SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

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P-N JUNCTION: - When a P-type crystal is joined with a N-type crystal in such a
manner that crystal structure remains continuous then this structure is called as
P-N Junction.
Formation of P-N junction: - Diffusion method is used to form a P-N Junction.
In this method an element of III group (like Boron) is coated on a slice of N-type
semiconductor called wafer or an element of V group (like phosphorus) is coated
on P-type semiconductor. When this semiconductor is heated at a high
temperature (about 500C) the impurity is diffused inside the semiconductor.
Diffusion is more at surface and decreases as the depth increases. The depth up
to which the diffusion takes place, a junction is formed which is called P-N
Junction. On the one side of this junction there is P-type semiconductor and on
the other side there is N-type semiconductor.
What happens at the time of formation of P-N Junction (formation of
depletion region and potential barrier): As soon as a junction is formed the
holes from p-region diffuse towards n- region and electron from n- region diffuse
towards p-region due to the high concentration of holes and electron into two
different regions. In the vicinity of junction the
Potential Barrier
P-TypeN-Type

Electrons
majority carrier

Holes
majority carrier

Depletion region
Immobile - ve ions

Immobile +ve ions

electrons and holes recombines with each other and vanishes, due to which
there is a excess of immobile +ve ions in n-region and ve ions in p-region. Thus
an electric field and hence a potential difference called potential barrier is
developed across the junction which stops the further diffusion of holes and
electrons. The region free form charge-carriers on both side of junction is called
depletion region or space charge region.
0.7
ElectricField 6 7 10 5 Vm 1
10
PN
The thickness of
-6
the depletion region is of the order of 10
meter while the potential barrier is about 0.7
volt. Therefore
B
A
Biasing of p-n junction: -

Depletion layer
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA

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Forward biasing

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(I)
Forward Bias: - When p-region of a p-n junction is joined to the (+) ve
pole of a battery and n-region to -ve pole then the junction is said to be forward
biased.
Action of p-n junction: - When the p-n junction is made forward bias the (+)
ve pole of the battery repels the holes towards n-region and the (-) ve pole
repels the electron towards p-region. Due to which the electrons and holes enter
the depletion region and the thickness of depletion region decreases. If the
external potential is greater than the potential barrier then near the junction
electrons recombine with holes. For each electron-hole combination that takes
place near the junction, a covalent bond breaks in p-region near the positive
pole of battery. Due to which electrons and holes are produced in pair, the
electron is captured by the (+) ve terminal, while the hole moves towards the
junction. At the same time an electrons enters the n-region from the ve
terminal of the battery, thus a forward current flows in the circuit due to the flow
of electrons and hole.
During the forward bias the applied D.C. voltage opposes the potential barrier
due to which the thickness of the depletion layer decreases. Thus p-n junction
offers low resistance in forward bias.
(II) Reverse Bias: - When p-region of a p-n
junction is joined to the (-) ve pole of a
P N
battery and n-region to +ve pole then the
junction is said to be reversed biased
Action of p-n junction: - when p-n junction
is reversed biased, the ve pole of the battery
attracts the holes present in P-region, while the
+ve pole of the battery attracts the electrons
present in the n-region. Thus the electrons and
holes get away from the junction and the
thickness of depletion region increases. But a
very small current flows through the junction
Reverse biasing
due to the recombination of minority carriers.
This current is called as reverse current. If the reverse bias voltage is made very
high, all the covalent bonds near the junction break and a large number of
electron-hole pairs are created due to which reverse current increases abruptly.
This phenomenon is called avalanche breakdown and the reverse voltage at
which this phenomenon occurs is called as reverse break down voltage or zener
voltage which depends upon the density of impurity atoms. Due to the over
heating at this voltage, the p-n junction may be damaged.
During the reverse bias the applied D.C. voltage aids the potential barrier
due to which the thickness of the depletion layer increases and hence it offers
the high resistance in reverse bias.
Symbol of p-n junction diode:-

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Forward Current If

Characteristics of p-n junction: -There is two type of characteristicsKnee Voltage

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

FORWARD VOLTAGE Vf

Rh

BATTERY

(I) forward bias Characteristics-First of all makes the connection according

to the circuit shown in fig.1. By changing the forward voltage with the help of
potential divider note down the corresponding forward current and plot the
graph between forward voltage and forward current. The graphs so obtained are
called as forward characteristic curve of pn junction.
If
P
N

Vf

From the graph it is clear that initially there is no current. When the applied
voltage is less than the potential barrier, the current flow through the junction is
very small. As the forward voltage increases above the potential barrier, current
increases approximately linearly. When the forward voltage is equal to voltage
of potential barrier then the curve becomes like a knee and called as knee
voltage. At this voltage the thickness of depletion layer becomes negligibility
and the diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction take place easily i.e.
the p-n junction offer low resistance when it is forward bias and the resistance is
of the order of 100 ohm.

