E
and
L2
phonological
acquisition
are
very
__
Thc acquisition
of an L 1 is almost always
completed when the child is 7 or 8 years old.
6. __
There are two types of acquisition of an L2: guided
and non-guided (or natural). The first one is related to
"learning" and the sccond to "acquisition".
7. __
Lcarning
English as a t'orcign 01' as a sccond
"
language are similar terms.
~'i' 8. __
1nterlanguages are systcmatic and static.
A: What's on TV tonight?
B: A horror fi1m.
A: Is it good?
13: 've heard it is
~~\_9.
__
There
are no cases
of substitutions
and
simplifications
in the Interlanguage (IL).
~\l O. __
There are similarities between the 1Ls of different
learners; in fact they can bei grouped depending on the
i
LI.
11. __
12. __
165
164
166
i
i
Native Language.
Target Language.
I
I
235
Check yo
amount
111'
KI/o\l'/edge
of cxplanation
and instruetion
he reeeives
in the
TL.
13. __
Fossilization can al so be fOllnd in phonology but it
is much common in grammar.
14. __
According
to Eckman's
(1977) Markedness
Oifferential
Hypothesis
(MOH), unmarked phenomena
are acquired before marked phenomena.
15. __
Vocalic epenthesis is a phonological process where
one element is elided.
23. __
J. Kcn\\'orlhy
(19l)O:'1-9) llames some imH\rl:ml
factors in the acquisition
ol' an L2: Age; Quantity 01'
l6. __
25. __
We can say that a phoneme has a low funetional
oad whcn its occurrence is very freqllent.
Contrastive
Analysis
by Lado
(1857).
l7. __
CA tries to predict all the possible difficulties in the
acquisition of an L2 and these predictions will be bascd
on a comparison of the phonological systems of L! and
L2.
exposition;
Phonetic ability; Identity and attitude; and
Motivation for a good pronuneiation.
24. __
When the native language has a similar phoneme,
this of course will be transferred.
This is the case of
Spanish lel and Idl and English ItS! and Id/.
26. __
The best way to detect a 1'oreign or NN aecent is
rcading a word list. On the contrary, it \ViiI bc more
difficult
to detect
when
listening
to an infonnaI
conversation.
18. __
It is sllpposed (CA) tl1at it will be Il1l1cl1easier to
learn those elements which are similar to L! (negative
transfer)
and much more difficult
those which are
different (positive transfer). In fact, this negative transfer
or "interference"
is the origin of the difficulties in the
27. __
The learner's age 01' arrival to the eOllntry where
this TL is spoken and the age when he was exposed to
this language for the firsttime seem to be crucial factors
in order to determine whether this earner wiIl acquire a
nativelike accent.
28. __
]9. __
LJ.
21.
lJnderdiffercntiation
refers
to those
cases
whcrc
29. __
Although
acquisition,
it
acc]\lisition.
the
was
L2
L1
236
237
UNIVERSIDAD DE SEVILLA
Fac. Filologa Biblla!eC3
~ _..
--
.--.--.
----~~__-._'
__ k""" __
'_~_"_'~
__ ._~
~_.
..._
- tI del
k/g
h ------~1s/z
-w
-Palato1)
J- Labio-xl
---Alveolar
s/Velar
Glottal
Interdental
Palatal
--.-alveolar
PostLabiodental
f/- k/g
Bilabial
DentaJ
8 1-tI- df..J1--1} f/v
8/5
m
English
--Engli~
English
Jp/b
13
IV
v..>
-r alveolar
rI
PHONEMES
tJ I- d3
~_""-_._-......-
.__
..
BlBLlO(;RAPllY
I Archibald,
J. (1992) "Transfer
of L1 Parameter
Settings:
Some Empirical
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Baker,
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( Bcquer, G. A. (1967) Rimas y Leyendas. Barcelona: Crculo de Lectores.
~Bo11n, O. and J. E. Flege (1992) "The Production ofNew and Similar Vowels by
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Dickerson,
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Edward Amold.
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(1957)
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"Maturational
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in
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i
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un Modelo
"Hacia
across cultures,
applied
linguislics
langllage
'Moulton,
W. (1962)
"Toward
a Classification
or Pronunciation
Navarro
Neufeld,
in
Austria: University
of Klagenfurr,
pp. 257-261.
!
242
Errors"
243
lvarc?,
~1I110
=--
M. P.and J. R. Fran~o
Rodrguez
I
Madrid: Anaya.
~),Connor,
Speakers"
in Applied Psycholinguistics,
1
\
~
Conference on Linguistics.
!
~\)IIcr,
J. W. and S. M. Ziahosseiny (1970) "The Contrastive Ana!ysis Hypothesis
N. and S. Soto-Faraco
Non-Native
Phonemic
Contrasts
111-123.
.)elinker,
L. (1972) "Interlanguage"
~
Lingllistics, 10:3, pp. 209-231.
in Early Bilinguals"
in
lnternational
ofNative
and
in Cognition, 72,
Review
oJ Applied
C. E. and M. Hoefnagel-Hohle
(1978) "The C:tical Period for Language
i\cquisition:
evidence
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language
leaming"
in Child
~now,
~
~ardhallgh,
R. (1970)
"Thc
Contrastivc
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lIypothcsis"
Quaterly, 4, 123-130.
~N einreich, U. (1953) Languages in Contacto New York: Linguistic
0(1'
~ip,
~
~
Circle ofNew
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~
~
in TESOL
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1
\
.\
ii
,
1
I
\
!
I
I
\
j
I
I
in H. Wode (ed.)
of!'
~
~
~
f('
~4
245
17,335-54.