Acoustic Levitation

M R Stephens-Row

University of Birmingham
School of Physics and Astronomy

Acoustic Levitation
Matthew Richard Stephens-Row

Abstract
This project explored the workings of an acoustic levitator; how it functions, how it works and how it
is made. Working models were fabricated throughout the experiment and used to test various
acoustic properties. Driving circuitry was also examined and a driver circuit built from raw
components. An exploration was made into the practicalities involved with using such a device and
improvements in both performance and usability, as well as effectiveness of overall design, were
sought. The final device provided effective, portable teleportation over a range of around 10cm.
Separation distances were calculated to be multiples of 5.2mm to the nearest mm and the
resonance of the system calculated to be 33.14 0.01 KHz.

2nd Term project 2016

Lab Partner: Emmalene Wilson

Acoustic Levitation

M R Stephens-Row

1. Introduction, Applications & Aims

1.1 Introduction
Acoustic levitation is the name given to the process of suspending mass using sound waves. Through careful
manipulation of the properties of powerful sound waves, one can suspend small particles of low density
material in mid-air. In this project, a device capable of producing this form of levitation will be fabricated and
then used to test various properties of the associated acoustic field. The device will consist of a source and
reflector, a housing to contain them within and a driver circuit with which to power the source of the acoustic
field.
1.2 Applications and Limitations
Acoustic levitation has many potential applications in industry due to its hands-free nature. Previously,
levitation has only been achieved through the manipulation of magnetic fields; but a consequence of this
method is that only magnetically charged objects can be lifted. An ideal levitation system would have the ability
to levitate any kind of material, including people or animals. Ultrasonic or acoustic levitation provides a solution
here as it is capable of lifting any material, regardless of the materials properties. However, acoustic levitation
is limited in other ways.
Firstly, by the power of the acoustic field it is possible to produce from a given source; lifting larger and heavier
objects often requires more power than can be realistically produced by most acoustic systems (as will be
seen). The result of this is that acoustic levitation systems are used exclusively to lift small, lightweight (low
density) objects. Secondly, the nature of acoustic levitation is such that the field produced to levitate objects is
extremely turbulent. Such turbulence simply cannot be tolerated by most living or organic material. This
suggests that, if the problem of low power was to be overcome, some objects or animals or people, would be
destroyed during the levitation process.
The levitator that will be built during this project will be a basic ultrasonic device, capable of static levitation
only. This in itself doesnt have much industrial potential, since most applications require that substances be
manipulated in mid-air. However, devices capable of moving objects within an acoustic field have been built
and have proved to be successful at combining substances such as coffee or sodium with water in mid-air(1).
Once out of their infancy, such machines could prove invaluable for chemical and pharmaceutical
developments, providing a workbench made only of air.
1.3 Aims
There were a selection of aims set out for this project; in experimental data collection, experimental
development and finally product design. Firstly, a basic acoustic levitator was to be fashioned using largescale components found in the lab, including a pre-manufactured signal generator. Levitation and
corresponding observations were to be noted and then a resonance curve was to be plotted for the acoustic
wave source using this arrangement. A wavelength analysis could then be completed using known values for
the frequency and thus used to verify the presence of standing waves (further discussed in section 2.2).
Secondly, in experimental development, a system was to be developed that used only the parts necessary to
produce levitating forces. It was essential throughout the development process that a compact and portable
device was targeted, fit for purpose as a demonstration tool in the department. A device that prescribed to
such specifications should produce qualitative and quantitative results in line with primary data and
observations, gathered prior to the build. This eliminates the need for a bulky signal generator to drive the
levitator, allowing for complete manoeuvrability of the system. The electronics required were to be researched
and understood; the simplest driving circuitry was to be sought.
The final aim for the project was to complete the self-enclosed and self-powered device through the addition
of a feedback system, such that the driving frequency of levitation was always optimised; i.e. the acoustic
source was always resonating. This aim was however, abandoned, for reasons outlined in section 6.
To summarise the experimental aims: build a system; establish the physics associated with the system; reduce
the experimental apparatus; build a self-contained system.