(II) Reverse Characteristic Curve: Make the connection according to the circuit shown in the following figure.
Change the reverse voltage and note the corresponding reverse current. The
graph plotted between reverse voltages and reverse current is called as reverse
bias curve. Practically in reverse bias there is no current if the applied voltage is
low but a very small flow due to minority carriers. On increasing the reverse
REVERSE VOLTAGE

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Reverse Current Ir (

Zener Voltage

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A.C. Input
Voltage
D.C. 0utput
Voltage

Voltage to a very high value, the current increases abruptly, which is clear from
graph. It is due to the fact that at very high voltage, the entire covalent bond
near the junction is broken. Due to which a large number of holes & electrons
are liberate and the corresponding voltage is called as Zener voltage. In reverse
bias the thickness of depletion layer increases due to which the further diffusion
of charge carriers stops and no current flows through the junction. Thus in
reverse bias the junction offers very high resistance.
Vd

V
I

DYNAMIC RESISTANCE: - The ratio of the small change in voltage to

the small change in the current is called as dynamic or a.c. resistance of the
junction diode. It is represented by Vd.
The region of the characteristic curve where dynamic resistance is almost
independent of the applied voltage is called the linear region of junction diode.

Junction diode as Rectifier: - An electronic device, which converts a.c.

power in to D.C. power, is called rectifier.
Half wave Rectifier: - A rectifier, which rectifies only one half of each a.c.
input supply cycle is called half wave rectifier.
Principle: - It is based on the principle that the diode offers low resistance
when it is forward bias and high resistance when it is reversed bias i.e. current
can flow through the diode when it is forward biased.

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A.C. Input
Voltage

D.C. 0utput
Voltage

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Arrangement:- The p-region of the junction diode is joined to the one terminal
of the secondary coil of a step down transformer and the load resistance is
joined between n-region and the IInd terminal of the secondary coil.
Working:- Let during the first half cycle of the input a.c. upper end i.e. point S 1
of secondary is at +ve potential and the lower end i.e. point S 2 is at ve
potential. Thus the diode is forward bias. During first half cycle and current flows
through diode in loadresistance from C to D.
During the next half cycle the upper end becomes ve and lower end
becomes +ve and thus the diode gets reverse biased and no current fows
through it. In the next half cycle diode gets forward biased and current flows
through it from C to D and this process repeated again and again. The current
obtain in output is discontinuous and pulsating d.c. due to which there is a huge
loss of energy.
Full-wave Rectifier:- A rectifier which rectifies both halves of the a.c. input is
called a full wave rectifier.
Principle:- It is based on the principle that the diode offers low resistance when
it is forward bias and offers high resistance when it is reverse biased.

Arrangement:- The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil P of a step down
transformer. Two two ends of the secondary coil S of the transformer are
connected to the p- regions of the junction diodes D 1 and D2 . A load resistance
RL is connected beteen the n-regions of the two diodes and the ncentral tapping
of the secondary coil. The out put d.c. is obtained across the load reistance.
Working:-Suppose that during first half of the input, the upper end S 1 of the
secondary is at + ve pot. and lower end S 2 is at () ve pot. So the diode D1
gets forward bias and D2 gets reverse bias hence current flows through D 1 in
load resistance from C to D. During the next half cycle S 1 becomes ve and S2
becomes +ve and hence D 1 gets reverse bias and D2 gets forward bias. Thus the
current flows through D2 from C to D in load resistance.
Hence the full wave rectifier, rectifies the both halves of a.c. The
output d.c. is continuous but pulsating. To reduce the fluctuations, filter circits
are used in output circits. Electrolytic condenser and zener diodes are use to
reduce the fluctuations of d.c.
Different types of junction diode :-

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(I) Zener diode:- A specially designed diode in which P and N region are
heavily dopped due to which the depelation layer junctioin width is small and
the junction field ie potential barrier is high and it can operate continuously,
with out being damaged in the region of reverse breakdown voltage, is called
zener diode.

