oo vy Rape l 8 ‘Three elements are necessary for rape of a female: carnal knowledge, force, and commission without consent. Carnal knowledge is the slightest penetra- tion of the labia minora by the penis. Hymenal penetration or ejaculation is not necessary. Force may involve the use of violence, threat of violence or coercion. The actual number of rapes that occur annually is unknown, because of a significant number of unreported cases. The Living Rape Victim Rape presents a unique problem to physician clinicians in that they often inherit the burden of not only treatment, but proper collection of evidence. For the correct handling of rape cases, both medically and legally, there must be coordination between the physicians examining the victims and the police agency with jurisdiction. It is preferable that victims of rape be examined at one central hospital by experienced physicians trained in the handling and treatment of such patients and in the proper collection of evidence. In a number of areas, rape examination is being conducted by specially trained forensic nurses. If victims are treated at multiple hospitals, by different phy- sicians, documentation of the rape and collection of the evidence will suffer. At the time of examination, the examiner should have a rape examination kit that contains the necessary materials for collection and packaging of the collected evidence. Such kits also contain forms with pertinent questions to be asked and diagrams that can be used to illustrate injuries. ‘When the victim of a rape is brought into the hospital, she should be triaged ahead of the non-emergency patients. Written, witnessed consent should be obtained before the examination, collection of specimens, release of information to authorities, and taking of photographs. A female chaperone should always be present. The name of the victim is recorded, along with the date and time of the alleged assault, the date and time of the examination, and, if the police have been notified, the attending law officer's name and badge. The law officer is not present at the examination. The only people present should be the examiner and a nurse, one of whom is usually the female chaperone. EEZ foe‘Treatment of life-threatening injuries is, of course, given precedence over the collection of evidence. After collection, the chain of evidence must be maintained. The examining physician should either hand the evidence directly over to a police officer or a representative of the crime laboratory, or place it in a secure storage arca for subsequent transmittal. If examination of victims is by physicians, they should preferably be senior staff obstetrician /gynecologists and not residents, Senior staff mem- bers are more experienced and their testimony will carry greater weight in court, In addition, a resident might have moved out of the area by the time the case comes to court. In court, the physi expected to state whether the crime of rape has occurred. Rape is not a diagnosis, it is a matter of jurisprudence. All that the examiner can do is, document any evidence of trauma, determine, if possible, whether there has been re ian or forensic nurse is never t sexual intercourse, and collect trace evidence. “The first step is to obtain a history from the patient, This includes a medical history and a brief account of the alleged assault. Three important questions should be asked: Did the assailant’s penis penetrate the vulva? Did the assailant experience orgasm? Did the assailant wear a condom? Similar questions regarding anal and oral intercourse should also be asked. The victim is asked whether she douched, bathed, showered, defecated, or urinated prior to the examination. All the aforementioned factors can influ cence whether the physical evidence needed to document sexual intercourse is present. Vertical drainage from the vagina is the worst enemy to the col- lection of evidence. Because of this, it is recommended that the examiner retain the panty the victim was wearing. Thus, any drainage of semen into the panty can be documented. ‘After taking a history, the patient is examined. The physician or forensic nurse will conduct the examination in such a manner that objectively acquired evidence can be used to prosecute an assailant in an actual case of rape, or to disprove a false charge of sexual assault. The patient's general appearance and emotional state are noted, as well as whether she is under the influence of alcohol or drugs. The patient's emotional state does not necessarily reflect on the validity of her charges. Some rape victims will appear cold and detached, while others will be hysterical. All clothing should be examined for stains, tears, missing buttons, dirt, gravel, grease, leaves, etc. The patient herself is then examined. The examiner will look for bruises, bites, and lacerations. He will examine the hands to see if the fingernails are broken. Is the pubic hair matted? Are there any foreignEEE Figure 18.1 Rape-homicide with laceration of vagina at 6 o'clock position hairs mixed with the patient’s pubic hair? The external genitalia are examined for abrasions, lacerations, and hematomas (Figure 18.1). The vagina and cervix are then examined internally by the use of an unlubricated speculum. All injuries are described. If there is a bite mark on the patient or if the patient gives a history of the perpetrator’s licking a portion of her body (e.g., the