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2. Theory
2.1 Sound Waves
At the heart of acoustic levitation are sound waves. Sound waves are the mode through which the energy
required to suspend particles in a gravitational field flows. Sound waves themselves consist in periodic
fluctuations of pressure that propagate through a medium. Pressure fluctuations cause a bunching effect in
the medium through which the wave is travelling; particles are closer together at points of high pressure, called
compressions (the opposite points, at low pressures, are called rarefactions). The change in pressure causes
particles to become displaced, each disturbing the positions of their neighbours; and so the wave propagates
in this way. The waves are dubbed longitudinal since the direction of displacement of particles along the wave
is parallel to the direction of travel of the wave. [For simplicity, longitudinal waves can be modelled as
transverse waves, where the displacement is perpendicular to the direction of travel; this representation shall
be used from now on.]
2.2 Standing Waves
In acoustic levitation, the upward force used to suspend particles is provided by standing sound waves.
Standing waves are produced by a vibrating source aimed at a reflector (this reflector should be made of a
hard material so as not to absorb the acoustic radiation). Pressure perturbations, and hence sound waves,
produced by the sources vibrations then travel to the reflector through the fluid medium (in this case air) where
they rebound according to the law of reflection (angle of incidence equals angle of reflection) and travel back
to the source2. During this process, outgoing and incoming waves interfere with each other, and its this
interference that can, under the right conditions, set up a standing wave.
If the reflector is placed at a distance equal to a multiple of half-wavelengths from the source(2) then a standing
wave with stable nodes and antinodes will be created in the space between. This obeys the equation:

= , (2)
2

{2.1}

where L is the distance between the source and reflector, n is the number of nodes and is the wavelength of
source waves. If the source-reflector setup is aligned parallel to the pull of gravity, sections of the wave will
provide a constant upward pressure acting against gravitys influence(2). These are located just below the nodal
pressure points as this is the direction in which the pressure acts; towards the nodes. This makes sense as at
a nodal point there must be equal pressure acting towards it on either side in order for there to be no net
pressure. This phenomena is displayed in figure 1. The particle remains motionless as forces downwards and
upwards are balanced.

Figure 1: A source and reflector schematic. The dotted lines represent the motion of the soundwave and the solid lines the
pressure waves. A particle is displayed suspended just beneath a pressure node.

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2.3 Producing Waves

Ordinary linear sound waves are not powerful enough to support the weight of most small particles. Increasing
the volume of a speaker, for example, does little to increase the amplitude of pressure waves in the medium.
This means that sounds that are simply loud are not powerful enough to support levitation. Its only when
intense sounds that are painful to the ear are produced that the waves become non-linear, and are capable of
causing disproportionately large responses in the medium they travel through. These responses include
distorted wave-forms and sonic booms(2). Such non-linear effects combine to produce an acoustic radiation
pressure that is powerful enough to support a weight and levitate it.
Devices capable of producing waves at high enough powers (over 105Db or about 32MW) are known as
ultrasonic transducers. A transducer is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical or acoustical
energy. Ultrasonic transducers produce ultrasonic sound which is of a frequency beyond that which human
hearing can detect ( ~ 20 KHz) thus the powerful noise is not discomforting. These often come in one of two
forms; piezoelectric transducers or capacitive transducers. In the project a capacitive transducer was used.
[For details on how the transducer operates refer to reference (3). For this project, the transducer was treated
as a black box, the output of which is the production of sound waves at the same frequency as the driving
electrical current].
2.4 Driving the Transducer
An AC voltage of reasonable amplitude needs to be supplied to a transducer, so as to maximise the amplitude
of vibrational motion. This limit can be determined approximately (after a successful standing wave has been
set up) by reducing the amplitude of voltage until levitation is no longer easily supported. It is also important to
utilise the phenomena of resonance, so as to vibrate the transducer at its maximum power and create nonlinear sound waves. Resonance occurs when the driving oscillations match the natural oscillations of a system,
and causes motions of far greater amplitude than at any other frequency. By plotting a resonance curve, using
the current/voltage characteristics of the transducer, the optimum driving frequency can be established and
set.

3. Experimental Procedure 1: Initial testing

3.1 Initial Schematic

Reflector

Polystyrene
particle

Waveform
Generator

Capacitive
Transducer

Clamp stand

TG315

Adjustable platform

Figure 2: A simple levitator schematic. The electrical oscillations are produced using the TG315 Signal generator; connected to
the capacitive transducer this produces the ultrasonic standing waves required to levitate the polystyrene particle.