An important application of zener diode is that it can be used as voltage

regulator. The regulating action takes place because of the fact that in reverse
breakdown region, a very small change in voltage produces large change in
current. This causes a sufficient increase in voltage drop across the resistance to
lower voltage back to normal. Similarly, when the voltage across the diode
tends to decrease, the current through diode goes down out of proportion so
that voltage drop across the resistor is much less and it raises voltage back to
normal.
Hence the output voltage remains constant.
Output Voltage (VO)

VZ

Regulated Output Voltage

VZ
Input Voltage (Vi)

Question-What is a photo diode? Explain its working principle. Also

give some uses.
Photo diode: - A junction diode made from light sensitive semiconductor is
called a photo diode.
mA

Reverse bias
I1
I2
I3
I4

Volts

I4 > I3 > I2 > I1

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SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES
LIGHT

ut

Photo diode is always reverse bias.

When no light falls on it, a small reverse
current flows through the junction. This
current is due to the thermally
generated electron-hole pairs and is
called as dark current. When the
photodiode is illuminated with light
photons of energy h>Eg then it ejects
the valence electrons due to which the
LIGHT
current
increases
and
becomes
maximum. This current is called as
saturation current. On increasing the
RL light intensity, the saturation current
increases.
A photodiode can turn its current ON
and OFF in nanoseconds. So it can be used as a fastest photo detector.
Uses:
1. In detection of optical signals.
2. In demodulation of optical signals
3. In light-operated switches
4. In speed reading of computer punched cards.
LIGHT

5. In electronic counters.
Light Emitting Diode (LED): - A light emitting diode is simply a forward
biased p-n junction made of gallium arsenide or indium phosphide and emits
spontaneous light radiation. When a LED is made forward bias then the energy
is released due to the recombination of electrons and holes, falls in visible
region or infrared region of EM spectrum.
Advantages over conventional incandescent lamps:
1. Low operational voltage and less power consumption.
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA

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RL

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2. Fast action and no warm up time required.

3. Long life and ruggedness.
4. Light emitted is nearly monochromatic
Uses:
1. Infrared LEDs are used in burglar alarm systems.
2. In optical communication system.
3. LEDs are used in numeric displays (in watches and calculators).
4. In optical mouses for the computers.
5. In remote controls
Solar cell: - It is a junction diode which converts solar energy into electrical
energy and is based on photovoltaic effect (generation of voltage due to
bombardment of photons).
It consists of a p-n junction made of Si or GaAs. A very thin layer of n-type
semiconductor is grown over a p-type semiconductor by using diffusion method.
(So that the energy falling on the diode not greatly absorbed before reaching to
junction)
Working: When light is incident on p-n junction each photon absorbed creates
an electron and a hole. If is because the electron acquires sufficient energy to
move from valence to the conduction band. Due to barrier voltage electrons
moves towards n region and holes towards the p region. As a result the two
regions gets opposite potential and emf is developed across the terminals of the
diode.
This photovoltaic emf can be used as ordinary cell in the electrical circuits.
Applications:
[1] Solar cells are used in wrist watches and calculators.
[2] They are used to produce power in artificial satellites and space
craft.

E
B

Transistor: - When a thin layer of

C one type of semiconductor is sandwiched
E between the two thick blocks of another type of semi conductor then obtained
structureN isPcalled
a transistor. These are used as an amplifier as well as an
N
C
B
oscillator. These are of two types: (I)
NPN transistor: - A junction transistor in which a thin layer of p-type
semiconductor is sandwiched between two layers of n-type semiconductor
Emitter
Collector
is known as NPN transistor.

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(II)

ut

C
PNP Transistor:
- A junction transistor in which a thin layer of N-type
semiconductor is sandwiched between two layers of P-type
semiconductors
P N P is known as PNP transistor.
E
Emitter

Collector

C
B

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In a transistor base is lightly doped and very thin. The region, which is lightly
doped and very thin, is called as Base. The region, which is highly doped, is
called emitter while the remaining one is called collector. When a transistor is
used in a circuit, base emitter junction is always forward bias while the collector
base junction is reverse bias.
Action of Transistor: (a) Action of n-p-n Transistor: - The emitter base junction is made forward bias
by using a battery VEE while the collector base junction is made reversed bias by
N