nipples), these areas should be swabbed in an attempt to recover saliva. These swabs can then be analyzed for DNA, Positive DNA identification has been made in a number of cases from saliva on the body of the victim. After the swabbing of the bite mark, photographs should be taken. A metric ruler should be included in the photographs. Ideally, one should have a forensic odontologist on call so that they can examine and document the bite mark. They might take casts of the bite mark in addition to photographing it. During the physical examination, evidence will be collected to document the rape. The only significant differences in the collecting of evidence between the living rape victim and the dead individual are that, in the living individ- ual, a culture will be made from the cervix to detect the presence of venereal disease, and swabs of the mouth and rectum may not be taken if there was, no penetration of these orifices. Absence of trauma to a rape victim does not negate the validity of her claim of rape. Thus, in an analysis of 451 rape victims examined at Parkland Hospital in Dallas by staff gynecologists, Stone found that only 34% showed any evidence of trauma (abrasions, contusions, or lacerations) (1. Stone, personal communication). Of the total number of victims, only 18% had any trauma to the genitalia (reddening, abrasions, contusions, or lacerations). Examination of fluid from the vaginal pool revealed the presence of motile 19.3% of patients, with motile and non-motile spermatozoa 2001 CRE Pe LLC10:19 PM observed in 4796 of all patients. Subsequent examination of vaginal smears in the crime laboratory showed spermatozoa present in 62% of all smears. Following the examination, the patient is treated for her injuries, as well as being given drugs for prevention of pregnancy, and medication for pre- vention of venereal disease. The patient should be seen 2 weeks after the assault in a follow-up examination. Repeated testing for A.LDS. should be performed over the next months. Rape-Homicides Rape-homicides are relatively uncommon. When they do occur, they are usually more vicious than routine homicides and generate more publicity and public outcry. They are often extremely difficult to solve because they frequently represent the purest form of stranger-to-stranger crime — that is, the victim and assailant are unknown to each other. There is usually only fone assailant, so there is no one to “squeal” to the police. In addition, itis not the type of crime that most people brag about in bars. In rape-homicides, the cause of death is usually strangulation, stabbing, or blunt force injuries. Rape victims are rarely shot. Excessive force and unnecessary savagery are common in rape-homicides. Occasionally, there is mutilation of the body (Figure 18.2). In cases of rape-homicide, the medical examiner, in addition to deter- mining the cause of death, has to document evidence of sexual assault and collect trace evidence that can be used subsequently at a trial to convict the perpetrator. In rape-homicides, as in all homicides, the medical examiners’ invohement with the body should begin at the scene, This does not mean that they hare to be present personally, but at least an investigator from their office should be present. At the scene, the body should be manipulated and touched as little as possible. The scene is not the place for examination of the body, either by a physician or an investigator. Manipulation of a body at the scene could result in destruction of trace evidence. ‘Transport of the Body Prior to transporting the body from the scene, paper bags should be placed con the hands to preserve any trace evidence that might be clutched in them or beneath the fingernails. Paper bags should be used instead of plastic, because there will be condensation of moisture inside plastic bags as the body is shifted from cold to warm environments. In addition to covering the hands, the body should be wrapped in @ clean white sheet or placed ina clean body bag. This serves two purposes: to prevent loss of trace evidence from the body in transporting it to the morgue, and to prevent the body from picking the vehicle transporting the body that might subsequently be sitimate trace evidence.Figure 18.2. (A &B) A 39.yrold prostitute stabbed and beaten. Nipples cut off ©2001 CRC Pees LLCEE Examination of the Clothing After examining the hands, one should examine the clothing while it is still on the body. The medical examiner should carefully search for fibers, hair, glass, paint, or any foreign material that might have been transferred to the deceased’s body from the assailant, his weapon, or a vehicle he used to transport the body of the victim. The medical examiner should note whether any defects in the clothing correspond to the wounds in the deceased to determine whether the individual was attacked with the clothing still on or whether the body was subsequently dressed. Any material removed from the clothing should be put into an envelope and labeled with the deceased's name, case number, date, what is present in the envelope, where it came from, and who recovered it. ‘The Body ‘The body now can be undressed. The clothing is reexamined after removal for additional trace evidence. The medical examiner can now begin the examination of the body, documenting any evidence of trauma by written notes, diagrams, x-rays, or photography. At the same time, the medical