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3.2 Overview
The schematic shown was used to collect data regarding the operation of the levitator. The signal generator
was set to produce sine waves in the 30 KHz range, just into ultrasonic frequencies, and the voltage amplitude
maximised (quoted 20.1V). An aluminium reflector was obtained, produced by a group from a previous year
and attached to the clamp stand. The reflector was circular with a concave reflecting surface, exactly 5cm in
diameter.
The capacitive transducer (part no. 328ET250) was then fixed to the adjustable platform using Blu Tack and
positioned underneath the reflector. A particle of polystyrene was placed upon the surface of the reflector to
act as a probe and the height of the platform as well as the frequency of the signal generator adjusted. All
measurements taken initially utilised this set-up.
3.3 Initial Observations
At first, when the signal generator was turned on, the transducer appeared to be dormant. Indeed, emitted
frequencies were designed to be beyond sensory perception. To test if the signal was being transformed as
required, metal tweezers were held against the surface and noted to produce a sharp high-pitched sound upon
contact as well as a feeling of vibration through the hand of the experimenter. This suggested the transducer
to be operating as required. Adjusting the frequency, it was then noted that the noise the transducer produced
became audible at around 33 KHz. This sudden peak in audible response suggested some interference from
lower frequencies, most probably produced by the chaotic effect of resonance. Using this as a cue, the
frequency at which the loudest audible noise could be heard was judged and set (33.2 KHz).
The platform height was then carefully adjusted, and the particle observed. The particle began to vibrate on
the approach to a standing wave separation distance (as described by equation {2.1}), and upon reaching the
correct distance, floated just above the surface of the transducer. This occurred when the separation of the
source and reflector was ~ 10 cm. Using tweezers and some fine tuning of the separation distance, the particle
could be inserted at a height above the transducer and would remain there, as in figure 2. It was observed that
the particle would tend to jump from the tweezers into what appeared to be well defined pockets, either above
or below the position of the tweezers.
Multiple particles could be inserted into the space between the source and reflector in this way. The gaps
between the particles were noted to be equal, at least in appearance, if each particle was inserted just above
or below the previous one. It was observed that the waveform of oscillating signals had no noticeable effect
on the performance of the levitator; square waves were just as successful as sinusoidal ones. Finally, the
amplitude of voltage was then adjusted and it was discovered that particles were supported down to ~ 10 V.
This set a limit for the minimum voltage required from a signal generator.
These initial observations all fell in line with expectations as outlined in the theory section 2.2.
3.4 Resonance Determination
To verify the resonant frequency of the transducer, an experiment was devised to measure it. A multimeter
was added to the circuit and used to measure the amplitude of voltage dissipated over the transducer as a
function of frequency. It was noted firstly that the voltage was frequency dependant, especially over the short
range where the transducer produced an audible hum, and secondly that the louder the hum, the lower the
recorded voltage. This suggested that a dip in voltage was present at resonant frequency. Readings of the
voltage were taken over small increments in frequency to produce a resonance curve and thus determine the
resonant frequency of the transducer. This frequency provides the optimum amount of force in the levitation
field, and shall be used from this point on. [The current-frequency relationship was also examined; however
the data proved not to be useful. A further discussion of this is found in appendix C].
3.5 Standing Wave Verification
Using the value measured to be the resonant frequency, wavelengths of emitted sound waves were calculated
(see section 6.2). Using this wavelength and equation {2.1} it was possible to determine an expected value for
the separation of nodes. A ruler was placed alongside the clamp stand (still as figure 2) and standing waves
probed for as before. The distances between the points where the particle floated were then measured and
could be compared to expectations.

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4. Experimental Procedure 2: Building a Signal Generator

4.1 Oscillatory Signal Production
A 555 timer chip was sourced, capable of producing a positive oscillatory signal from a DC input of 5 Volts.
The circuit diagram for the chip set-up used is as figure 3.
(4)

Figure 3: A circuit schematic utilising a digital 555 timer chip (type IC1) for the production of a periodic voltage
signal.

