power-supply-designer.com/2011/05/isolation/
Bob Stowe
This tutorial installment is: The Isolated Power Supply. This topic answers the following questions:
What is power supply isolation?
What are the main purposes of power supply isolation?
What are the methods of power supply isolation?
What are power supply isolation parasitics?
How is power supply isolation measured?
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Safety
Electronic power supplies commonly process dangerous voltages with low impedances. Isolation is often required to
prevent operator contact with dangerous voltages. Transformers used within power supplies function as a safety
isolation transformer.
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type of converter can even be used to achieve a buck-boost type characteristic where the input voltage can range
greater or less than the output voltage.
Non-buck derived topologies with non-linear conversion characteristics can also use transformers for isolation and
assisting with step-up and step-down conversion. The most common example is the flyback topology (the
transformer in the flyback more correctly functions as a multiple winding inductor).
Physical Separation
The most obvious form of power supply isolation is simple physical separation used when there is no electrical,
magnetic, or thermal interaction desired. The separation may employ different types of dielectric mediums between
the conducting surfaces.
Transformers
Transformers provide electrical isolation, but allow power to be magnetically coupled through from primary to
secondary. They are used when it is desired to transfer power across the power supply isolation boundary and can
be designed for safety isolation, voltage level translation, step-up, step-down functions, and for obtaining multiple
outputs.
Optocouplers
Opto-couplers are used to transfer signals across different voltage levels, and without introducing significant
parasitics across the boundary. There are at least two basic types:
IC Package
The optocoupler in an IC package consists of a light emitting device and a light receiving device inside the same IC
package. Both are semiconductor devices. The efficiency of transfer is described by the Current Transfer Ratio
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(CTR). The CTR ages with input drive level and with operating temperature making careful design with these
devices important. In power supplies, they are commonly used to transfer feedback from the secondary to the
primary across the power supply isolation boundary. Typical isolation voltages for this type of device are on the order
of 3kV.
Optical Fibers
High voltage power supplies can make use of optocouplers with a data transmission fiber between the transmitter
and the reciever. This form of optocoupler can achieve tens and even hundreds of kilovolts of isolation while
processing control and data signals.
Imperfect Insulators
All insulators have some degree of conductivity, resulting in leakage current.
Surface Tracking
Surface tracking is caused by conduction contaminants on the insulator surfaces between conductors. This type of
parasitic is commonly responsible for circuits with extremely high lumped resistance values not working as planned.
The greater the voltage potential between the conductors, the greater is the tracking current. If the combination of
contaminant surface density is great enough or the voltage potential is great enough, an arc will occur leaving a
carbon trail which is difficult to remove. Once the carbon trail is formed, the voltage holdoff capability at that location
is compromised.
Dielectric Breakdown
Dielectric breakdown occurs when the electric field strength across a dielectric medium is great enough to cause
electrons to be stripped from their normal orbiting locations around the atoms. If the dielectric is not renewable, the
reliability of the part is compromised. If the dielectric breakdown occurs along an insulation surface between two
conductors, a carbon path is left which will result in surface tracking at that location.
Stray Capacitance
Every insulator material used in isolation applications exhibits capacitance which is a function of the area of and
distance between the effective conducting surfaces, as well as the dielectric constant of the material. At frequencies
greater than DC, there will be some current flowing through the effective capacitor. This effect causes two circuits to
be DC isolated but not AC isolated. If the circuits are physically close enough to each other, and the frequency
components are high enough, one circuit will be able to disrupt the operation of the other circuit. This is known as
crosstalk. Stray capacitance between primary and secondary windings is a common source of objectionable
common mode currents and can cause power supplies to fail emissions testing.
Leakage Inductance
Transformers will always have a parasitic called leakage inductance. It is caused by flux from one winding not
linking with the other winding(s). Leakage is typically seen as an undesirable parasitic that should be minimized. In
resonant supplies it is possible to use it advantageously.
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Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance causes undesired linking between two different circuits. This is usually a problem when there are
large magnitude currents with rapid switching transients in close proximity to sensitive nodes of other circuits.
Resistance Measurement
One method of measuring isolation quality is to measure the resistance between two isolated circuits.
Hi-Pot Test
Another method of measuring isolation quality is to perform a Hi-Pot test. This test applies either a DC or an AC
voltage across two isolated circuits. The resulting leakage current is measured. If the leakage current fail exceeds a
specified value, the device under test fails.
Next Topic
The next tutorial installment is Power Supply Topologies. This topic answers the following questions:
What is a power supply topology?
What are the most basic topologies?
What are the derivative topologies of the most basic topologies?
What are the other topologies in use?
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Thank you for reading this tutorial article entitled Power Supply Isolation
Next topic: Power Supply Topologies
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