exam- incr will begin to collect trace evidence from the body. Samples of head hair should be obtained and retained. These can be compared with hair found clutched in the hands; in a vehicle used to transport a body; on a suspected assailant or, if there was blunt trauma to the head, hair recovered from a suspected murder weapon. The pubic hair is combed to recover any foreign hair deposited there from the pubic hair of the assailant. The combings and the comb are placed in a labeled envelope. In the case of a deceased victim, 15-20 pubic hairs are pulled with forceps and placed in a separate envelope to serve as controls when examining the loose hair. In a living victim, an equal number of pubic hairs are cut, not pulled. Hair Prior to current developments in DNA technology, analysis of hair was, for the most part, limited to microscopic examination. One could determine hair color, the race of the individual, its source on the body and its general characteristics. One could never make a positive identification of a hair as coming from a specific individual. All that one could say was that, in all measurable characteristics, two hairs were identical. It is now possible to perform DNA analyses on hair. If one has an intact hair, tandem repeat analysis on the root can be performed. If no root is present, mitochondrial DNA typing can be performed on the shaft. Microscopic examination of hair is only performed as a screening method to determine if DNA analysis is sj vhat type of DNA testing to perform, 16.9% Openine yp ae10:19 PM Examination of the Body On arriving at the morgue, the body should never be undressed or finger- printed prior to examination by the medical examiner. A number of author ities are now attempting to lift fingerprints from the skin of a body in which there has been close contact between the assailant and victim. Rape-homi- cides are ideally suited for such attempis because of the physical contact necessary in such an assault. Such procedures, however, are virtually always non-productive. [fattempts to recover fingerprints from the body are to be made, the skin should not be touched with the bare hand. If possible, there should be no handling of the thighs, breasts, or upper arms. Unfortunately, the procedures used in an attempt to recover fingerprints might involve fuming of the skin with various chemicals. This can obscure injuries. Because of this, the forensic pathologist should examine the areas to be fumed prior to attempts to lift fingerprints. Prior to the autopsy, the medical examiner should be thoroughly knowl- edgeable as to the circumstances surrounding the death, as well as any special tests the police may deem necessary. An autopsy should never be conducted until the medical examiner fully understands the circumstances surrounding the death. ‘Trace Evidence Recovery from the Hands The first part of the autopsy consists of examining the hands for foreign material clutched in the hands or present under the fingernails. The body should never be fingerprinted prior to examination of the hands by the medical examiner. Any material removed from the hands, as well as nail clippings, should be put in labeled containers. It is not uncommon to find hair clutched in the hands of rape-homicide victims who have been strangled most instances, however, this turns out to be is necessary at the time of the examination to obtain head hair from the victim for a control. After examining the hands for trace evidence, the fingernails are clipped and placed in marked containers. Clipping and retention of the fingernails is recommended over just scraping and retaining material under the nails ‘The fingernail clippings can subsequently be examined by the Crime Labo- ratory for foreign material that might have come from the assailant, The most important of the materials sought is tissue that might have been depos- ited under the nails if the deceased scratched her assailant. This tissue can be typed for DNA. A number of identifications of assailants have been made through DNA typing of tissue recovered from under the fingernails. A clean pair of scissors or nail clippers should be used to prevent contamination of eGmzsie”™ material from 2 non-associated source.10:19 PM Experiments have been conducted to determine the frequency of pubic hair transfer during sexual intercourse. Exline et al. determined that, under optimum conditions, there was transfer of pubic hair to males in 23.5% of ceases and to females in 10.996." Evidence of Sexual Intercourse ‘The next step is to obtain samples from the vaginal pool. If death was fairly recent, a hanging drop preparation for motile sperm can be made. Vaginal ‘smears on glass slides are prepared and air dried. Two cotton-tip swabs soaked with material from the vaginal pool should be air dried and placed in card- board boxes (not test tubes). Any apparent seminal stains on the skin of the victim should be recovered with saline-moistened pieces of cloth. Oral and rectal smears and swabs should also be obtained and retained in all autopsy cases The slides should be placed either in clean plastic slide holders or in new cardboard holders. The latter should not be reused to prevent carryover of vaginal or seminal material to a subsequent slide placed in the cardboard container. Vaginal, rectal and oral slides should be stained in an attempt to identify any spermatozoa. If sperm are present, DNA analysis of the