The chips internals were treated as a black box with the functions as follows (the following labels refer to figure
3). A series of resistors are split into 2 sections, one fixed (R1) and one variable (R2+VR1). The discharge pin
on the chip is connected to the junction of the resistor sections. A timing capacitor (C1) then controls the output
of the chip through alternating between states of charging and discharging, triggered by the chips internals.
This process results in a square wave at the output (high signal followed immediately by low), controllable
through the use of a potentiometer (VR1). The frequency of this output can be determined by equation {4.1}
as follows:
1.443

= [1+2(2+1)]1, (4)

{4.1}

Where is the output frequency and other symbols take their previous meanings. In the project, values were
chosen as follows: R1 = 2.2 K; R2 = 4.7 K; C1 = 1 nF; C2 = 10 nF; and VR1 ~ 100 K. This produced
frequencies up to ~ 35 KHz. It was not necessary to use equation {4.1} in the project as the potentiometer
provided sufficient, adjustable control. The circuit was built on a bread board, connected to a DC power pack,
for testing and analysis. [For a full breakdown of the 555 circuits workings refer to reference (4)].
4.2 DC/AC Conversion
To convert the periodic signal produced by the 555 into an oscillatory AC signal, a p-type Field Effect Transistor
was added to the circuit (specifically an OMNIFET VNP10N07). The signal was input to the Gate, the Drain to
the positive rail and the Source to the ground. It was found that a cleaner signal was produced if a small resistor
(5 ) was placed between the signal and the Gate. [Refer to figure 4 at the end of section 4 for schematic of
described circuitry. For full description of transistor workings, refer to reference (5)].
4.3 Signal Amplification
Voltage is dissipated over the circuit designed, proportional to the resistors added. As the amplitude of the
voltage supply for the digital chip was relatively low (5V) amplification of the signal was required to drive the
transducer such that it was still supported levitating particles. To amplify the voltage, a step-up transformer
was added. The transformer used had a ferrite core; thin, insulated copper wire was wrapped around the core.
The transformer steps up the voltage as according to the transformer equation:

(6)
,

{4.2}

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where is the voltage across the primary coil, is the voltage across the secondary coil, is the number of
turns on the primary coil and the number of turns on the secondary coil. Due to the small size of the
transformer used (3cm x 3cm), it was important to minimise turns on the primary to achieve a large enough
ratio. Eight turns were placed on the primary coil and Forty Eight on the secondary. A reduction in the number
of coils on the primary beyond this was noted to reduce the quality of the signal produced. It was also observed
that the addition of a load (the capacitive transducer) resulted in a reduction in clarity of the main frequency
produced. This was explained as follows. A transformer coil behaves like an inductor, producing a back EMF
out of phase with the driving voltage. Coupled to a capacitive load, this effect distorts the signal. To prevent
this from affecting the signal back through the transistor, fly-back diodes were implemented. 2 diodes were
found to attenuate rogue frequencies sufficiently, such that the produced signal was clean enough to
successfully levitate polystyrene particles. [For a full description of the operation and usage of fly back diodes
refer (7)].
(8)

VNP10N07

Figure 4: Reduced circuit design in full minus 2 diodes in parallel with the primary coil. The chip configuration is as
figure 3, extra capacitors are added to protect electrical components. The transistor is circled red, the transformer
circled blue.

5. Experimental Procedure 3: System Design

5.1 Stand Design
Adjustable screw
Aluminium reflector

Capacitive
transducer

Aluminium sheets
30cm

Polystyrene
housing

Aluminium support
rods (threaded)

Spare shelf
for circuitry

20cm

Figure 5: A model of the stand built to house the transducer and reflector. The spare shelf on the bottom is for the
reduced circuitry from section 4. Rods are secured through the shelves using nuts and washers.

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The stand design illustrated in figure 5 was submitted to the workshop and built. The triangular design provides
stability in a compact form factor. The tiered structure saves work-bench space and is easy to pick up by
gripping any one of the shelves. The use of threaded rods allows for the adjustment of all the shelves to resize
the frame as required. The screw attached to the reflector provides fine height adjustment through a simple
twisting motion. Polystyrene sheets were glued to two sides of the stand between the middle and upper
shelves. These provide protection from air currents external to the levitator. The transducer was housed in
polystyrene to prevent vibrations passing into the stand.
5.2 Integrated Soldered Circuit
A copper plated circuit board was used to build the circuit (as figure 4) upon. Solder was then used to make
the appropriate connections. This provided a compact solution in which to house the circuitry.