E
IE

Emitter

IB

Collector

IC

VEE
VCC
using the VCC. The ve pole of battery V EE repels the electrons in emitter region
(as majority carrier in n-region) towards base. Since the base is very thin and
lightly doped, hence about 95% electrons cross over the base region and
entered the collection region where they are attracted by the +ve pole of the
battery VCC. As soon as an electron enters the +ve pole of the battery V CC, at the
same time an electron enters the emitter region from the ve pole of the battery
VEE and this process is carried out continuously. About 5% electrons recombined
with holes in base region. For each recombination a covalent bond breaks which
creates the hole and electron in pair. Electron enters +ve pole of V EE through B
and hence base current IB flows which is very small.
If IE, IC and IB are the emitter, collector and base current then (According to
Kirchhoffs 1st law)
IE = I B + I C
It may note that in n-p-n transistor current flows due to the flow of electrons in
and outside of transistor.

Action of P-N-P transistors:-

Legends: -HoleElectronPHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA

Holes
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Electrons

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
P

ut

IE

Emitter

IB

Collector

VEE

IC

VCC

Characteristics of n-p-n transistor in Common Emitter configuration: Common Emitter characteristics of a transistor are the graph plotted between
the voltage and the current when emitter is earthed, base is used as input
terminal and the collector as output terminal.
Ic
C

mA
IB
n-p-n
A

VCC
VBB
+
+
VBE
__

VCE

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N-P-N Transistor: -The base emitter circuit is made forward biased by using a
battery VBB while the emitter, collector circuit is made reversed bias by using
battery VCC. To draw the characteristic the circuit arrangement is shown in the
above figure in which a n-p-n transistor is used.
A transistor has two types of characteristics.
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D. C. Input characteristics: - Keeping VCE at constant voltage, charge VBE

(Base emitter voltage) and note down the corresponding values of base current.
Now for some other value of V CE , find out the change in base current for the
corresponding
change in
V BE. Now plot the graph between V BE and IB at
different constant value of VCE. The graphs so obtained are called as input
characteristics.

VBE
Rin
I B

VCE

A.C.I input resistance:- The ratio of the change in the emitter

base voltage ( VBE) to the change in base current ( I B) at the constant VCE is
called as a.c. input resistance. It is denoted by Rin.
(2) Output characteristics:- The graphs plotted between emitter collector
voltage and the collector current (I C) at different constant values of base current
(IB). Following result may be drawn from the output characteristic curves(I) The collector current changes rapidly in beginning but soon it becomes
saturated.
(II) The saturation current increases on increasing the base current.
(III) In audio frequency amplifiers the linear part of the output characteristics is
used in order to obtain undistorted output.

VCE
Rout
I C

IB

Output resistance :-The radio of the change in emitter

collector voltage to the change in collector current at the constant base current.
It is denoted by Rout.
Transfer characteristics:-The graph plotted between collector current (I C) and
the base current (IB) at different constant values of collector voltages (VCE).

I B

VCE

Current gain :- The ratio of change in collector current to the

change in base current at constant collector emitter voltage is called as
current gain. It is also called as current transfer ratio. It is denoted by: -

(VCE) = 2v

(VCE) =3v

(VBE)
Input Characteristics

(VCE)

=
=
=
=
=

250
200
150
100
50

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0utput Characteristics

IC (mA)

IC (m A)

IB (mA)

IB
IB
IB
IB
IB

(VCE) = 3V

IB (mA)
Transfer Characteristics

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TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER:- An amplifier is a device which is used for

increasing the amplitude of variation of alternating voltage or current or power.
A transistor can be used as an amplifier. There are three configurations1. Common base amplifier
2. Common emitter amplifier
3. Common Collector Amplifier
Common Emitter Amplifier: - In common emitter configuration emitter is
common to both the base and collector.

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Amplifier circuit using n-p-n transistor: - The emitter is common to both the
input and output. The emitter is made forward bias by the battery V BB and
collector emitter circuit is made
reversed bias by the battery V CC Thus the input resistance is low and the output
resistance is high. The low input voltage signal is plied across emitter base
circuit and amplified output voltage is obtained across collector emitter circuit.
Let IE , IB and IC are the emitter base and collector current so according to
Kirchoffs lawIE = IB + IC ---------------------- (1)
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If RL is the load resistance then ICRL will be voltage drop across it. If VCE is the
voltage across emitter collector then
VCE =VCC IC RL ---------------------(2)
The variation in input signal voltage cause the variation in emitter current which
produce the variation in collector current and hence in collector voltage. These
variations in collector voltage appear as amplified output-voltage. The input
signal and output signal are in opposite phase.
Phase relation between input and output signals: - The input signal and
the output signal are in opposite phase, which can be explained as belowWhen an a.c. signal is fed to the input circuit, the forward bias increases
during positive half cycle of the input. This results in increase in IC and
consequent decrease in VCE , thus during positive half cycle of the input, the
collector becomes less positive.
During negative half cycle of the input, forward bias decreases, therefore,
the value of IE and IC also decreases and VCE would increase making the
collector more positive. In common emitter amplifier, thus there is 180out of
phase amplification.