swabs is performed. When no sperm are observed, part of each of the swabs from the vagina, rectum, and mouth can be used for presumptive tests for acid phosphatase. If, however, sexual intercourse is still strongly suspected, or if the acid phosphatase test was weakly positive or questionable, an assay for semen-specific protein P30 should be performed. Occasionally, P30 is posi- tive in the face of a negative acid phosphatase. If the acid phosphatase or P30 tests are positive, even if no spermatozoa are seen, DNA analysis should be performe, In living individuals, motile sperm are usually seen only up to 6 h, occasionally 12 h, and, very rarely, up to 24 h. In the latter case, itis probable that the sperm was obtained from cervical mucus. Thus, itis important when searching for motile sperm in an individual alleged to have been raped only a few hours before to obtain this material from the vaginal pool and not from the cervix. ‘Non-motile sperm with tails in the living individual are usually seen up to 26 h, with occasional reports of 2 to 3 days. In the later cases, theseare probably sperm trapped in cervical mucus. The identification of only a single sperm on one or two slides should make the examiner wary that he may have one of those cases in which there is unusual prolonged survival of the sperm, that is, sperm from cervical mucus. In most rape cases, numerous sperm will be seen on each smear, The presence of several sperm on a slide, with a history of the last voluntary intercourse 2 or 3 days before, would be inconsistent with the SS) ie ting at that time, but would be consistent with a recent rape.EE The survival time of spermatozoa in the vagina of living individuals as reported in the medical literature is quite variable. This can be explained by two factors: where the sample was collected, and what criteria are used 10 identify sperm. Swabs should be taken from the vaginal pool and not the cervix, because sperm can survive in cervical mucus much longer than in the vagina, Thus, sperm seen on a cervical swab may not be caused by the rape but by sexual intercourse 2 to 3 days before. More important is what criteria are used to identify sperm. Some clinicians identify sperm only when they see a complete spermatozoa — one with a head and tail. Other individuals require only the head to be present. This difference in criteria of identification explains some of the differences in reports of the persistence of sperm. The best study of the persistence of sperm in the vagina of living indi- viduals is by Willott and Allard. They examined 1332 vaginal swabs taken in alleged rape cases and found 57% positive for sperm. The longest time for identification of sperm with tails was 26 h. Sperm heads were identified up to 120 h. A cervical swab was positive for sperm at 179 h (7 days). Willott and Allard also examined 225 anal and 212 rectal swabs.* Sperm were identified in 37% of the former and in 32% of the latter. They found that itwas rare to find sperm with tals, especially after more than 6 h. Sperm heads were identified on an anal swab 45 h after intercourse and on a rectal swab 65 h alter intercourse. They also examined 74 oral swabs, of which 129 were positive, Sperm with tails were identified up to 3 h and sperm heads up to 6 h. ‘A number of points should be remembered about the identification of sperm in vaginal, rectal, and oral swabs. Failure to demonstrate sperm does not preclude intercourse. In addition, the times previously quoted for per- sistence of sperm are for living individuals. Sperm have been identified in the vagina of dead individuals 1 to 2 weeks after death. In dead individuals, the sperm are destroyed by decomposition, not drainage or the action of the vaginal secretions or cells. Sperm that is deposited on material like cotton, cloth, or paper and air dried can be identified years after the event. In some cases of undoubted rape, no sperm have been identified. This could be caused by use of a condom, failure to ejaculate, drainage of semen or aspermia secondary to disease or a vasectomy. Because of this problem, substances were looked for in semen besides sperm that could be identified by biochemical means to indicate recent intercourse. The substance most widely analyzed for has been acid phosphatase. Acid phosphatase is found in high concentrations in semen.‘ It is usually present in the vagina for up to 18-24 hi after sexual intercourse and occasionally up to 72 h. The highest levels are within the first 12 h, with gradual disappearance by 48-72 h. Because it usually disappears in the first 24 h after intercourse, it is most usefuul as an indicator of recent intercourse, compared with non-motile Gz’ be identified up to 2-3 days after intercourse.EE In 1978, a semen-specific glycoprotein (P30) of prostatic origin was discovered.’ This substance is present in semen only and cannot be detected in any body fluids from females, P30 is present in both normal and aspermic semen, In a report by Graves et al, P30 was found to be detectable in vaginal fluid for a mean period of 27 h after intercourse (a range of 13-47 hi), as compared with 14 h for acid phosphatase (8-24 h).? All specimens collected more than 48 h from intercourse were negative for P30. Graves et al. also found that, in some instances, the test for P30 was positive when the acid phosphatase was negative, Thus, of 27 females allegedly raped in which acid phosphatase was negative, 26% were positive for P30, thus indicating sexual intercourse had taken place. Bite Marks One form of evidence previously alluded to is bite marks (Figure 18.3). Bite marks can be as individual as fingerprints. A number of individuals have been positively identified and convicted on the basis of bite marks. Thus, in any case in which a bite mark is present on an individual, whether living or dead, the mark should first be swabbed for recovery of saliva for DNA testing. The bite mark should then be documented photographically, with a scale present in the picture. If a forensic odontologist is on call, he should be summoned at the time of the examination to perform the aforementioned steps as well as taking a cast. If a suspect is arrested, a court order can be obtained to get an impression of his teeth to be compared with the injuries ‘on the victim. Homosexual Rape For completeness, we should mention the victims of homosexual rape. The victims are usually children or persons incarcerated in jail or prison. Essen- tially the same procedures as those performed on the female rape victim should be performed on the male. Of interest are homosexual-related homicides. These tend to be more violent than their heterosexual counterparts. There is “overkill!” The victim is often nude and the number and extent of injuries on the body tend to be greater.’ The cause of death is usually stabbing, strangulation, blunt force, or a combination of them all, The case might be extremely bizarre, with evidence of torture (Figure 18.4). DNA Analysis Until the late 1980s, serological testing in cases of rape involved traditional enzyme studies. DNA typing has virtually eliminated such testing. DNA ” ie. DNA typing for forensic purposes, was developed byFigure 18.3 (A and B) Bite marks. Dr. Alec Jeffreys in 1985.°* He determined that, in cach strand of DNA, there are thousands of identical DNA sequences. The length, constitution, and number of the repetitive sequences are different for each person. The iden- tification and demonstration of the sequences of nucleotides possessed by an individual cel is the basis for DNA identification, The importance of DNA fingerprinting is that any tissue containing nucleated cells can potentially be linked to an individual, usually to the statistical exclusion of all other individuals. DNA can be obtained from sperm, nucleated blood cells, cells from soft tissue, teeth, bone, finger- ine and hair — essentially, any tissue in which there are ©2001 CRC Pees LLCFigure 18.4 Lacerations of the anus. The deceased was beaten and stabbed. A toilet bow! brush was rammed up the rectum and the body set on fire. nucleated cells. DNA can be extracted from these specimens, chemically divided into fragments, and formed into a pattern that will serve as an identification profile. This pattern can then be compared with a DNA patiern obtained from a suspect's blood specimen. If these match, and the test is done with sufficient probes, there is virtually no doubt that the suspect is the source of the tissue to the exclusion of all other indi- viduals, except for an identical uvin, If the patterns do not match, then the suspect is not the perpetrator. In addition to the absolute nature of DNA identification, there are other advantages. DNA is much more stable than the enzymes and proteins for- metly used in blood identification. There are no false positives caused by degradation. If the DNA is altered, it will fail to form a pattern. DNA is fairly, resistant to degradation and analysis has been made on human remains thousands of years old. In addition to its application in criminal matters, DNA identification can be used in paternity suits. A child inherits half its DNA from each parent. If the half of the child’s DNA pattern that is different from the mother’s pattem atches that of the alleged father, then there is no doubt that he is the 2001 CRE Pe LLCEE ‘Two basic concepts must be understood in dealing with DNA analyses: 1. If the DNA profile of the evidence DNA is different from that of the suspect in any aspect, then the suspect is absolutely excluded. 2. If the evidence DNA and the suspect DNA match then there are three possibilities: a. The evidence DNA came from the suspect. b. The evidence DNA came from another individual who has the same DNA profile. This is possible if the second individual is a monozy- gotic twin, or because an insufficient number of tests were per- formed to diflerentiate the suspect from the other individual. ¢ An error was made in either the collection or analysis of the spec- imen DNA. Many individuals do not know what is meant by a DNA match. Except for monozygotic twins, the DNA pattern is unique for each individual. DNA profiling, however, does not compare the whole DNA pattern of an individual and that of the evidence DNA, only a minute portion, A match is made by the statistical exclusion of all other individuals. To determine this, the fre- quency of occurrence of selected alleles in the major population groups is determined, and testing is performed to determine the presence of these selected alleles. If the evidence DNA and the suspect's DNA are tested for an allele that occurs in onc in ten individuals, and they match, then 9 out of 10 people in the population are excluded as sources of the DNA. If the second allele tested for also occurs and this matches, then 99 out of 100 people are excluded. If