6. The Feedback System & Problems Not Overcome

6.1 The proposition
In this section, it is necessary to document some of the experimental work undertaken that never made it to
the final system. This is because many experimental hours were devoted to solving the problems that follow.
In each case, reasons will be given as to why the problems remained unsolved. As suggested in section 1.3,
a feedback system was sought in order to fully automate the workings of the levitator. Such a system was
conceptualised by the flow diagram in figure 6.

DC voltage source
(Battery)

Waveform generator
(DC to AC voltage)

Digital potentiometer

Voltage amplifier

Transducer

Digital voltmeter

Figure 6: a schematic representation of the proposed feedback system, detailing the components required to
successfully automate the levitation process.

The circuitry created so far covers the left hand side. To be successful, the system would need the electronics
required to read in an AC voltage; some software to interpret the voltage magnitude and detect a minima in it;
and a programmable potentiometer that could be tuned by the software as according to the voltage data. The
main motivation behind this automation was for ease of use; it was noted in the experiment that components
were temperature dependent though and the frequency required retuning after running the levitator for some
time, so the automation would be useful to fix this issue too.
6.2 Digital voltmeter
A digital voltmeter would need to convert an AC signal into digital information and a computer to read the
voltage levels. To convert AC signals to DC, a converter chip is required. Chips available to us were capable
of sampling at a rate of 100 KHz. Nyquists criterion states that for a signal to be successfully digitised it must

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be sampled at twice the rate of the highest frequency present in it. If the highest frequency found in the signals
produced over the transducer was that of the main frequency (~ 33 KHz), this would be satisfied. However, as
is detailed in section 7.3, this is found to not be the case. The aliasing on the signal would result in the capture
of a wave significantly different from the one produced, leading to inaccurate measurements taken by a
computer. This was the first problem.
6.3 The Computer Program
The second problem is one that could be overcome with time; unfortunately there was insufficient time over
the course of the project. A computer program capable of deciphering the voltage magnitude from a well
digitised wave was plausible. A program that could detect minima from this data less so. The problem is that
the computer can check for rising and falling values, but the rise or fall could be present on either side of the
minima curve. Overcoming this problem requires more complex coding. Another aspect to this is the computer
dependency. The project specifications require a compact solution; using a computer as part of the system
defeats this purpose. Instead it was suggested that a microcontroller (Minimus) be used to implement the code
and output the required signal. However, the limited memory of the microcontroller posed further problems, as
did the nature of its 8 pin output system. It was unclear as to how the information gathered at the separate pins
could be collated in a cohesive manner and sent to a potentiometer.
6.4 Digital Potentiometer
A digital potentiometer would need to be programmable and have a fine level of resistance tuning available.
Creating a program that could use the information provided to it by the AC/DC converter to tune a potentiometer
proved to be beyond our comprehension. It was unclear in what form to output the digital data in order to
condition the potentiometer chip. Also the precision of the chip proved to be insufficient, the smallest increment
altering the resistance such that the frequency jumped outside the width of resonance.
With so many problems to overcome, the decision to abort the feedback system was taken. To best solve the
problem if the project was ever returned to, it was suggested that a microcontroller capable of reading AC
voltage should be sourced, such as the Arduino microcontroller. This would solve the AC/DC conversion
problem. The controller could also then be used as a replacement for the 555 timer in producing square waves.
With a digital potentiometer no longer required, the program on the chip would feed back into the original
square wave generation program and alter the frequency from there.
6.5 Piezoelectric Transducer
From initial testing it was found that the transducer that was supplied couldnt provide enough energy to support
the levitation of particles over distances much beyond 10 cm. A larger, piezoelectric transducer was instead
sourced, the intention being to use it to drive levitation on a larger scale. However, it proved to be too power
hungry, as the levitation we were able to generate from it was on an even smaller scale, even when powered
using a piezoelectric amplifier where the voltage was increased to 50 V. It also proved to be a load incompatible
with the signal produced by the circuit, as demonstrated in the figure found in appendix D. As a result of its
poor performance, the transducer was abandoned.