I C
I B

Current Gain: - It is defined as the ratio of the change in

collector current to the change in base current at constant emitter base voltage.
It is denoted .
AV

Vout
I C Rout

Vin
I B Rin

AV

I C Rout
I B Rin

A V ac Resistance Gain

Voltage Gain: - It is defined the ratio of the

change in the output voltage to the change in input voltage. It is denoted by AV.

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Since > so the voltages gain in common emitter amplifier is very large as
compared to that in common base amplifier.
Change in output power
Change in input power
PO
AP
Pi
AP

AP

I c 2 RO
I B 2 Ri

AP 2 resistance gain

A.C. Power Gain:-It is defined as the ratio of change in

output power to change in the input power. It is denoted by AP i.e.> so the power gain in common emitter amplifier is very large as compared
to that in common base amplifier.

I c

VBE

gm
gm

VC E

I C
I B

I B
VBE

g m ac

1
Rin

Trans conductance:- It is defined as the ratio of the change

in the collector current (IC ) to the change in emitter base voltage (V BE) at
constant collector voltage. It is denoted by gm i.e.

Relation Between and : -

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We know that
I E I B IC
or I E I B I C
divide by I C on both sides
I E
I B

1
I C
I C
1

1
1

1
1

Transistor as an oscillator: -An oscillator is a device which converts direct

current into alternating current and produces high frequency undamped. A
transistor can be used to produce undamped oscillations.
The base oscillatory circuit consists of an inductance and capacitance called
tank circuit. Due to resistance of circuit, a part of energy is dissipated, therefore,
amplitude of oscillations goes on decreasing with time and damped oscillations
are produced.
In order to maintain these oscillations, energy is supplied to circuit at the
right moment and in the right direction using a feedback arrangement. The
feedback arrangement consists of primary P and secondary with variable
capacitor C of suitable range. The secondary coil of inductance L. The
inductance L and capacitance C constitute tank circuit.

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Working: - When the tapping key K is pressed for a moment, a small current
starts flowing through the coil L1 due to the change of current, an emf is
induced in inductor L. Due this induced
voltage the emitter current and hence the
collector current increases. Due to the
increase in collector current the magnetic
flux linked with L & L1 increases; thus the
voltage induced in L also increases and
hence forward bias is further increased
which increases IC and IE. This process
continues until the induced emf across
the inductor attains a saturation value.
During this process the upper plate of the
capacitor gets +ve charge. When induced
emf attains saturation value the induced
emf becomes zero. Now the capacitor
discharges through L; as a result emitter current decreases and hence collector
current also decreases. The decreasing collector current will induced emf in
inductor L in the reverse direction, which decrease the emitter current and
hence collector current. This process continues till the collector current reduces
to zero. Now the mutual induction stops playing its role. At this stage the lower
plate of the capacitor C will get + ve charge and discharges through L. Thus the
emitter current and hence the collector current again start to increasing i.e. the
process gets repeated and the collector current oscillates between a maximum
and zero value. The repeated process generates oscillations of constant
amplitude and the relation gives freq.
= 1/ 2 LC
By changing the value of C the freq. of the oscillations can be changed
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
A transistor can be used as a switch; the following fig (1) shows the circuit
diagram of a base biased n-p-n transistor in CE configuration states Here R B is a
resistor in the input circuit and Rc in the output circuit.
Applying Kirchhoffs rule to the input and output circuits separately, we get
VBB = IBRB + VBE = Vi -----------------------------(1)
VCE=VCCICRC = Vo ------------------------------(2)
The voltage VBB has been regarded as the dc input voltage Vi and VCE as the dc
output voltage V0.