sufficient alleles are tested for, the probabilities for exclusion go into the millions or even billions. Thus, a match is made on statistics. All nucleated cells in the body contain 23 pairs of chromosomes except for sperm and ova, which contain 23 chromosomes rather than 23 pairs. Each chromosome consists of a double spiral of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the shape of a twisted ladder, the double helix. The sides of the ladder consist of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules; the rungs of the ladder consist of nitrogen bases. The weakest part of the helix or ladder is the rungs, where the nitrogen bases are weakly linked by hydrogen bonds. DNA is composed of units called nucleotides, which consistof asugar, a phosphate group, and a base. Millions of these nucleotides form a single strand. Despite the millions of nucleotides, only four different bases are used. ‘Two of these are purines (adenine and guanine) and two are pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine). In forming the rungs of the ladder, guanine always binds to cytosine and adenine always binds to thymine, These are the only two possible combinations and these are called complementary base pairs. Gazz of nucleotides forming a single strand and the fact10:19 PM that there are 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cel, there is an almost infinite variety in the arrangement of the nucleotides. The order or sequence of the bases ina DNA molecule forms a code of the genetic information of the cells. A gene is a series of these bases that occupies a specific location (locus) on a chromosome, producing a specific product. There is usually more than one form of 2 gene for each locus. ‘These are called alleles. Most of the chromosome, however, serves no known function. These areas consist of multiple copies of identical base sequences, 50-60 base pairs in length, arranged one behind the other, that is, in tandem. The repeated sequences are known as tandem repeats, with the areas made up of tandem repeats known as VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats). Just like a gene, a loci of VNTR can have multiple alleles. The VNTR loci were the first areas used in DNA typing because of the multiple alleles. The original method of DNA analysis was RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism). This was a prolonged, complicated method that took. a minimum of 6-8 weeks to conduct. DNA was chemically extracted from the submitted biological specimen and purified. It was then cut into frag- ments by a restriction enzyme. These substances cut the DNA molecule at specific base sequences. The number of DNA fragments and their length as produced by a particular restriction enzyme depend on how often the enzyme’ base sequence occurs in the DNA specimen. Because every indi- vidual’s DNA sequence is different, the fragments in the DNA specimen from ‘onc individual to another are different in number and length from those in a DNA specimen from another individual. ‘The DNA fragments were then separated into bands by electrophoresis. DNA carries a negative charge and thus travels toward the positive pole in electrophoresis. The distance that each fragment travels depends on its length. The longer the fragment, the slower its rate of migration. This creates a number of DNA bands in the gel. These are transferred to a nylon ‘membrane by a technique known as Southern blotting. The membrane is then exposed to a DNA probe having a radioactive tag. The probe look: for a complementary sequence of bases. Thus, adenine looks for thymine, and guanine looks for cytosine. The probe then binds to the DNA pattern. X-ray film is placed next to the membrane to detect the radioactive patterns that appear asa series of bands similar to the bar code on items in grocery stores, Each dark stripe or band represents a point where the DNA probe is bound to its complementary base sequences. The pattern of bands is unique for cach individual (excepting identical twins), just as a fingerprint is. While two individuals may have identical patterns for one or two probes, if a sufficient number of probes are used, at some point, the probes will begin to not match and the individual is ruled out. If the DNA being tested ees dividual itis being tested against, and a sufficient numberEE of probes are run, then statistically, the probability that the individual was the source of the DNA approaches 100%. With the use of sufficient DNA probes, the probability that an identification is positive can be as great as 30 billion to one.* Short Tandem Repeats RELP has been replaced by a new technique that uses analysis of short tandem repeats. STR are loci on chromosomes normally 2 to 6 bases long. While shorter than VNTR, they are more numerous. There are approximately 8 to 10 alleles per STR loci. Using the 13 STR loci recommended by the FBI, the average match probability is less than one in a trillion. Problems can arise if an insufficient number of loci are tested for or if, the DNA sample being tested is degraded so that only a limited number of loci can be typed. If close relatives are typed, they can be expected to be genetically similar, with numerous identical loci. Thus, it would not he unex- pected for siblings to match at 4-5 STR loci. A match has even been reported at 10 loci.’ Because of this, if only a limited number of loci are or can be tested, there is the potential for misidentification. STR typing of urine is based on recovery of nucleated cells present in the urine. These are epithelial cells of the genito-urinary tract and white blood cells. Typically, women have more nucleated cells in their urine than men, Because of this, STR typing of urine and urine stains is more successful on urine from women than from men. In view of this, mitochondrial typing isa better analytical technique for analysis of urine of male origin In STR analysis, the DNA is extracted from the submitted specimen, quantitated and then replicated by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Identification of STR loci can then be performed by gel-based electrophoresis methods utilizing fluorescent dyes, or by capillary electrophoresis using laser- induced fluorescence detection. The advantages of the STR method of DNA analysis are: + Because of the unlimited ability to reproduce the STR segments by PCR, testing can be performed on very small quantities of DNA, e.g., wipings from apparently clean full metal-jacketed bullets that have perforated the body. + The analytical techniques are simple to perform. + It is more rapid to perform (2-3 days). + Tecan be automated. ‘The main disadvantage is that, because the method is exquisitely sensitive, it eames”EE Mention should be made of examination of the suspect in a case of alleged rape. If the individual is apprehended shortly after the incident, his pubic hair should be combed for pubic hair from the victim. Any foreign hair recovered should be submitted for DNA analysis. In addition to col- lection of foreign pubic hair, swabs of the penis should also be made. In a number of cases, DNA from the victim has been recovered from these swabs using STR. Cina et al. conducted an experimental study on the ability to identify female DNA on postcoital penile swabs."° They were able to identiiy female DNA on swabs taken as long as 24 h after intercourse if the indi- vidual did not bathe or shower, Analysis identified the X chromosome and 8 STR loci. Combined DNA Index System Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) is a nationwide electronic database of DNA profiles. Cities, counties and states throughout the US. are in the process of collecting DNA samples from individuals convicted of various crimes in their jurisdictions, performing DNA profiles (at present 13 specified STR loci), and submitting the results to CODIS. When a crime occurs in which biological material is recovered, the DNA profile of this material can be submitted to CODIS for possible identification of the individual who is the source of the DNA. Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis!" is used when the biological evi- dence recovered is either small in quantity or degraded. MiDNA typing can be done on a single hair shaft. It is of value in typing old bones and decom- posed tissue, where nuclear DNA typing is not possible. MtDNA differs from nuclear DNA in its location in the cel, its quantity and its mode of inherit ance. While the cell nucleus contains only two sets of 23 chromosomes, the cell contains hundreds, even thousands, of mitochondria. Thus, more mtDNA js available for analysis than nuclear DNA. While nuclear DNA is inherited from both parents, mtDNA is inherited solely from the mother. Because of this, the mtDNA sequences of a mother and her children exactly match. This means that mtDNA analysis is limited in that it cannot differentiate between individuals of the same maternal line. This attribute, however, makes it valuable in identifying unknown bodies. ‘MtDNA has a higher mutation rate than nuclear DNA. In spite of this, the transmission of mtDNA is consistent over many generations. Asa rule, mtDNA does not undergo recombination. Individuals, how- wver, can have more than one type of mtDNA (heteroplasmy). This can occur : : : s tissue or different tissues. Variation between the types isEEE usually only one base, though greater variation may occur. Heteroplasmy does not invalidate the use of mtDNA for forensic analysis. MLDNA analysis is tedious and labor intensive. The DNA is extracted, -d by the polymerase chain reaction, purifed and quantitated, and finally sequenced. In sequencing, the DNA is fluorescently labeled and separated using gel electrophoresis. An automated fluorescence detector records the wavelength of the fluorescent dyes on each base as they migrate through the gel past the detection area of the instrument, generating a chromatogram. The mtDNA sequences are then compared with a standard mtDNA reference, the Anderson sequence. The resultant report is made up of the number of the positions different from the Anderson sequence and the different bases at these positions. Because of its exquisite sensi- vity, there is always danger of contamination at the scene, in collection and in analysis References 1, Exline DL, Smith FR, and Drexler SG, Frequency of pubic hair transfer during sexual intercourse. J Forens Sci, 1998; 43(3):505-508, 2. Graves HCB, Sensabaugh GF, and Blake ET, Postcoital detection of a male- specific semen protein, NEJM, 1985; 312:338-343. 3. Willott GM and Allard JE, Spermatozoa — their persistence after sexual intercourse. Forens Sci Int 1982; 19:135-154. 4, Ricci LR and Hoffman SA, Prostatic acid phosphatase and sperm in the posteoital vagina. Ann Emerg Med, 1982; 11: 530-534 5. 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