7. Results
7.1 Resonance Curve
Voltage amplitude readings over the transducer were taken at intervals of ~ 0.1 KHz starting from 31 KHz. The
raw data are displayed in the table of appendix A and interpreted graphically in figures 7 & 8. Figure 7 uses a
computational Gaussian distribution to fit a curve to the data and figure 8 a Lorentzian distribution. Both curves
fit well visually speaking, the Lorentzian perhaps more accurate at frequencies further from resonance.
However, the fits yielded consistent values of: Gaussian: 33.136 0.010 KHz; Lorentzian: 33.134 0.010 KHz.
Thus, the resonant frequency was determined to be 33.14 0.01 KHz as a mean value to 2 d.p.

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Figure 7: A graph of negative voltage vs frequency around resonance, fitted using a Gaussian distribution.

Figure 8: A graph of negative voltage vs frequency around resonance, fitted using a Lorentz distribution.

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7.2 Standing Wave Test

The resonant frequency was set on the signal generator. An expected separation distance between standing
wave distances was calculated using:

= , (9)

{7.1}

(where is the wavelength of a wave, the velocity and the frequency) and equation {2.1} which states that
standing wave separations are defined as multiples of half wavelengths. Therefore the distance between
standing wave set-ups, , is:
=

{7.2}

The speed of sound waves in air is 343.2 ms -1. Therefore = 5.2 mm to the nearest mm. Using a ruler this
distance was successfully verified.
7.3 Circuit Testing
A working circuit was fabricated after a few weeks of testing. Problems to overcome have been discussed
throughout section 4. Some of the signals produced after the addition of diodes can be found in appendix E,
which demonstrate the effect of adding diodes to the circuit. Displayed in figure 9 though, is the final loaded
signal across the transducer. The signal itself is still noisy, many higher frequencies are present; however, the
main frequency as can be seen at greatest amplitude is sufficiently distinct as to power the transducer such
as was done before by the TG315 signal generator.

Voltage (v) [red signal]

Voltage (v) [green signal]

Figure 9: A graph of voltage vs time displaying the signal produced by the driving circuit (red) and the signal
produced by the 555 timer chip (green).

The signals from the chip and across the transducer are exactly out of phase (due to the transistor) but at the
same frequency. The magnitudes vary due to the transformer.
7.4 Final Device
Once all of the circuitry was working, the separate parts were moved onto the stand as detailed in figure 5.
The circuit was removed from the DC power pack and attached to 4 x 1.5 V batteries for a supply of 6 V. The

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circuit and batteries were placed on the bottom shelf over a layer of insulating polystyrene to prevent the circuit
board from shorting. The transducer was soldered to the circuit and glued to the polystyrene of the middle
shelf. Once the batteries were turned on, the system produced levitation in its new fully portable housing. A
photo of the finished product for reference is found in figure 10 below.

Figure 10: the finished levitator inside the cage of figure 5 connected to the compact circuitry of figure 4.

8. Conclusion
The final device was a success. The levitator worked as a standalone unit powered using only batteries. A
circuit was built that was sufficient for the production of powerful ultrasonic waves and at an appropriate
precision of adjustability. The standing wave picture was successfully verified through checking formula with
observations, and the resonant frequency established (33.14 0.01 KHz). The stand that was fabricated
proved to be sturdy, lightweight and fully portable as was the specification.
The lack of a feedback system was unfortunate, but didnt render the project obsolete. Given more time, I am
confident that one could be build, so as to remove the need for an experimenter to manually adjust the
frequency using a potentiometer. The problems to overcome and some possible solutions have already been
discussed in section 6.
If the project were to be repeated, an aim would be to try and improve the range of the levitation and increase
the scale of the model. Materials other than polystyrene could then be experimented with, hopefully to get
some quantitative data regarding the force the levitator provides, and how much mass it can support for a
given power input. It would also be interesting to see how large a particle could be supported, and the greatest
density of material that would float.

9. Acknowledgements
Many thanks go to anyone who contributed their knowledge towards making our project work. Particular thanks
do to Peter for ordering parts and Mark for trying to help solve the feedback problems. Also thanks go to our
demonstrator Anna for overseeing our experiment and offering helpful advice and feedback along the way.