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Fig. 2 shows typical output voltage (V0) input voltage (Vi) characteristic, called
the transfer characteristic of the base biased transistor. It has three well-defined
regions as follows:
1. Cutoff region: When Vi increases from zero to a low value (less than 0.6 V in
case of a Si transistor), the forward bias of the emitter-base junction is
insufficient to start a forward current i.e. I B = 0 and hence Ic = 0. The transistor
is said to be in the cutoff region. From equation (1), the output voltage Vo = Vcc.
2. Active region: When Vi increases slightly above 0.6 V. a current Ic flows in
the output circuit and the transistor said to be in the active state.
3. Saturation region: When Vi becomes very high , a large collector current Ic
flows which produces such a large potential drop across load resistance Rc that
the emitter-collector junction also gets forward biased and output voltage V 0
decreases to almost zero. Now the transistor is said to be in the saturation state
because it cannot pass any more collector current Ic.
Switching action of a transistor: A transistor can be used as a switch if it is
operated in its cutoff and saturation states only. A switch circuit is designed in
such a manner that the transistor does not remain in the active state. As long as
the input voltage is low and unable to forward-bias the transistor, the output
voltage V0 (at Vcc) is high. If Vi is high enough to drive the transistor into
saturation, then V0 is low, nearly zero. Thus when the transistor is not
conducting (in cutoff region), it is said to be switched off and when it is driven
into saturation, it is said to be switched on.

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
In these electronics circuits, the current or voltages will have only two
values, High (1) and Low (0). In digital circuits, the electrical pulses of two
levels only are used as signal voltages.
Logic Gates:

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A gate is a digital circuit which is used to perform certain specific function.

The three basic logic gates are:
a.

OR gate

b.

AND gate

c.

NOT gate

All other logic gates can be formed by combination of these three gates.
Truth Table:
It is table that indicate all possible combinations of input signals and their
output.
Boolean Algebra:
This is the algebra which can be applied to logic gates based on Binary
number system.
OR Gate:
It is a two input single output gate. The output is one if any of the two
inputs or both the inputs are one.
The truth table and symbol of OR
gate are:
A

The circuit diagram for OR gate is:

The diodes used are considered to be ideal diodes ie. during forward bias
they offer zero resistance and during reverse bias they offer infinite resistance.
Case I: When A = 0, B = 0: Here both the diodes are in off state. There is
no current that flows through R, thus output voltage is Y=0.

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Case II: When A = 0, B = 1: In this case D1 is in off state and D2 is forward

biased. The current flows through D2 and sets up a potential difference of 5V
across it, so Y = 1.
Case III: When A = 1, B = 0: in this case diode D1 is forward biased and D2
is reverse biased. Diode D1 conducts and Y=1.
Case IV: When A=1, B=1: Here both the diodes are forward biased and
hence conduct perfectly. A potential difference of 5V appears across resistance.
Thus, Y = 1.

AND Gate:

It is also a two input single output gate. The output is one if both the inputs
are one.
(a) Suppose A=0 and B=0: The potentials at A and B are forward biased
and offers no resistance. The diode D1 conducts and net potential difference
appears across R and Y=0.
(b) Suppose A = 0 and B = 1: In this case also A is forward biased and B is
in off state. The diode D1 conducts and net potential difference appears across
R and Y = 0.
(c) When A = 1 and B = 0: In this case also A is in off state and B is
forward biased. The diode D2 conducts and Y = 0

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(d) When A = 1 and B = 1: Here both diodes are in off state, hence no
potential drop occurs across R and Y = 1.
NOT Gate:
It is a single input single output gate. The truth table and symbol is
A

Y A

It is realised with the help of a transistor. Consider an pnp transistor to be

used as NOT gate.
If A = 0, the emitter base junction is reverse biased and no current flows
through it. Correspondingly current through RC is also equal to zero. The
potential Y = 1.
On the other hand, if A is 5V i.e. A =1, the emitter base junction is forward
biased. Potential drop occurs R and Y = 0
NAND Gate:
It is AND gate followed by a NOT Gate.
It is two input single output gate. The truth table and symbol are,
A

YX

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NOR Gate:
It is OR gate followed by a NOT gate. It is a two input single output gate.
The truth table and symbol are,
A

YX

Exclusive OR (XOR) Gate:

It is also two input, single output gate. The output is one iff one of the
inputs is one. The truth table and symbol are;
A

Y AB A B

Exclusive NOR Gate:

It is an exclusive OR gate followed by a NOT gate. Output is one either
both the inputs are one or zero. The truth table is,
A

Y AB A B

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