10. References
(1) Anthony, S. (2013, July 16). Scientists develop acoustic levitation, could enable the eventual levitation of
humans. Retrieved from Extreme Tech: http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/161436-scientistsdevelop-acoustic-levitation-could-enable-the-eventual-levitation-of-humans

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(2) How Acoustic Levitation Works. (2007, February 6). Retrieved from How Stuff Works:
http://science.howstuffworks.com/acoustic-levitation.htm
(3) John. (2011, July 19). Capacitive Transducers. Retrieved from Instrumentation Today:
http://www.instrumentationtoday.com/capacitive-transducers-2/2011/07/
(4) 555 Variable Frequency Square Wave Generator. (2010). Retrieved from Electronic circuits:
http://www.electronicecircuits.com/electronic-circuits/555-variable-frequency-square-wave-generator
(5)The MOSFET. (2010, July 2010). Retrieved from Talking Electronsics:
http://www.talkingelectronics.com/projects/MOSFET/MOSFET.html
(6) Transformers. (n.d.). Retrieved from Physics Net: http://physicsnet.co.uk/gcse-physics/transformers/
(7) Krantz, D. (n.d.). Flyback Diode. Retrieved from Douglas Krantz's Technicians Corner:
http://www.douglaskrantz.com/ElecFlybackDiode.html
(8) Mike. (n.d.). Ultrasonic Acoustic Levitation. Retrieved from Mike's Electric Stuff:
http://electricstuff.co.uk/levit.html
(9) General Properties of waves. (2014). Retrieved from BBC Bitesize:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/aqa/waves/generalwavesrev4.shtml

11. Appendices
Appendix A: Voltage Frequency Relation Table
Errors are calculated based upon multimeter fluctuations, found to be higher at certain frequencies.

Frequency
(Hz)
31.02
31.11
31.23
31.32
31.43
31.50
31.60
31.69
31.81
31.90
32.00
32.12
32.20
32.32
32.43
32.51

Voltage
(V)
7.107
7.098
7.085
7.072
7.057
7.043
7.023
7.003
6.971
6.943
6.906
6.851
6.802
6.710
6.597
6.487

Error
(V)
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001

Frequency
(Hz)
31.62
32.76
32.80
32.90
33.03
33.09
33.19
33.29
33.41
33.52
33.62
33.69
33.81
33.92
34.01
34.10

Voltage
(V)
6.285
6.020
5.726
5.254
4.747
4.68
4.9
5.0
5.12
5.83
6.230
6.480
6.740
6.904
6.991
7.056

13

Error
(V)
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.01
0.1
0.1
0.02
0.01
0.005
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001

Acoustic Levitation

M R Stephens-Row

Appendix B: Current Frequency Relation table

Errors are calculated based upon multimeter fluctuations, found to be higher at certain frequencies.

Frequency
Current
Error
(Hz)
(A)
(A)
32.01
161
2
32.12
164
2
32.21
164.5
2
32.30
163.6
0.2
32.42
163
2
32.52
165
2
32.59
167
1
32.69
170.0
0.5
32.80
174.4
0.3
32.90
176
1
33.00
177
1
33.12
175
3
33.20
169
1
33.31
137
3
33.41
170
2
33.50
159.5
0.2
33.62
139
2
33.70
123
1

Appendix C: Current Frequency Plot

The plot revealed a distinct lack of trend for the current dependency. It was therefore abandoned as a means
to measure the resonant frequency.

14

Acoustic Levitation

M R Stephens-Row

Appendix D: Piezoelectric Transducer Signal

Voltage (v) [red signal]

Voltage (v) [green signal]

A graph of the signal produced across the piezoelectric transducer. The periodicity has been clearly lost, the
signals no longer in constant phase, and the amplitude of the main frequency lost to oscillations of higher
frequencies and smaller amplitudes.

15

Acoustic Levitation

M R Stephens-Row

Voltage (v) [green signal]

Voltage (v) [red signal]

Appendix E: The Diode Effect

The above graph shows the signal output from the unloaded circuit with one fly-back diode, the below graph
the signal with two. The graphs vary in that the amplitude is larger with two diodes than with one, suggesting
that the diodes reduce interfering signals that attenuate the wave.

Voltage (v) [red signal]

Voltage (v) [green signal]

16